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1. Trait Theory2. Psychodynamic Theory (Freud- 518-522-Neo Freudians) 3. Behavioristic Theory4. Social Learning Theory5. Humanistic TheoryX. Personality (6–8%)Personality Theories and Approaches Assessment Techniques Self-concept, Self-esteem Growth and Adjustment Deals with:How people handle frustrationConcept of personalityPersonality is a lens which behavior is viewed.Personality (definition)The unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings, and actions; that characterize a personConsistency in personal behavior patterns Reveal individual differencesCan be used to predict behavior in the futurePersonality is also the merging of all psychological behavior & biological processesPersonality Includes:Developmental aspectsGenetic & Biological AspectsPerceptual ProcessingInformation processingBiasesEmotional expressionSocial skillsTests to measure personalityPersonality TheoriesPsychodynamic FreudTrait ApproachAllport’s Trait TheoryBig 5 model of PersonalityBiological Trait TheorySocial Cognitive Approach TheoriesHumanistic Approach TheoriesAssessing PersonalityObjective Personality Tests (questionnaires) Projective Personality TestPersonality + Employee SelectionObservationBasics:Each of us has a consistent behavior pattern that defines ourOwn personalityUnderstanding personality we can predict how people will act.Personality is closely related to traitsCan be understood by mental conflictsIs effected by learningIs effected by social situationsIs effected by how people see themselves Self MonitoringProcess of regulating behavior through controlling personal behavior we displayShyness= public self-consciousness Personality factors:Who you are How you think How you think, behave, express feelings… all of this.”Personality: “A person’s unique pattern of thinking, emotions, behavior. Refers to consistency in who you are have been and will become.”Blend of talent values hopes, loves hates, and habits…Personality is not character-Character is a term of evaluationFriendly, outgoing, honest with moral valuesPersonality is not temperamentTemperament has hereditary aspects: sensitivity, irritability, distractibility, typical moods.510-Traits: Sociable, orderly, intelligent, shy sensitive, creativePersonality traits Are stable qualities that a person show in most situationsAre inferred from behaviorDescribe personalityReflect thoughts and feelingsActions that are most typicalReflect people’s needs“The inclinations or tendencies that help to direct how a person usually thinks and behaves.” Stable personality traits are manifested by age 30Basic Assumptions:Traits are stable and predictable over timeTraits are stable across situationsPersonality Types = people who have several traits in commonCategories- popular = athletic, motherly Carl Jung- and TraitsSaid people are introverts or extrovertsIntrovertsShy EgocentricAttention is focused inwardExtrovertsConscientiousnessBold outgoingAttention directed outwardSelf Concept:Consists of all your ideas Perceptions + feelings about who you areGuides our behaviorProblems can arise with inadequate or inaccurate self conceptSelf EsteemRises with successLow self esteem- negative self evaluationInsecure, lacking in confidence, self criticalHigh Self EsteemConfident, proud, self respectingGenuine Self Esteem is accurate appraisal of strengths + weaknessesArrogance is problematicPersonality Theories:Are frameworks to understand personalityA theory is a system of concepts, assumptions, ideas, and principles proposed to explain personality.5 Major Personality Theories:Trait Theories: Purpose is to learn what traits makeup personality + how they relate to actual behaviorPsycho dynamic TheoriesFocuses on inner workings of personality especially internal conflicts & strugglesBehavioristicEffect of conditioning + learningEffects of external environmentSocial Learning Theories Attribute differences in personality to socialization expectations and mental processesHumanistic Focuses on private subjective experience and personal growthTrait Theories: Personality traits Are stable qualities that a person show in most situationsAre inferred from behaviorDescribe personalityReflect thoughts and feelingsActions that are most typicalReflect people’s needs“The inclinations or tendencies that help to direct how a person usually thinks and behaves.” Stable personality traits are manifested by age 30Basic Assumptions:Traits are stable and predictable over timeTraits are stable across situationsPurpose is to learn what traits makeup personality + how they relate to actual behaviorTrait = stable + enduring qualities that a person shows in most situations.To be considered a personality trait it must be typical of your behaviorIntroverts and extroverts are examples trait knowledge Allows us to predict behaviorTrait Theorists- attempt to analyze, classify, and interrelate traits… 4 traits identified by the Ancient Greeks HippocritesIntroverted + Extroverted (emotionally stable and emotionally unstable)MelancholicSadGloomyCholericHot-temperedIrritablePhlegmaticSluggishCalmSanguineCheerful HopefulTrait Theories consider the strength of many personality characteristicsAllport Gordon Allport (1961) I defined different kinds of traitsCommon traits = characteristics- shared by most members of a cultureTell us similarities – in a cultureIndividual traits = defines a person of unique qualities.Cardinal TraitsBasic traits, easily visible or traceable to a person’s activitiesFew people have cardinal traitsCentral Traits ***Basic building blocks of personalitySmall # of traits (7) tell clear story of personality Obvious to everyoneUsed to control and organize behavior in many different situationsWhat can be expected most of the time Reliable Secondary TraitsLess consistentSpecific to situation Control less behavior Superficial aspectsFood preferences AttitudesPolitical opinion Musical tastesRaymond CattellWanted to know how traits were interlinkedUsed surveys, personal ratings on trait descriptive termsFound Surface TraitsMake up visible areas of personalityFound Source TraitsSource traits are surface traits that occur in clustersThat appear oftenSeen as a basic traitsUsed statisticsCalled factor analysis (a mathematical analysis) to define source traitsWith factor analysis psychologists correlate patterns associated with traits (clusters of traits)Found 16 source traitsAll are needed to fully describe a personality called “16 Personality Factor Questionnaire” (16PF) Shy vs. BoldTrust vs. SuspicionRelaxed vs. TenseUsed to create a trait profileThe profile is a graph of a scores based on traitsTake the Test: 16PF Questionnaire Big 5 = 5 Factor Model (Costa and McRae)The test is Cattell’s (16PF) reduced to 5 universal dimensionsExtroversionAgreeablenessConscientiousnessNeuroticismOpenness to experienceCan predict how people will act in various circumstances(Any trait you can name will be tied to one factor or another) Also used to compare personalities1. How Extroverted or Introverted 2. Agreeable = How friendly, nurturing, caring vs. cold, indifferent, self centered, spiteful3. Conscientious = How self disciplined, responsible, and achievingVs. Irresponsible, careless, undependable4. Neuroticism = How negative, upsetting emotions/ high N = anxious, emotionally “sour” irritable and unhappy.5. Openness to Experience = how open to experience are you?Cool link to Chart of personality research: and SituationsWhich is more important, Personality Traits or External Circumstances?Both are importantSituations influence behaviorPersonality traits are consistent + can predict behaviorTraits interact with situations to determine how we act.Situations influence the expression of personality as settings change.Biological Trait Theory: Hans Eysenck 1960s Why do some people have certain traits and other not?Eysenck:Used Factor Analysis alsoSaid:Most people’s traits could be described using 2 main dimensions: Introversion/Extraversion and Emotionality/Stability (neuroticism) Introversion/ExtraversionExtroverts are sociable, outgoing, like parties, group activities, take risks, like excitement and changeIntroverts tend to be:Quiet, thoughtful, reserved, solitary pursuits, avoid social involvementEmotionality/StabilityEmotionality:Moodiness, restlessness, worry, anxietyStability:Calm, even tempered, relaxed, emotionally stableEysenck said, there are degrees of emotionality/stability and introversion/extraversionTrait patterns can be seen and are predictableBio-connection- inherited differences in nervous system are factors-Brain differencesBiological differences in:Level of arousalSensitivity to stressSensitivity to environmental stimulation“People who inherit a nervous system that normally operates below their optimum arousal level will always be on the lookout for excitement change social contact in order to increase arousal=extrovertedConversely- people who are regularly over aroused will avoid excitement to reduce to a more optimal arousal…Gray’s Approach Inhibition Theory:'s_biopsychological_theory_of_personalityBiological Factors2 basics (agrees with Eysenck)Introvert + ExtrovertStable + EmotionalSaid differences occur because systems in brain function differentlyBehavioral Approach System (BAS) Brain regions that affect people’s sensitivity to rewards + motivation to seek rewardsThe “Go” system, responsible for impulsivity or how uninhibited a person is. BAS- people tend to experience positive emotions, Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)Brain regions affects sensitivity to potential punishment and motivation to avoidance of punishment.The “Stop” systemAssociated with negative emotionsExtraverts = BAS is sensitive to reward Bas is insensitiveIntroverts = BAS insensitive… BIS- sensitive Emotionally unstable- sensitive to rewards and punishmentsDo We Inherit Personality?Behavioral Genetics- study of inherited behavioral traitsIn humans we rely on Twin StudiesThings influenced by heredity IntelligenceSome mental disordersTemperament and other qualitiesPage 524 Learning Theories of PersonalityBehavioralists reject trait theoriesSay personality is a collection of learned behavior patterns.Learning, reinforcement, imitationPeople learn kindness, hostility, generosity, destructivenessClassical and operant conditioningObservational LearningReinforcementExtinctionGeneralizationDiscriminationThere are situational implications on behaviorSituational Determinants = external causes of actionsSituations interact with a person’s background (prior learning) Trait theory says situations interact with traits vs. behaviorists say situations interact with prior learning.Dollard and Miller Theory (Behavioralists) Habits = learned behavior patterns = structure of personalityHabits are governed by 4 elements 1. Drive = stimulus strong enough to produce action 2. Cue = signals from environment3. Response = action to get 4. Reward = positive reinforcementBernstein:The Social Cognitive Approach (AKA Social Learning Theory)Theories look at conscious thoughts and emotions for clues to how people are different.Based on animal and human learningSCA sees Personality as consisting mainly of thoughts and actions we learn through observing and interacting with others.SCA have their roots in behaviorism:John B. Watson- Classical ConditioningB.F. Skinner- Operant ConditioningUsed Functional Analysis-“Skinner tried to understand behavior in terms of the “Function It Serves” in obtaining rewards or avoiding punishment.Functional Analysis-Summarizes what people find rewardingWhat they are capable of doingWhat skills they lackSocial Cognitive add to and seek to understand how learned patterns of thought and feelings contribute to behavior.Theorist:RotterBanduraMischelRotter Expectancy Theory: 1982Learning creates cognitions known as Expectancies that guide behavior…Said a person makes decisions based on:What the person expects to happen following a behaviorThe value of the outcomeBehavior is determined by positive reinforcement and expectation of the consequence.Rotter also studied Locus of Control: what controls life’s rewardsPg. 568Internals and ExternalsInternals: Internal Locus of ControlPeople who believe/expect events to be controlled by their own effortsExternals: External Locus of ControlAre more inclined to expect events to be determined by external forces which they have no control overBandura: Reciprocal Determinism:“Saw personality as shaped by the ways in which thoughts, behaviors, and the environment interact and influence one another.”People can learn through observation or direct rewards. Change in the environment effects thinking effects behavior = Reciprocal DeterminismReciprocal Determinism: SaysAre constantly affecting one anotherPersonal Factors (cognitions)BehaviorEnvironment Hostile thoughts Hostile behavior leads to more hostile thoughts…Is all controlled by our perception and beliefs about our chances of success.Self Efficacy:Learned expectation of successWhat we do What we try to do The higher self-efficacy = the greater our actual accomplishmentsLower Self Efficacy= low self-esteem etc…Beliefs influence our behavior Environment can impact behaviorMischel’s Cognitive Affective Theory:Social-Cognitive TheoristSay that learned beliefs, feelings, and expectancies make us different.Mischel Call these: Cognitive Person VariablesBoth interact to produce behaviorTo predict behavior CAT looks at Cognitive Person VariablesFeatures of the Situation CAT has If-Then applications- if a person encounters this situation then they will engage in this typical behavior… (called Behavior Signatures) very similar to trait theory difference is the added situation… Mischel sees more importance in the role of the situation.Variables make people different and found main categories“Encodings” -are beliefs about environment and other people“Expectancies”- A. What a person’s expects to follow from behaviorsB. What a person believes he is capable of doing“Affects” – Feelings/Emotions and Affective Responses“Goals/Values” “Competencies/Self Regulating”Thoughts and actions a person is capable ofAbility to engage in planned, self-controlled behavior526 Social Learning Theory (Cognitive Behavioralism) (mental events used to explain personality)Include perception, thinking, Expectations, and other mental events social relationships, modelingTheories of Juilia Rotter1. Psychological Situation- how a person interprets or defines a situation These are really interpretations of an event/situationThese interpretations are key to how we respond2. Expectancy- refers to your (thoughtful) anticipation that your response will lead to reinforcementExpected reinforcement is key3. Reinforcement Value – we attach subjective value to various activities or rewards.Self Efficacy (social learning theory) (Bandura argued)Is the ability to control you own life “a capacity for producing a desired result.”Efficacy beliefs (shape our behavior) Self-Reinforcement (Social learning theory) (impact of High Self-Esteem)Praising + rewarding yourself for having made a successAdds to Behavioristic viewHabits of self praise or self blame important in personalitySelf Reinforcement =greater happiness and life satisfaction527 Personality Development and Learning TheoristsWhat makes early learning experiences so lasting in their effects?The core of personality is shaped in early stagesSocial reinforcement- based on praise, attention, approval (impacts personality)Miller and DollardSaid 4 Critical Situations can have lasting impact on personality.Feeding- Toilet or cleanliness trainingSex TrainingLearning to express Anger and Aggression1. Feeding- children active Active or passive orientation of the world may be learnedExample of feedingActive reinforcement—children fed when they cry (manipulate parents)Passive reinforcement—children allowed to cry without being fed= passiveCould impact social relationships- could associate people with pleasure or discomfort2. Toilet + Cleanliness Training could be source of emotionFrustration can have undesirable effectsNeeds patience3. Sex + AngerPermissiveness in sexual and aggressive behavior linked to adult needs for powerGender Development=Sex appropriate behavior is learnedIdentification and Imitation are important to personalityIdentification= a child’s emotional attachment to admired adults encourages imitationAttention of any kind reinforces childrens behaviorBoys encouraged to be aggressive, loud, boisterousGirls- encouraged to be- submissive dependent, passiveProblem when parents are rejecting, punishing, sarcastic, humiliating, neglectful, their children, become hostile-Hostile personality causes- unresponsive, unstable, dependent, impaired self-esteemWhen parents are accepting and affectionateChildren develop sociable, positive, emotionally stable, high self esteemPersonality Research:Focused on understanding origins causes of similarity and differences among people:1. In their patterns of thinking2. Emotions3. BehaviorPersonality Assessments in Hiring Tests-Integrity Tests (screening)Test impulsivityTest disruptive behaviorTry to predict likelihood of undesirable characteristicsA scale – is the maladaptive behavior likely or notLooking for clues to personalityHeredity appears to be responsible for about 25-50% of the variation in many personality traits.Psychodynamic = Freudian (humans are driven by unconscious desires = impulse gratification…)Freud-InfluentialComprehensiveInfluenced modern thinking, literature, sociology, anthropology-Shaped psycho-therapy techniquesSome ideas supported by Cognitive research- example- defense mechanisms are present in research.Evidence that people’s thoughts and actions are influenced by unrecalled events and experiences Criticism:Theories based on case studies (few individuals, conclusions may not apply to people in general, narrow sample, upper-class Viennese women, culture impacted ig sex) Western European values reflectedBiases male and female interpretationsPoor research- leading questions (false memories (implanted)Not scientificView of Personality:Each person’s personality is shaped by the number, nature and outcome of these conflicts. (Id, ego, superego) Unconscious processes make up personality.Personality develops as we satisfy or urges.Identified 3 parts to PersonalityIdEgoSuperego Id:First to develop in infancy2 kinds of instincts- Eros- positiveThanatos – Death and aggressionLibido- psychic energy conceptWorks off the Pleasure PrincipleRelentless in naturePushes for immediate satisfactionEgo: Develops second in infancyDerived from IdBased on Reality PrincipleSuperego:Rules of societyMoral guideRelentlessUnreasonableParents and the social/moral worldPsycho-sexual StagesSaid the personality develops as the human progresses or fails progress through stagesFailure to resolve problems or conflicts in certain stage leaves fixations5 stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, GenitalFixation:Being unconsciously pre-occupied with areas of pleasure associated with the stageFixations come out in adult personality characteristics5stages of Freudian Development:Oral:1st yearCenter of pleasure is oralAdult personality indications- not enough sucking results in overeating, sarcasm, or and smokingAnal: 2nd year of lifeCenter of pleasure is elimination of wasteToilet TrainingPaternal demandsAdult personality indicators- stinginess, excessive neatness, disorganized, impulsive…Phallic:3-5 yearsCenter of pleasure is genital areaSuperego begins to developOedipus Complex:Feelings begin to be repressedBoy falls in love with motherFather is the rival of mother’s attention, boy wants to eliminate fatherBoy feels father will castrate him over rivalry for mother, causes boy to try to ingratiate to father and boy identifies with father, to be like father Electra Complex:Girls desire fatherPenis Envy- grils don’t have one, want one for power purposesGirls also feel the rivalry and create attachment to mother, identify with motherGirls imitate mother, forms basis of her Super EgoAdult personality indicators- difficulty with authority figures, Inability to maintain stable love relationshipLatency PeriodThrough childhoodSexual impulses stay in backgroundGenital Adolescents through adulthoodPrimary area of pleasureNeo-Freudians:Karl JungIdentified Libido- as life force, includes creativityNo stage theoryPersonality componentsIntroversion- inner reflectionExtroversion- social world focusCollective UnconsciousInherited memories Responsible for our innate tendencies to react to certain thingsAdlerDevelopment of personality comes from an innate desire to overcome infantile feelings of helplessness and to gain some control over the environmentStriving for superiorityDrive for fulfillment as a personEriksonPeople’s personalities are shaped by those around themSocial needs become primary influence on personalitySocial needs Feeling protectedFeeling secureFeeling acceptedIdentity CrisisSaid strategies people use to meet social needs become central parts of personalityHorneyFeminist Neo-FreudianRejected Penis EnvySaid men envy womenMen have Womb EnvySaid culture plays a role in personalityContemporary Psychodynamic Theory:Says personality is based on how perception of themselves and others influence their view of reactions and to the world.Example- attachment to care givers influences personality developmentRelationships shape a person’s thoughts and feelings about relationships later in adult life…Secure and Insecure Attachment:Impact personalityAffect identitySocial relationshipsSelf-imageFeelings of securityInsecure Attachment (personality indications)Increased physiological responses to interpersonal conflictLess likely to be helpful when people are in distressMay have relationship problems…Defense Mechanisms: deflect (avoid) anxiety or guilt in the short run, but they sap energy.List some incidents in which you or someone you know might have used each of the defenses described. How can you tell if these are unconscious defense mechanisms or actions motivated by conscious intentions? Defenses Mechanisms-Freud said ego’s primary function is to prevent the anxiety or guilt we would feel if we became aware of our socially unacceptable id impulses or if we thought about violating the superego’s rules. Ego might use unconscious tactics that protect against anxiety and guilt by either preventing threatening material from surfacing or disguising it when it does.RepressionUnconsciously pushing threatening memories, urges, or ideas from conscious awareness; A person may experience loss of memory, for unpleasant events.RationalizationAttempt to make actions or mistakes seem reasonable:The reasons or excuses given (e.g. “I spank my children because it is good for them”) sound rational, but they are not the real reasons for the behavior.”)Projection Unconsciously attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or impulses to another person: Instead of recognizing that “I hate him,” a person my feel that “He hates me.”Reaction FormationDefending against unacceptable impulses by acting opposite to them:Sexual interest in a married co-worker might appear as a strong dislike instead.SublimationConverting unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions, and perhaps symbolically expressing them; energy, episodicSexual or aggressive desires may appear as artistic creativity or devotion to athletic excellence.DisplacementDeflection an impulse from its original target to a less threatening one: Anger at one’s boss may be expressed through hostility toward a clerk, a family member, or even a pet.DenialSimply discounting the existence of threatening impulses:A person may vehemently deny ever having had even the slightest degree of physical attraction to a person of the same pensationStriving to make up for unconscious impulses or fears, (inferiority, physical sense)A business executive’s extreme competiveness might be aimed at compensating for un-conscious feelings of inferiority.Assessing PersonalityDescribing personality and diagnosing psychological disorders, predicting dangerousness, selecting employees… - psychologists use four main sources:Life Outcomes- education, income, or marital statusSituational Tests- laboratory measurements of behavioral, emotional, and physiological reactions to conflict, frustration…Observer Ratings- judgments about a person made by family or friendsSelf Reports- responses to interviews and personality (interviews) Open-ended- questions are tailored to intellectual level, emotional state, Structured- interviewer asks fixed questions about specific topics, in orderTests must be Reliable (Reliability) how stable/consistent the results are and Valid (Validity) the degree to which test scores are interpreted appropriately and used properly in making inferences about peopleTests are either Objective or ProjectiveObjective tests- clearly worded items relating to the individual being assessed;Self report testsScores compared with group normsScores indicate conclusions about personalityCompared to others = average score of others = normsExamples- traits, or a set of related traits, NEO-PI-R Neuroticism Openness Personality Inventory (revised)Measures Big 5 Personality Traits (Costa and McraeCan be either (private) self responses or ratings by (public) another person(Marriage counseling for spouses with drastic differences)Very ReliableCan be used in prediction of future behaviorExample likelihood of criminal behaviorMMPI Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Diagnose psych disordersMMPI-2Clinical scales Respondents scores are compared to others who have been previously diagnosedEx. Levels of OCDObjective testComputer statistic analysisFocuses on overall pattern (indications)Projective Personality Test (problem in analysis, reliability)Unstructured stimuli- which can be perceived in many waysPsychodynamic tests- reveal unconscious needs, motives, fantasies, conflicts, thoughts (hidden or unconscious) Used with clinical psychology to assess psychological disordersThematic Appreciation Test (TAT)Measures need for achievement, need for power, need for affiliation…Rorschach Inkblot TestMeasure aggressive and sexual impulses that people otherwise might be able to hide ................
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