CHAPTER 2



CHAPTER 2

CAUSES OF CRIME

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, students should be able to:

LO1: Discuss the difference between a hypothesis and a theory in the context of

criminology.

LO2: Explain why classical criminology is based on choice theory.

LO3: Contrast positivism with classical criminology.

LO4: List and describe the three theories of social structure that help explain crime.

LO5: List and briefly explain the three branches of social process theory.

LO6: Describe how life course criminology differs from other theories addressed in this chapter.

LO7: Discuss the connection between offenders and victims of crime.

LO8: Contrast the medical model of addiction with the criminal model of addiction.

LO9: Explain the theory of the chronic offender and its importance for the

criminal justice system.

BRIEF LECTURE OUTLINE

Theory in Criminology

1 The Role of Theory

1 Theory

2 Hypothesis

2 The Fallibility of Theory

Exploring the Causes of Crime

1 Crime and Free Will: Choice Theories of Crime

1 Classical Criminology

2 Positivism and Modern Rational Choice

3 Trait Theories

4 Sociological Theories

5 Social Process Theories

6 Social Conflict Theories

2 Further Study: Expanding Criminology

1 Life Course Theories of Crime

2 Victimology and Victims of Crime

3 The Link Between Drugs and Crime

1 Criminology of Drug Use

2 Drug Addiction and Dependency

3 The Drug-Crime Relationship

Criminology from Theory to Practice

1 Criminology and the Chronic Offender

2 Criminology and the Criminal Justice System

Criminal Justice in Action: The Link Between Violent Video Games and Crime

FULL LECTURE CHAPTER OUTLINE

Correlated to PowerPoints

Theory in Criminology

A. The study of crime, or criminology, is rich with different philosophies as to why people commit crime

B. The Role of Theory

1. Theory versus Hypothesis

a. Theories are designed as explanations of happening or circumstance and are based on observation, experimentation, and reasoning

b. Researchers develop hypotheses to test validity of their theories, and this is known as the scientific method

2. The Fallibility of Theory

a. Levitt and Donohue’s research on abortion and crime is one example of criminologists proposing a theory and evaluating it through the scientific method

C. Exploring the Causes of CrimeCrime and Free Will: Choice theories

1. Cesare Beccaria published Essays on Crime and Punishment in 1764, asserting that criminal law should reflect three truths:

a. All decisions, including the decision to commit a crime, are the result of rational choice

b. Fear of punishment acts as a deterrent

c. The more swift and certain punishment is, the more effective it will be as a deterrent

2. Jeremy Bentham concurred in 1789, asserting that man is governed by to masters – pleasure and pain, and that punishment has four goals

a. To prevent all crime

b. When it cannot prevent crime, to assure that the offender will commit a lesser crime to avoid punishment

c. To give the offender an incentive not to harm others in the pursuit of crime

d. To prevent crime at the least possible cost to society

3. By the end of the 19th century, positivism had emerged

a. Cesare Lombroso believed that criminals were throwbacks to savagery of early humankind and could therefore be identified by certain physical characteristics such as sharp teeth and large jaws

b. Lombroso asserts criminals do not have free choice when it comes to offending, their criminality is determined at birth

c. Positivist theories lost credibility in the 1970s when crime rates began to climb

4. James Q. Wilson advocates rational choice theory

a. Rational choice theory posits that before a person commits a crime, he or she will weigh the benefits against the costs and when perceived benefits are greater, the person is likely to commit the crime

b. Sociologist Jack Katz has expanded on rational choice theory by suggesting that the rewards of offending may be sensual as well as financial, he calls this the “seduction of crime”

5. The theory that wrongdoers choose to commit crimes is a cornerstone of the American criminal justice system

a. Because crime is the end result of choices, policymakers have reasoned that severe punishment can deter criminal activity

b. Supporters of the death penalty emphasize its deterrent effects as do legislators using harsh mandatory sentences

D. Trait theories

1. Theories suggest that certain biological and psychological traits in individuals could incline them toward criminal behavior given a certain set of circumstances

2. Genetics and Crime

a. Twin studies

b. Adoption studies

3. Hormones and Aggression

a. One trait theory states that biochemical conditions can influence criminal behavior

c. Criminal behavior in males can be linked to the hormone testosterone

d. Aggressive behavior might also be related to neurotransmitters in the brain

i. Serotonin

ii. Norepinephrine

iii. Dopamine

e. There is some suggestion that criminal behavior can be influenced by neurological defects acquired early in life

1. Trait theories also incorporate ideas from psychology, particularly the study of personality disorders and their relationship to offending

f. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory provides another approach to examining criminal behavior

i. The role of the unconscious

ii. The id, ego, and superego

g. Social psychology focuses on human behavior in the context of how we relate to one another

E. Sociological theories

1. Indicate that crime is the result of social conditions in a person’s environment

2. Social disorganization theory

a. The Chicago School: Burgess and Park

i. Neighborhood conditions have great effect on criminal behavior

ii. Related to social structure in disorganization theory, strain theory, and cultural deviance theory

b. Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay studied high-crime neighborhoods in Chicago and found these “zones” were characterized by “disorganization”

c. Breakdown of traditional institutions of social controls such as family, school systems, and local businesses

d. Anderson further expands this theory, dividing families into “street families” and “decent families”

3. Strain theories build on the assumption that crime is the result of frustration felt by individuals who cannot reach their financial and personal goals through legitimate means

a. Strain theory has its roots in anomie

b. General strain theory examines the factors that combine with strain to result in offending

4. Cultural deviance theory asserts that people adapt to the subculture to which they belong

5. Social structure theory and public policy

a. Government programs to decrease unemployment

b. Government programs to reduce poverty

c. Government programs to improve educational facilities in low-income neighborhoods

F. Social process theories

1. Hold that the major influence on any individual is not society in general, but the interactions that dominate everyday life

2. Learning theory

a. Popularized by Edwin Sutherland and his theory of differential association

b. Sees crime as learned behavior, where the “teacher” is usually a family member or a friend who exposes the “student” to criminal behavior

c. Hirschi’s control theory suggests that social bonds promote conformity

3. Control theory

a. All individuals have the potential for criminal behavior, but are restrained by the damage such actions would do to their relationships

i. Wilson and Kelling’s theory of “Broken Windows”

4. Labeling theory

a. Contends that if someone is labeled “delinquent” or “criminal” by authority figures, there is a better chance that person will consider himself or herself as such and continue the criminal behavior

b. Society creates crime and criminals by labeling certain behaviors

5. Social process theory and public policy

a. Focuses on juvenile offenders

b. Divert youth from formal juvenile justice process to prevent them from being labeled as “delinquent”

c. Schools implement programs to steer children away from crime by encouraging them to “just say no” to drugs and stay in school

G. Social conflict theories

1. Focus on power

a. Identify power (the ability of one person or group of persons to control the economic and social positions of other people or groups) as the key component in explaining crime

2. Often associated with Marxism and criticism of our capitalist economic system

a. Capitalism is seen as leading to high levels of violence and crime because of the disparity of income it encourages

b. Quinney’s social reality of crime suggests that laws reflect only the values of the segment of society that has achieved power and is willing to use the criminal justice system as a tool to keep that power

3. Issues of race and gender

a. Race and gender may be related to conflict in our society

4. Social conflict theory and public policy

a. Social conflict theories have a limited impact on public policy

b. Suggests increased employment of women and minorities in the criminal justice system

Further Study: Expanding Criminology

H. Life course theories

1. Believe that lying, stealing, bullying, and other conduct problems that occur in childhood are the strongest predictors of future criminal behavior and have been seriously undervalued in the explanation of why crime occurs

2. Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi

a. Propose a general theory of crime

b. Believe that criminal behavior is linked to “low self-control,” a personality trait that is formed before a child reaches the age of 10 and can usually be attributed to poor parenting

c. Someone with low self-control is generally impulsive, thrill seeking, and likely to problem solve with violence rather than intellect

d. Both theorists subscribe to the continuity theory of crime, which essentially asserts that once negative behavior patterns have been established they cannot be changed

I. The possibility of change

a. Moffit’s Theory

i. Life-course-persistent offenders

ii. Adolescent-limited offenders

b. Sampson and Laub: Turning points

i. “Rehabilitative agents” and “hooks for change”

J. Victimology and the Victims of Crime

1. Previously criminology only focused on the offender

2. After World War II, the scientific study of victims began to appeal to the academics

3. Growing emphasis on the victim led to study of victimology

a. A school of criminology that studies why certain people are the victim of crimes and the optimal role for victims in the criminal justice system

b. “Relationships between victims and offenders [and] the interactions between victims and the criminal justice system”

4. The risks of victimization

a. Anyone can be a victim of crime

b. Cohen and Felson’s routine activity theory suggests three things are needed for victimization to occur

i. A likely offender

ii. A suitable target

iii. The absence of a capable guardian

5. The theory of repeat victimization suggests that the strongest predictor of future victimization is past victimization

6. There is a relationship between criminal offending and victimization

a. Some demographic groups are at high risk for both criminality and victimization

b. Low-self control may be related to both criminality and victimization

The Link Between Drugs and Crime

K. Theories of Drug Use

1. Social disorganization theory suggests that rapid social change can cause people to become marginalized and cause them to turn to drugs

2. Subculture theory sees drugs as the result of peer pressure

3. Control theory suggests that drug use is the result of a lack of social control

4. Becker sees drug use as the result of a learning process

a. Learn the techniques of drug use

b. Learn to perceive the pleasurable effects of drug use

c. Learn to enjoy the social experience of drug use

L. Drug Addiction and Dependency

1. Drug abuse is the use of drugs that results in physical or psychological problems for the user

2. Many abusers become addicted and physically dependent on drugs

M. The Drug-Crime Relationship

1. More than two-thirds of all arrestees tested positive for drugs

2. There are three models which explain the relationship between drugs and crime

a. The psychopharmacological model suggests that people commit crime as a direct result of ingesting drugs

b. The economically impulsive model holds that drug abusers commit crimes to get money to buy drugs

c. The systemic model suggests that violence is a by-product of the drug community

N. Models of Addiction

1. The medical model of addiction states that addicts are not criminals, but mentally and physically ill individuals

2. The criminal model of addiction states that drug abusers endanger society with their behavior and should be treated as any other offender

Criminology from Theory to Practice

O. Research established the idea of the chronic offender

1. Shows that a small group of offenders (6 percent) are responsible for a disproportionate number of violent crime

2. Further research has supported this claim

3. Has allowed law enforcement agencies and district attorneys’ offices to devise specific strategies to apprehend and prosecute repeat offenders

P. Criminology and the Criminal Justice System

1. Wilson: Lack of impact of research on the criminal justice system

Criminal Justice in Action – The link between violent video games and crime.

LECTURE NOTES

Chapter 2 introduces students to the various causes of crime. Most students have their own theories as to why offenders break the law. It is interesting to brainstorm those causes prior to beginning the chapter and then compare those responses to the various criminological theories. Did students subscribe to one of the theories in the text without even realizing it? Encourage students to reflect on their beliefs as you move through the chapter. Do their perceptions of the motivations behind offending remain consistent, or are the persuaded by a theory that is introduced to them in Chapter 2?

Classical criminology is based on the concept of free will. Offenders weigh the costs and benefits of a particular criminal behavior and then choose to offend. This idea can be illustrated to students by asking them to discuss a common illegal behavior like underage drinking. Many students engaged in this behavior prior to reaching the legal age for alcohol consumption, and did so knowing that it was illegal. In contrast, the positivists believe that criminal behavior is not a rational choice, but the result of some biological or psychological condition. Cesare Lombroso, “The Father of Criminology”, believed that criminals were born throwbacks to an earlier, more savage time. Positivism fell out of favor in the 1970s, but it hasn’t completely disappeared. In fact, there are numerous examples of criminal defenses based on positivism. Have them consider the case of Tonya Vasilev, who stabbed her two children to death. Vasilev’s defense was based on her diagnosis of postpartum psychosis. After considering cases like hers, how viable do students feel positivism is as an explanation for criminal offending? The sociological theories assert that offending is the result of interaction between the offender and his or her environment. These theories can be grouped into three families: social structure theories, social process theories, and social conflict theories. This portion of the chapter may be the most confusing for students because there are so many theories to distinguish between. It may be helpful to spend a few minutes distinguishing between each of the three types of sociological theories and then placing each individual theory in the correct category on the board as you discuss them. Let students assess the impact of neighborhood conditions, the relationships between offenders and their families and peers, and community conflict on offending.

The five theories described in the first half of Chapter 2 form the foundation of criminology. However, there are many, many more theories offered to explain criminal offending. Life course criminology focuses on childhood behaviors as predictors of adult criminal behaviors. Life course theorists also subscribe to the continuity theory of crime, which essentially asserts that once negative patterns have been established they cannot be changed. Ask students to consider life course criminology from a policy perspective. If one subscribes to this line of thinking, how can criminal behavior be prevented? Victimology, or the study of the interaction between victims and offenders and between the criminal justice system and victims, first emerged in the 1940s and continues to evolve today. Some of the earliest theorists focused on why certain individuals are more likely than others to be victimized. Routine activity theory proposes that a “perfect storm” of factors is required for victimization. This is a good time to turn to open a class discussion. While most students would quickly tell you that blaming the victim is inappropriate and wrong, this is a common practice. What factors do students believe are related to victimization? Why are some individuals subject to repeat victimization?

In general, criminologists have been unwilling to say that there is a relationship between any one factor and victimization. However, the use of drugs and alcohol has been singled out as being strongly related to victimization. Let students ponder this relationship as they wrap up their class discussion. There are a variety of ways that the criminal justice system can counter drug and alcohol related offending. Both the medical model of addiction and the criminal model of addiction are presented in the text. Given the theoretical background to which they have now been exposed, do students feel the key to reducing these crimes lies in treatment or in harsher punishment?

CLASS DISCUSSION TOPICS

1. Ask students to consider learning theory. In their own lives, who do they believe has had the greatest influence on their value system? Do they perceive themselves as most influenced by their parents? Peers? Teachers? Do all of these parties share a moral view, or did students find themselves selecting one view over another? How did they choose? To what extent do students think their values have been shaped by the media and popular culture?

2. Ask students to consider positivism. Do students believe that all behavior is biological in nature? To illustrate this discussion, provide students with examples of offenders who have used a medical condition or a mental health diagnosis as the explanation for their criminal offending. Should the presence of this condition impact the way the offender is dealt with by the justice system?

3. Have students debate social structure theory. What role do students feel neighborhood conditions play in criminal offending? Will improving the conditions in which certain groups of people live have a significant impact on crime? What is the role of criminal justice agencies in these improvements?

4. Ask students to debate the value of criminal theory. While it is critical to understand crime if it is to be prevented, what role should theory play when dealing with criminal offenders? Should the causes of an offender’s behavior impact whether they are convicted or receive a particular sentence? Does an offender’s motivation aggravate or mitigate the criminal offense? Should offenders be treated differently if there is a biological or psychological basis for their behavior? What if the cause of their offending is sociological?

ACTIVITIES

1. Invite a victim advocate to visit your classroom and discuss their role in the criminal justice system. What types of victimization are most prevalent in your community? Have advocates observed factors they feel are related to victimization locally? Finally, spend a few minutes discussing with the advocate the role that victims play in the criminal justice system. What rights do victims of crime have?

2. If possible, take students on a field trip to visit a local community action program. Ask students to meet with program leaders and discuss why we often find higher crime rates in low-income communities. What types of issues do citizens in these areas face? What is the best method of preventing crimes in impoverished neighborhoods?

3. Once the chapter lectures are completed, ask students to select the theory they feel best explains criminal offending. Have them write a short essay in which they identify and support their choice. Ask them how, based on the theory they chose, we should best prevent and address criminal offending. Finally, have them identify one current criminal justice policy that seems to reflect their theory.

4. To assist students in applying the concepts discussed in this chapter, have them collect newspaper articles covering crime in your local paper for a period of two weeks. Then, ask them to work in groups to evaluate their findings. Why do they think the offenders in their articles committed their criminal acts? As they discuss, have students identify the theories that are most represented. Based on their findings, how would they prevent crime in your city?

MEDIA TOOLS

Go to to watch the video about the influence of violent entertainment materials on the brain.

Go to to watch the video about the question whether we have free will as claimed by classical theorists.

Go to to watch the video about how lie detectors really work.

Go to to watch the video about the mind of a psychopath.

Go to to watch a video about testosterone and crime.

WHAT IF?

1. In 2011 in the case Brown vs. Entertainment Merchants Assn. () the Supreme Court ruled that a California law passed in 2005 that disallowed the sale or rental of violent video games to individuals under the age of 18 violated the First Amendment. The games included violent acts such as dismembering, maiming, killing, urinating on women, and sexual assault. Justice Scalia who wrote the majority opinion stated that the U.S. has no history of restricting minors’ access to violent content. He cited fairy tales such as Cinderella, Hansel and Gretel, and Snow White. The dissenting justices argued that the First Amendment does not apply to minors. Additionally, it is a crime to show pornographic material to minors and many of the violent video games include sexually degrading acts, and as a result should be prohibited. Which argument do you agree with more: the majority of dissenting judges?

2. In 2007 star wrestler Chris Benoit murdered his wife Nancy Benoit, his seven-year old son Daniel and subsequently killed himself. The investigators determined that Chris Benoit had a testosterone level that was ten times as high as what as considered normal. It is believed that he injected the synthetic testosterone before committing the murders. Some investigators believe that the elevated testosterone caused his aggressive behavior. Others; however, argue that elevated levels of testosterone do not necessarily cause violent behavior and that this could be abused by criminals to get away with a crime. Do you believe that elevated levels of testosterone should be a reason for a lesser punishment?

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