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Cognitive DevelopmentDanny FilipskiEDPS 250-section #4SwansonIntroductionAs an aspiring Music Educator, I’ll be working with students possibly in all different ages from K-12 on immersing their musical abilities, growth, and learning. My future students will develop a greater understanding of how music application will form a better cognitive development, not just in the music hall, but also in and outside of their other classes. To demonstrate my understanding of INTASC 1 I researched the following concepts of cognitive development that take place when learning music: memory, problem solving, and theory of mind. INTASC 1: The teacher understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of learning and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical areas, and designs and implements developmentally appropriate and challenging learning experiences.Developmental ResearchDevelopment of an Early Memories of Warmth and Safeness Scale and its Relationship to PsychopathologyRecall is the form of memory that involves remembering something without perceptual support by generating a mental image of a past experience (Berk, 2012). Long term recall depends on connections among multiple regions of the cerebral cortex, especially with the prefrontal cortex (Berk, 2012). In this research article, the study was sequential and was taken from 180 undergraduate psychology students (31 males, 149 females) from the University of Derby. The students completed a set of six self-report measures of questions that determined different scales of behaviors and emotions. The aim of this study was to develop a measure of recall for positive feelings and experiences of safeness, contentment, and warmth in childhood (Richer et al., 2009). This study shows that recalling parental rejection and the feelings of threat and submissiveness are positively correlated with the “inadequate self” and “hated self”. Although the relationship between the parent and child is stronger for memories of feeling than for recall of parental behavior. Individuals who lack positive and soothing emotional memories have a tendency to be self- critical. The link between the development of self-criticism and aversive early experiences such as those of uncaring, unaffectionate, and critical parenting is well documented (Richer et al., 2009). Instructional DecisionEducators should foster positive relationships and supportive interactions with the students (AG 2.4). They should also able to help address negative circumstances with students that will influence developmental challenges (AG 1.3). Children spend nearly half their day at school, and to some it’s like their second home. I learned a lot through a dual credit cadet teaching course in high school. One surprising fact I learned is that going to school is the best part of the day for some students. This is because some children come from a difficult home life and the only place that they feel safe is at school. When I’m a teacher, I’ll focus on the individual characteristics, needs, and interests of each student (AG 2.4). I will make sure my students receive the affection and attention necessary to retain a better outlook for their recall of feelings as they get older. I will maintain a warm, positive environment by speaking in a calm voice, avoiding ridicule, and handling classroom management so that it will set a positive emotional affect to my student’s memories and this will affect them in their other classes and later in their future. Developmental ResearchUsing Problem Solving to Assess Young Children’s Mathematics KnowledgeDifferent educators for their own studies, experimented with several diverse examples to see how problem solving correlates with mathematical knowledge. All the participants in the studies are in the early childhood age. Most of the examples of research from the articles are sequential interviews and observations. Problem solving requires students to applying four other processes: Reasoning, Communication, Connections, and Representation (Charlesworth, & Leali, 2011). Children first acquire fundamental concepts prior to kindergarten. Then as they get older to kindergarten and primary school the concepts become more complex. The article then covers different forms of assessments and how they should be covered. Assessments should be integrated into everyday activities so it is not an interruption but is part of the instructional routine (Charlesworth, & Leali, 2011). The long-term objective for young children is to insure they have a strong foundation in basic concepts and skills that will enable them to get through the transition into the concrete operational period when they begin to deal seriously with abstract mathematical symbols (Charlesworth, & Leali, 2011). After students start to use the symbols and get into more complex concepts, they will then start using different strategies that work out best for the problem. Children mainly look for two components when selecting a strategy: accuracy and speed. Teaching children to reason logically with concepts relevant to the problems is also helpful. A common strategy, called min, minimizes the work, by starting at higher recognized number instead of a lower number (Berk, 2012). When children figure out which strategy works out the best they use an overlapping-waves theory. This means when given challenging problems, children attempt various strategies and observe which works best, least, or not at all (Berk, 2012). Instructional DecisionThe information from this article will be really useful to me even though that I won’t be a math teacher but math and problem solving frequently correlates with music. It’ll be my job to be able to help my students acquire skill sets that include critical and creative thinking skills (AG 2.2). I will assess my students by using informal assessment strategies such as asking questions, evaluating student interaction/participation followed by giving personal feedback, and the use of guided practice (Single, 1991). Using these forms of assessment will help my students develop concepts and skills on their own through my guidance. When using guided practice I’ll work one on one with a student to correct any errors, reteach material if necessary, and to provide sufficient practice so the students can ultimately work independently. Developmental ResearchPreschoolers’ Attributions of Mental States in PretensePreschoolers who are engaged with fantasy play, have an imaginary friend, or tend to give make-believe characteristics to objects are advanced in understanding false belief and other aspects of theory of mind (Berk, 2012). From ages 3-5, children start to go from an egocentric mindset to realizing that other people’s perceptions and beliefs do not always correspond with their own (Rosen et al., 1997). This article has three main studies about theory of mind in preschoolers. There were 45 children (19 boys and 26 girls) who participated in the research. The age range is from 3 to 5 years of age. The first study was conducted to see if the children can depict the real and from the make believe scenes in the television show Barney & Friends. After asking the children whether each scene was real or make believe, the researchers then asked the children what they thought the characters of the show were thinking during the scenes. The next test that was conducted was to see if the children were able to distinguish the difference between an object’s appearances from its real identity. An example from the study is children being able to tell that a sponge that looks like a rock isn’t a rock, but a sponge. The final study was split up into two procedures to assess the children’s understanding of false belief. The first procedure was two stories presented to the participants through a narrated cassette tape and reenacted with doll figures that matched the participant’s gender and race. The second procedure was to show a cartoon example from the show Pink Panther, and asked questions that pertained to where the characters are and what the characters are thinking. Contrary to the researcher’s expectation of 100%, only 76% of the children were able to tell the difference between what was make believe and what was real in the studies (Rosen et al., 1997). Instructional DecisionAn important factor to have in the classroom is to have a great since of imagination throughout the students. Imagination goes hand to hand with creativity and generating new ideas. When teaching, I’ll construct strategies to engage my students to create new ideas, find solutions to problems, and develop new work (AG 2.8). After my students engage in these strategies they will acquire a particular skill set that will be applicable for future playing (AG 5.2). A perfect example to incorporate with this INTASC sub-standard is NAFME national music standard #3 “Improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments”. Using this standard will have my students create new ideas for example, different rhythms while singing songs or have my students come up with melodies while the rest of the classroom harmonizes as an accompaniment. Developmental ResearchUsing the Imaginary Audience Scale as a measure of social anxiety in young adultsDuring the adolescence years, young adults think that everyone watches and pays attention to every detail that they do. This is a belief of an imaginary audience, and helps explains the long hours adolescents spend inspecting every detail of their appearance and why they are so sensitive to public criticism (Berk, 2012). There were two studies done this article that explored the meaning of the imaginary audience belief among college students. The first study consisted of 207 college students that ranged from 17-50 years old, and the second study consisted of 203 students that ranged from 17-53 years old. There are two types of self-consciousness, one is the “abiding self” which relates to personality and intelligence, and the other one is “transient self” which relates to temporary aspects of one’s self (Kelly et al., 2002). The first study was split up into two groups the first group completed a demographic questionnaire and a version of the imaginary audience scale to fit properly for a young adult study. The second group completed this scale along with selected measures of theoretically relevant constructs as follows: embarrass ability, social desirability, social avoidance, fear of negative evaluation, self-esteem, self monitoring, neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (Kelly et al., 2002). The purpose of Study 2 was to investigate the relationships between imaginary audience tendencies and both social anxiety and cognitive development (Kelly et al., 2002). The results were expected and true that imaginary audience is related to measures of social anxiety, the self, and personality. The results also show that imaginary audience may deal with social anxiety more than cognitive development. Developmental ResearchThe personal fable and risk-taking in early adolescenceAnother cognitive distortion is personal fable which is when teenagers believe that other people are observing and thinking about them. This is because they have a higher opinion about themselves, thinking that they are more important to other people than they actually are (Berk, 2012). Even though personal fable and imaginary audience can be viewed as a result from egocentrism, they both actually are results from teenagers being more concerned with what others think (Berk, 2012). Due to personal fable, young adolescents believe that their feelings and emotions are different, more intense and excruciating, than those of others (Alberts et al., 2007). The researchers of the article believe that personal fable can lead to potential risk taking behavior. They conducted two different scale questionnaires to find the results of three hypotheses which was personal fable will increase as the age of the students get older, males will have a higher personal fable than females, and that personal fable correlates with risk taking behavior (Alberts et al., 2007). The participants for this study consisted of 119 middle school students with 66 males and 53 female that live in a lower middle class white neighborhood from a town in New England. The first scale questionnaire dealt with questions about personal fable and the second scale questions dealt with risk taking. The data from the study prove that all three of the hypotheses from the researchers are true, which further indicates that personal fable does indeed correlate with risk taking behaviors. Developmental ResearchDevelopmental Change in Working Memory Strategies: From Passive Maintenance to Active RefreshingChildren in their early childhood are capable of being able to use a memory strategy of recalling. Recall is being able to generate a mental image of an absent depiction (Berk, 2012). There are two factors that differentiate the ability to be able to recall, one is the amount of information that is taken in to be possessed and the other factor is the time in between each stimulus (Camos, & Barrouillet, 2011). The study that was conducted was to see if there is a developmental shift from passive maintenance to an active refreshing strategy in working memory. For the study, the researchers had 63 kindergarten and 63 first grade participants that were presented with a series of one to four colored drawings of animals to be remembered (Camos, & Barrouillet, 2011). The study consisted of three different series of four different lengths of lists. The first series was a series of pictures that were one color each and the time duration between each image was four seconds. The second series of pictures were two colors and had the same time duration of four seconds between each image. The third series consisted of two colors but had longer time duration of eight seconds between each image. The study shows that the older age group was able to recall more information than the younger age group and the recall is dependent of the duration of the time in between each image. But the results show that the amount of information being processed has a greater impact on the recall performance than the duration of time between each image. Being able to have a greater recall memory can result to better understanding and attention in the classroom.Developmental ResearchPhysical Maturation and Information-Processing Speed in Middle ChildhoodThe age increase from 6-12 years old is correlated with an increase in information processing speed and capacity. This age related gain in speed of thinking could possibly be caused by myelination and synaptic pruning in the brain (Berk, 2012). Researchers believe that faster information processing will help with more complex and effective thinking because a faster thinker can hold on to and operate on more information in working memory (Berk, 2012). The study from this article was done to see if physical maturation also corresponded with the increase of the information processing speed. The participants for this study were 134, 9 and 10 year olds that had to complete three reaction timed tasks (Eaton, & Ritchot, 1995). The results from the tests indicate that the faster mature group was able to process information faster than the later mature group. The results were more effective to boys than the girls (Eaton, & Ritchot, 1995). This study of information processing can connect to physical development of the body as well at cognitive development. Instructional DecisionEducators should understand different student characteristics and developmental variation. They should know this information to be able to accurately promote acute decision making and promote student success (AG 1.2). I will be aware of how fast my students will be able to process information, because I will need to know if I can move onto the next topic. I will use strategies from the article “A Summary of Research- Based Principles of Effective Teaching”, some example of effective teaching is presenting new information in small steps with student practice after each step. I will also provide systematic feedback and corrections when needed, and I will ask large number of questions to check for my student’s understanding. Developmental ResearchFactors Related to Dropping OutThere are three different characteristic that can factor to dropping out of high school, student, family, and school and community (Berk, 2012). There is a common pattern of disruptive behavior and poor achievement that follows many high school dropouts (Berk, 2012). There are early indication factors that can predict drop outs from an early age (Berk, 2012). Student characteristics that are shown are poor student attendance, inability to get along with teachers, low academic achievement, and low educational aspirations. Family characteristics include parents who do not support achievement, parents who were high school dropouts, single parent household, and low income. School and community characteristics consist of large unstimulating classes, lack of opportunity to form personal relationships with teachers, large student body, and the availability of work that requires only on the job training (Berk, 2012).Instructional DecisionEducators should be on the lookout for these characteristics that can lead to students dropping out. Some positive classroom characteristics that teachers can induct into their environment is to create a safe, healthy, and supportive place (AG 5.1). Teachers should also be aware of negative factors and characteristics that diminish student engagement (AG 3.16). I will incorporate examples from the website Committee for Children; these examples will help promote and nurture positive relationships between me and the students, and the students and their peers. For example I will notice changes in students’ physical and emotional behaviors. Developmental ResearchExamining the Long-Term Impact of Achievement Loss During the Transition to High SchoolAdolescents’ grades decline as they transition from junior high to high school. Transition to high school will often lead to tighter academic standards, less personal attention, more whole class instruction, and less chance to participate in classroom decision making (Berk, 2012). A difficult transition going into high school can lead to an increase in behavior problems plus an increase in high school dropout rates (Smith, 2006). Even with positive peers, students experience a drop in GPA that researchers believe to be caused by the distracting nature of peer relationships (Smith, 2006). The number of transitions and the size of schools are factors associated with achievement loss. But for some students going into high school can present new opportunities that were not presented before, which can lead to more acceptance and positive academic success (Smith, 2006). The impact of school transitions can really connect with academic achievement and early high school dropouts. Instructional Decision Educators in the high school level should be aware of the struggle some students will have in their first year. Educators in the middle school level should prepare students going into high school that the courses and over all content will be more rigorous. High school teachers should be capable of organizing positive and productive learning environments that maximizes students’ time on task (AG 5.5). An example from the cite , I will provide guidelines for my students to make the transition from middle school to high school smoother. For example I would prepare my students by telling them that they will need to practice more going into high school because they will receive harder repertoire. GoalsContextContext is the ability to fulfill all of students' needs while being able to acknowledge their various distinctive backgrounds. As an educator it's important to appreciate individual variation with in each area of development so all the students grasp and obtain an understanding of the concept. By respecting student diverse talent, educators can help students understand how to apply their own developmental variation to improve their learning. Educators can do this by creating designs that incorporates different methods of learning, giving them more options when doing large projects (i.e. writing a paper, doing a poster board, writing a poem or song, or other creative assessment opportunities), and to be able to help guide different pacing among the students. An educator should be the number one positive influence to help student self-confidence, especially when it's amongst their peers. If students don't get a positive influence from their teacher then they most likely won't get any positive influence from any other authoritative figure. For music educators it's its important to boost student self-confidence during their early years of learning an instrument or singing. If the student's confidence is at a high level then the student will be more comfortable performing and will enjoy playing or singing (AG 1). It's important for educator to monitor student growth and achievement in order to know when to move on or go back and review the subject. In a music classroom, teacher are able to use excelled students as examples for the rest of the class. When one student, or section of students are playing the correct rhythm or playing with the right tonality; the teacher can have the student/s play for the class to demonstrate how it should sound. This technique of singling out a student can also work if the student is not playing something correctly. If a music educator works with a section of students in an ensemble, he can demonstrate to the section on how the part should sound. While the teacher is doing this, he should keep in mind to engage the full ensemble as well by telling them what to listen for and how that part of the music ties in with the rest of the ensemble. I don't have lot of experience with this because I haven't done a lot of teaching yet. I feel like to get better at planning in the most part is just getting more experience and practice at creating new original lessons that cover different aspects of learning. To improve with context I will achieve more experience with a classroom setting, email past professors, and can attend/look up recorded educational webinars off of the website Education Week.Engagement Every day in the classroom my kids will be engaging, it’s what music is supposed to be. Music students won’t be able to get the full understanding of music unless they are constantly engaging in the classroom. Students can only advance through their music ability if they engage in practice or participate in an ensemble regularly. Learning music is like learning a new language; it needs everyday practice to be able to become fluent in the new language (AG 5).In all classes it’s important to review the topics so the previous information can be retained better and then learned. When students first start to learn music it’s very similar to first learning math, everything at the beginning is fundamental and as the material gets more complex you still apply those fundamental concepts. A math example is kindergarteners first learning how to add and subtract, but throughout the years the student will use addition and subtraction in the highest calculus course. To music a similar example would be the introduction to a quarter note pulse, and then even professional performers still have to keep that similar quarter note pulse. It’s also important in the classroom to link new ideas familiar ideas because it makes learning new concepts easier. A famous example that is commonly used in the music world is the technique of sound before sight. An example of this technique would be to have students echo the teacher, whether it is a song, melody, or any musical dictation, and then the teacher would show the students what they echoed back on paper. This example starts with a familiar idea which is the echoing, and then is introduced to a new idea of actually ready what they are echoing. It’s important as a music educator to influence my students to do outside the classroom engagement to the course so that they will be able to grow a musician and to keep up with the ensemble. Outside engagement that is exemplified is the use of practice logs to monitor the amount of practice that is being done by my students. Like mentioned earlier, learning music is like learning a new language and needs to be reviewed regularly outside the classroom.A teacher must know how to access student thinking basis for instructional activities because if the activity is too difficult or too easy then the students will get frustrated and unfocused. That’s why it’s important as a music teacher to know his students’ abilities, so he can choose the right repertoire for his students. If a piece is too easy then the students will get bored and go unfocused, if a piece is too difficult then the students will give up right away. It’s important for students to be able to have discussions with their peers because it allows them to understand better and discover some new things that can be worked on. An example of the students engage interaction is when the teacher splits up the ensemble in half and having one side play a section of music, and then having the other half listen and then give feedback of how well the playing sections did and what they can work on.I don’t have much of a weakness for understanding how to engage my students; I just don’t have a lot of experience with it yet. But there are always new engaging activities that are coming out that I will be able to apply in my lessons plans. I’ll be able to learn these new activities by being subscribed to both Music Educators Journal, and Teaching Music Magazine. I will continue to be an active member of NAfME (National Association for Music Educators), an organization that addresses all aspects of music education. I’ll continue to go to the annual IMEA (Indiana Music Educators Association) conference in Fort Wayne, Indiana, and I’ll try to go to other clinics in the future such as PASIC (Percussion Arts Society International Convention), and Mid-West Conference.Expertise It’s important for all educators to know how students learn in order to have their students obtain all the information. If educators don’t know this concept then their students won’t get the full potential of learning the entire subject. Educators should know how to incorporate using pedagogical teachings into their lesson plans because it can keep their students engaged and it will transform the content into a lesson that everyone can endure to their specific learning type or possible learning disability. When an educator is an expert in his field, he should know all the different teaching styles, be able to adapt to student abilities, and to constantly be a student in his field study (AG 2).It’s important for educators to understand how physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development influences learning so they can create lesson plans that incorporate these influences. These influences can determine what learning styles the students have. Physical development influence can lead to a kinesthetic learning trait, cognitive can lead to an intrapersonal learning trait, and social can lead to an interpersonal learning trait.Educators should be very flexible to anything, especially when it comes to understanding the differences between their students. Teachers can’t treat every student the same because everyone is different. Educators also shouldn’t have the same expectations for everyone; yes they should be able to obtain a minimal specific goal or objective to the concept but shouldn’t expect all the students to be at a high level of expertise. It’s important for an educator to recognize students’ levels so he can help the ones who are falling behind and challenge the students who are ahead. In secondary instrumental classrooms, each section of instruments will normally be ranked by the player’s ability to play the instrument. This is because as the repertoire gets more challenging some of the parts will get too challenging for some of the students.My weakness is that I just need more experience teaching. I already have some experience from dual courses I took in high school and some peer teaching episodes from my music education courses here at Ball State. I plan to grow in this by just getting more teaching experience before I leave college. Between summers I’ll contact different high school band directors and ask if they need help with their marching band. Over the summer I will also try to get students for private lessons so I can get more one on one teaching experience. After college I plan to attend different clinics, seminars, and conferences like the Indiana Music Educators Association conference so I can keep learning new ways to apply different learning styles into my lessons.Works CitedAlberts, A., Elkind, D., & Ginsberg, S. (2007). The personal fable and risk-taking in earlyadolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36(1), 71-76. doi:10.1007/s10964-006-9144-4Berk, L. (2012). Infants, children, and adolescents. 7th ed. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Education Inc. 334-341.Camos, V., & Barrouillet, P., (2011). Developmental change in working memory strategies:From passive maintenance to active refreshing. Developmental Psychology, 47(3), 898-904. doi:10.1037/a0023193Charlesworth, R., & Leali, S. A., (2011). Using problem solving to assess young children’smathematics knowledge. Early Childhood Education Journal, 39(6), 373-382.doi:10.1007/s10643-011-0480-yEaton, W., & Ritchot, K., (1995). Physical maturation and information-processing speed inmiddle childhood. Developmental Psychology,31(6), 967-972. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.6.967Herlihy, C., (2007). Toward Ensuring a Smooth Transition Into High School. National HighSchool Center. Retrieved from, K. Jones, W., & Adams, J., (2002). Using the Imaginary Audience Scale as a measure ofsocial anxiety in young adults. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 62(5), 896-914. doi:10.1177/001316402236884N.A., (2012). Key Factors in Creating a Positive Classroom Climate. Committee for Children,36(1), Retrieved from , A. Gilbert, P., & McEwan, K., (2009). Development of an Early Memories of Warmthand Safeness Scale and its relationship to psychopathology. Psychology andPsychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 82(2), 171-184.doi:10.1348/147608308X395213Rosen, C. S., Schwebel, D. C., & Singer, J. L., (1997). Preschoolers' attributions of mentalstates in pretense. Child Development, 68(6), 1133-1142. doi:10.2307/1132296Single, N.A., (1991). Summary of research-based principles of effective teaching. Update:Applications of research in music education, 9(2), 3-10.Smith, J. S., (2006). Examining the long-term impact of achievement loss during the transition tohigh school. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 17(4), 211-221. doi: N.A.All Grade Standards and Sub-standards ReferencesStandard 1: Student Development and DiversityTeachers of grades P–12 have a broad and comprehensive understanding of student development and diversity and demonstrate the ability to provide instruction that is responsive to student differences and that promotes development and learning for all students.1.2 Knowledge of students' developmental characteristics and developmental variation, and the ability to use this knowledge to inform instructional decision making and promote student success.1.3Typical developmental challenges for students from early childhood through grade 12 (e.g., in relation to independence, self-esteem, peer interactions, physical development, self-direction, decision making, goal setting, involvement in risky behaviors, and identity formation) and the ability to help students address these challenges.Standard 2: Learning Processes Teachers of grades P–12 have a broad and comprehensive understanding of learning processes and demonstrate the ability to facilitate student achievement.2.2 Processes by which students construct meaning and acquire skills, including critical- and creative-thinking skills, and the ability to facilitate these processes for students with diverse characteristics and needs2.4Knowledge of the role of positive relationships and supportive interactions as a crucial foundation for working with children, with a focus on children's individual characteristics, needs, and interests.2.8Strategies for engaging students in generate and evaluating new ideas and novel approaches, seeking inventive solutions to problems, and developing original work.Standard 3: Instructional Planning and DeliveryTeachers of grades P–12 have a broad and comprehensive understanding of instructional planning and delivery and demonstrate the ability to plan and deliver standards-based, data-driven differentiated instruction that engages students, makes effective use of contemporary tools and technologies, and helps all students achieve learning goals.3.16Knowledge of factors and situations that tend to promote or diminish student engagement in learning, and the ability to apply skills and strategies for promoting students' active engagement and self-motivation.Standard 5: Learning EnvironmentTeachers of grades P–12 have a broad and comprehensive understanding of student learning environments and demonstrate the ability to establish positive, productive, well-managed, and safe learning environments for all students.5.1 The ability to create safe, healthy, supportive, and inclusive learning environments, including indoor and outdoor environments, that encourage all students' engagement, collaboration, and sense of belonging.5.2The ability to apply skills and strategies for establishing a culture of learning that emphasizes high expectations for all students, promotes self-motivation, and encourages students' sense of responsibility for their own learning.5.5Knowledge of developmentally appropriate classroom management approaches and positive guidance techniques, including relationships between specific practices and student learning, attitudes, and behaviors, and the ability to use this knowledge to create an organized, positive, and productive learning environment that maximizes students' time on task; facilitates learning; and encourages student self-regulation, responsibility, and accountability. ................
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