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LINGUISTICS:

1066 TO PRESENT

Communication Arts 3 College Prep

Joplin High School

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TOPICS OF STUDY

LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

ENGLISH: OLD, MIDDLE, MODERN

AMERICAN ENGLISH

OZARK DIALECT

ACQUIRING LANGUAGE

SOUNDS AND SOUND PRODUCTION

DO ANIMALS HAVE LANGUAGE?

PORTFOLIO

Thanks to Dan Short and his plethora of linguistic sites on the Web.



Thanks to the University of Wisconsin at Madison





Thanks to the Public Broadcasting System

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LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

Seven Characteristics of Language

Use these to decide whether something is a language.

• It can change and adapt as required.

• You can speak to and be understood by others who know that language.

• It relates sounds or gestures to meanings.

• It can negate, ask questions, and refer to the past or future.

• It is acquired without external instruction.

• It is used creatively rather than in response to internal or external stimuli.

• It has symbols that have discrete meanings.

Terms and Definitions

• Linguistics: the science that is concerned with the natures of human languages, their grammars and use

• Alphabet: a series of symbols where each symbol represents a designated sound or gesture

• Arbitrary: in linguistics, it describes the property of language, including sign language, whereby there is no natural or intrinsic relationship between the way a word is pronounced or signed and its meaning. (i.e., If language weren’t arbitrary, every language would have the same words for the same meanings.)

• Grammar: Everything a speaker knows about a language. It includes what the speaker knows about syntax, semantics, and lexicon.

• Orthography: the written form of a language; spelling

Discussion Questions

• How are language and communication different?

• Which came first and why do you think that?

• How did people communicate before language?

• Are grunts language? Is pointing? Are drawings? Why or why not?

• Is ASL a language? Why do you think that?

• Who makes the rules?

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

•Interactional Language is used primarily to establish and maintain social relations. You attend a party and begin “small talk” to those around you. You talk about the weather, sports, etc. These subjects are fairly predictable conversational topics, and their primary purpose is to establish and maintain social bridges and relationships.

•Transactional Language has a much different purpose than interactional language. It is used to transmit knowledge, skills, or information. It is message-oriented because its purpose is to create a change in the listener’s knowledge.

•Direct (intentional) communication deals with meaning -- statements that provide few alternative understandings: “Norm caught a 5-pound black bass.” “Sally lived in Israel for six months.” Direct communication is common and offers few challenges.

•Indirect (inferential) communication provides more alternative understandings. A friend is wearing one black and one brown sock. What are some possible meanings you can ascribe to this observation? Your friend is a sloppy dresser? Your friend is colorblind? Your friend dressed in the dark? Your friend has a pile of dirty clothes and had only two unmatched but clean socks in the dresser drawer? Indirect communication often involves metaphors or idioms. “You’re way off base.” “That assignment is a piece of cake.”

Write an example of each type of language that you have experienced recently.

A FEW WORDS ABOUT WORDS

1. Never miss a good chance to shut up. - Anonymous

2. Drawing on my fine command of language, I said nothing.

- Anonymous

3. Talk is cheap because supply exceeds demand. - Anonymous

4. It’s not what you tell them, it’s what they hear. - Red Auerback

5. Heaven, n: A place where the wicked cease from troubling you with talk of their personal affairs, and the good listen with attention while you expound your own. - Ambrose Bierce

6. Language is the biggest barrier to human progress because language is an encyclopedia of ignorance. Old perceptions are frozen into language and force us to look at the world in an old-fashioned way. - Edward de Bono

7. There are four ways, and only four ways, in which we have contact with the world. We are evaluated and classified by these four contacts: what we do, how we look, what we say, and how we say it. - Dale Carnegie

8. To have another language is to possess a second soul.

- Charlemagne

9. From now on, ending a sentence with a preposition is something up with which I will not put. - Winston Churchill

10. Language is a city to the building of which every human being brought a stone. - Ralph Waldo Emerson

11. Be careful of your thoughts; they may become words at any moment. - Ira Gassen

12. Dance is the hidden language of the soul, of the body.

- Martha Graham

13. Arguments over grammar and style are often as fierce as those over IBM versus Mac, and as fruitless as Coke versus Pepsi and boxers versus briefs. - Jack Lynch

14. Be sincere; be brief; be seated. - Franklin Delano Roosevelt

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

• English is descended from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European Languages.

• By virtue of the prominence of the countries (chiefly U.S. and Britain) who speak it, English is currently the lingua franca.

• Lingua franca refers to the language that is recognized globally and is used for international travel and international commerce.

• Many other countries in the world teach English to all their students as a required subject.

• Before English, French was the lingua franca.

Indo-European Language Tree, Centum



By navigating this website, write the answers to the following questions.

1.How many languages from this branch are extinct?

2.How is it that Latin is technically an extinct language but is still in use?

3.How much of Ireland speaks the Irish Gaelic language?

4.The Hittite language was spoken in what modern country?

5.True or False. Austrians speak Modern High German.

6.Afrikaans is spoken chiefly in what part of Africa?

7.Besides Denmark, Danish is spoken in what country?

8.True or False. The boot heel of Italy speaks Modern Greek.

9.Name three countries that once spoke now-extinct Gothic.

10.True or False. Part of Norway speaks Icelandic.

11.Cornish was spoken only in what country?

12.The origin and spread of Proto-Indo-European languages is either hypothetical or substantiated. Which is it?

13.Spanish is spoken in how many identifiable areas of the world?

14.Which South American country speaks Portuguese?

15.True or False. The three Frisian languages are easily understood by all speakers.

16.Swedish is spoken in what other country’s capital?

17.Norwegian is spoken on what island?

18.Provencal is spoken mostly in the southern region of what country?

19.What entire continent besides North America speaks English?

20.Name the nine languages descended from Latin that are not extinct.

21.Modern Greek descends from what major branch of Proto-Indo-European?

22.Afrikaans, English, Modern High German, and Danish all descend from what main branch of Proto-Indo-European?

23.What major branches of Proto-Indo-European are extinct?

24.Name the path of English beginning with Proto-Indo-European.

25.Is English more like Modern High German or Modern Low German?

Indo-European Language Chart



World Map of IE Languages



The nations surrounded by the red line are Indo-European-speaking nations. Many of the nations were introduced to English when they were British colonies. Some were introduced to the IE family through France or Spain, however. This is an approximate map. There are, of course, indigenous languages such as Native American, Australian aboriginal languages and others. The red border in central Europe excludes Hungary. Finland and Estonia are not IE-speaking languages, although they are surrounded by other countries who are.

1066: THE NORMAN CONQUEST (or why we could be speaking French)

Back in 1066, the Norman French successfully invaded England. From that time until the Normans were defeated a few hundred years later, the aristocratic class in England spoke French. The working class, however, stuck with English. Many, many new words were formed at that time, a mix between French and English. Many of our words today came from that mixing and adapting of languages. 1066 is the unofficial end of Old English and the beginning of Middle English.

TIMELINE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE



The earliest known residents of the British Isles were the Celts who spoke Celtic languages -- a separate branch of the Indo-European language family tree. Over the centuries the British Isles were invaded and conquered by various people, who brought their languages and customs with them as they settled in their new lives. There is now very little Celtic influence left in English. The earliest time when we can say that English was spoken was in the 5th century CE (common era - a politically-correct term used to replace AD).

FYI, “England” from “Enga Land” from “Angle Land” (Land of the Angles, a people of northern Germany). Their name lives on in the district of England named East Anglia and also in the Anglican Church.

DICTIONARIES

There are many different types of dictionaries. The ones we are most familiar with give us information about particular words. Reading a dictionary entry gives us:

•Etymology

•Pronunciation

•Definitions

•Part(s) of speech

•Common usage

•Type of word

Oxford English Dictionary entries are somewhat different. Besides all the above information, the OED gives the complete history of the word all the way back to its first recorded use.

----------- BE A LINGUIST ----------

•Choose a word. This word must be challenging and not an everyday word.

•Your task is to find that word in the OED, and write a short report (one page or less) about the word’s meanings and all its possible origins. Your report will be typed and double-spaced, 12 point.

•Your word should be interesting and appropriate.

•You will present this to the class.

The word I chose is _________________________________________________

OED Volume ________________________ Page Number(s)_________________

OLD, MIDDLE, and MODERN ENGLISH

All dates of these periods of the English language are approximate and fluid.

Old English was spoken from about the mid-fifth century to about the mid-twelfth century.

Middle English was spoken from about 1066 to the mid-to-late fifteenth century.

Modern English is continually changing. Thousands of new words are added to dictionaries every year, and many others are dropped or termed as “archaic”.

Why Does Language Change?

There are no exact times for the end of one era of English and the beginning of another. The language gradually melded from one to the next. People didn’t wake up on New Year’s Day on year 1200 and start speaking Middle English. Let’s take William Shakespeare as an example. He lived during the infancy of Modern English, and that is one thing that makes his works sometimes difficult for us understand: he is using mostly Modern English, but there is enough Middle English leftover in his word endings and sentence constructions that it sometimes throws us off. But Shakespeare didn’t sit around and wait for the language to change. He invented thousands of new words, which he used in his plays.

What shapes the change of one language period to another? The speakers do. New words are coined. New inventions spark new vocabulary. New people invade your country and take over. People do new things; new stuff happens. Some changes are subtle, some aren’t.

----------- BE A GRAMMARIAN ----------

What new words do you think have entered the language in the last 5 years? How have they entered the language?

In your group, choose 10 words and explain how they originated and what prompted them to be included in American English.

----------- BE A LINGUIST ----------

Individually and using Google,

• Image search “Old English Manuscripts”

Print the best example. Label it.

• Image search “Middle English Manuscripts”

Print the best example. Label it.

• Image search “Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales”

Print the best example of writing and your favorite art work. Label them.

• Image search “Modern English Manuscripts” and find a modern translation alongside an older English type of manuscript. Print and label it.

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Terms and Definitions

IDIOLECT – The unique characteristics of an individual speaker

DIALECT – Mutually intelligible variety of a language that differs in systematic ways from other varieties

DIALECT AREA – A geographic area defined by the predominant use of a particular variety of language

DIALECT LEVELING – Movement toward greater uniformity or decrease in variations among dialects; regularization of dialects

COMMUNICATIVE ISOLATION – Describes limited or no contact between speakers of the same language

ACCENT - Characteristic of speech that conveys information about a person’s dialect; characteristic of the speech of someone who is not a native speaker

Idiolect or Dialect?

•English speakers can talk and be understood by other English speakers, yet no two speak exactly alike. Each has their own IDIOLECT.

•Differences might be based on age, sex, size, speech rates, emotional state, state of health, or whether or not English is a first language (L1).

•A dialect is not an inferior or degraded form of a language. In fact, a language is a collection of dialects.

How do dialects develop?

•Dialects develop when people who all speak one language are separated geographically or socially.

•Dialects develop when the linguistic changes that occur in one area do not necessarily spread to another.

•Dialects occur within a group, linguistic changes occur, and those changes spread and are then learned by the next generation.

•When a physical or social barrier exists – mountain, river, ocean, political, racial, or religious – linguistic changes do not spread easily and dialect differences are reinforced.

•A change that occurs in one region and fails to spread to another region gives rise to REGIONAL DIALECT. Each regional dialect has its own “character” or “flavor”.

•Changes in grammar take place gradually and spread slowly. Change takes place over several generations of speakers.

•Dialect differences tend to increase proportionately to the degree of COMMUNICATIVE ISOLATION. Today, even far-flung groups are more likely to communicate than earlier in history.

Podcast: American Dialects

Dialects the American way

By the time of the American Revolution, there were three main dialect areas in the Colonies: Northern dialect, spoken in New England and around the Hudson River; Midland dialect, spoken in Pennsylvania; and Southern dialect, spoken in areas south.

The characteristic dropped r (car – cah; farm – fahm) was carried into these three dialect regions and remains today in Boston, New York, and Savannah. These regions maintained close ties to Southern England, who also had the dropped r in their dialect.

As settlers came from Northern England, where they did not drop their r’s, and as westward expansion began in the United States, the dialects merged and DIALECT LEVELING occurred in the West. More waves of immigrants brought non-English speaking groups to the United States who settled in various parts of the country. Their native languages affected the dialect in that region.

Dialect? Language?

“A language is a dialect with an army and a navy.” Max Weinrich

The rule of thumb is that when dialects become mutually unintelligible, that is, when the speakers of one dialect group can no longer understand the speakers of another dialect group, these dialects become different languages.

Mutually unintelligible is not easy to characterize.

---Danes (Danish), Norwegians (Norwegian) and Swedes (Swedish) can all speak and be understood, although their languages have different grammatical structures and are in different countries.

---Hindi (India) and Urdu (Pakistan) are about as different as British English and American English.

---On the other hand, China’s two mutually-unintelligible main languages, Mandarin and Cantonese, are often referred to as dialects since they are spoken in the same country and share an alphabet.

---How about Cajun?

U.S. Dialect Regions



Banned Languages: You Can’t Say That!

Because of the belief that some languages are better or more desirable than others, from time to time languages have been banned.

Cajun English and French were banned in Louisiana by practice until the 1980’s. People report being punished in school for using these languages.

For many years, American Indian languages were banned in federal and state schools on reservations.

A ban on speaking Korean in Korea was imposed by the Japanese during their occupation of Korea between 1910 and 1945.

As recently as 2001, the New York Times reported that Singapore wanted its citizens to speak English, not Singlish, a form of English with elements of Malay, Tamil, Mandarin Chinese and other Chinese dialects.

A number of years ago in France, where an academy of scholars determined what constitutes the “official French language”, they enacted a law forbidding the use of Franglais (combination of French and English).

Revived Languages: Oh, Yes I Can!

Some languages have come back from the dead or near-dead.

Quebec speaks almost entirely French although the rest of Canada speaks English.

Gaelic, or Irish, is making a comeback in hundreds of schools in Ireland and Northern Ireland after being nearly gone from regular use.

The Academy of the Hebrew Language in Israel undertook the most massive revival of a language ever in history. They sought to resuscitate an ancient written language to serve the daily everyday needs of the people. Twenty-three lexicologists worked with the Bible and the Talmud to add new words to the language.

Which word is correct?

Regional dialects may differ in the words people use for the same object, as illustrated by the following.

Do you call it a pail or a bucket? Do you draw water from a faucet or a spigot? Do you pull down the blinds, the shades, or the curtains when it gets dark? Do you wheel the baby, or do you ride it or roll it? Is it a baby carriage, a buggy, a pram, a coach, or a cab?

People take a lift to the first floor in England, but an elevator to the second floor in the United States. They get five gallons of petrol (not gas) in London; in Britain, a public school is “private” (you have to pay), and if a student showed up there wearing pants instead of trousers he would be sent home to get dressed.

If you ask for a tonic in Boston you will get a drink called soda or soda-pop in Los Angeles. A freeway in Los Angeles is a thruway in New York, a parkway in New Jersey, a motorway in England, and an expressway or turnpike in other dialect areas.

Language, like an alphabet, is ARBITRARY.

Pidgin and Creole

When people from different-speaking countries want to trade and need to communicate, they use elements of both languages and create a PIDGIN language, sometimes called a trade language.

Usually, a pidgin language takes on the grammatical rules of one or the other of the two languages.

Although pidgin languages are used to communicate, they are generally not good at expressing fine distinctions of meaning:

“I include pidgin English … even though I am referred to in that splendid language as ‘Fella belong Mrs. Queen’.” – Prince Philip, husband of Queen Elizabeth II

When a pidgin language is adopted by a community, forms its own lexicon, grammatical structures and rules, and children learn it as their first language, it is called a CREOLE language.

----------- BE A GRAMMARIAN ----------

Follow the link below where you will find a website that has several articles about dialects and language. Print in the library if you want, but complete the assignment as homework.

1.Choose one article. Print it if you need to.

2.Identify the main purpose of the article.

3.Identify all the main points of the article.

pile your answers in a logical, easy-to-read format.

s

click on “Detailed Index”

We will cover all the aspects learning about DARE: history of DARE, population-adjusted maps, Arthur the Rat, sample entry, FAQ, quizzes, podcasts, articles about dictionaries and language.



----------- BE A LINGUIST ----------

DARE report

A portion of the Dictionary of Regional American English (DARE) is online. The majority of the dictionary is only available in print. Our library does not have a DARE.

You will be given a word (from the 100) that can be researched online. Your task is to discover and report on the word’s meaning and its origin(s). Tell the first known origin and the current definition, including dialect region(s) involved. Include pertinent information or interesting stories about the word. Present your material in a logical, understandable manner.



OZARK DIALECT

• Who was Vance Randolph, and why did he care?

• Communicative Isolation is the key to understanding the development of Ozark dialect.

• Good luck, bad luck omens

• Superstitions

• Down in the Holler

• “The Story of English” Gallah

Sophomores, Shakespeare would be proud

By Brenda White

After a spate of deliberately bad grammar to get my attention (and it did!), my sophomores mused that they would “talk like hicks” until the year was over just for fun. As an English teacher, you might think I would cringe at that proposition, but I saw it as an opportunity to share with them the legacy of their “hick” speech. They had never heard the story of how Ozarkians came to speak one of the most unique dialects in the world; I took the opportunity, the “teachable moment”, to share with them their – and your – linguistic heritage.

Ozark folks have always been hardy and hard-working. Our Appalachian forefathers were the same way. Their forefathers, pioneers from Shakespeare’s England, traveled to Appalachia in the New World and brought along their beautiful language to be practiced by generation upon generation of hillfolk.

Carving a life in those Appalachian hills meant hardly ever coming into contact with outsiders. Settlers grew their own food, raised their own livestock, and communed with nature and close neighbors. While the transplanted Englanders and their offspring minded their own business up in the hills, the world – and the language – changed. As languages will, given time, English evolved and became modernized, Americanized, homogenized.

Several factors urged the Appalachian folk to move west: military men were given tracts of land in the new West; moonshine makers sought to avoid the increasing presence of revenuers; and, new generations of pioneers wanted to strike out for as-yet untamed territory.

Those pioneer sons and daughters eventually settled in an area very similar to their Appalachian homeland: the Ozarks. Life was hard here, as it had been there. They were as isolated here as in the Tennessee hills. And their beautiful Shakespeare-esque language was once again preserved by the difficulty of traversing the Ozark hills and rocky roads.

America was becoming a melting pot; influences and imaginations from all over the world were finding their way inside her borders. Roads were being built, and new methods of transportation made it easier to travel from place to place.

But the hillfolk liked their way of life, and they stubbornly resisted change. They clung to their traditions. They nurtured their superstitions. They continued to speak a language that would have been at home with Christopher Marlowe or Dr. Johnson.

Ultimately, however, progress reared its head and charged up the hills with radio, then television, then satellite communication strapped on its back, trailing behind it paved roads, bridges and highways.

Vance Randolph, a chronicler of Ozark traditions and speech who transplanted himself into the heart of the Ozarks at a young age to preserve a legacy which we should embrace instead of shun, once wrote: “Ozarkians are the most deliberately unprogressive people in the world.”

I suppose he was right; and that tradition of deliberate unprogressiveness remains in full blossom with some people I know. The language tradition, however, is losing itself via the Information Superhighway, prime time television, and interstate highways. We are all connected now. Our speech is melding, losing its individuality and distinctiveness.

What we call hick speech is really the last remaining vestige of one of the most unique dialects in the world – Shakespearean English spoken in the Ozark hills.

So, I tell my sophomores, it’s a privilege to know, understand, and speak the language of our forefathers and their forefathers – and Shakespeare would be proud.

----------- BE A LINGUIST ----------

•In pairs, compile a list of Ozark words that you can identify.

•Use family members, friends, others who might know about how it “used to sound around here.”

•Use only one of the same constructions to make your words; for instance, only use one instance of a dropped g such as in fixin’ or goin’.

•Note the common modern word that is now used in its place, and tell whether it has changed in meaning.

•Present in an informative, understandable format. Each person needs his or her own copy.

ACQUIRING LANGUAGE

•COOING: Appears about 6 months or so. All infants coo using all the sounds from every language. Even congenitally deaf children coo.

•BABBLING: Appears around 9-10 months. Infants are starting to selectively use the sounds from their native language

•HOLOPHRASES: One-word utterances. At around 12 months, children start using words.

•TELEGRAPHIC SPEECH: Children start making multi-word utterances that lack function words at about 2 years of age.

•NORMAL SPEECH: By about 5 or 6 years of age, children have almost normal speech.

Theories of Language Acquisition

Hypothesis Theory:

• As children are exposed to language, they form hypotheses. Then, they modify language appropriately.

Imitation and Modeling Theory:

• Children will sound like the adults around them. They will share the same accents and idioms. Adults use child-directed speech to make themselves understood to children. Motherese is child-directed speech.

Nature v Nurture: NATURE

• Humans perceive speech sounds better than other sounds.

•Congenitally deaf children learn sign language at about the same rate that other children learn spoken language, and they go through roughly the same stages.

•Parts of the brain seem to be specialized for language processing.

•Our larynx seems to have no other purpose except to facilitate speech.

Nature v. Nurture: NURTURE

Critical Period Hypothesis

The Critical Period Hypothesis explains the Nurture argument.

• Case studies have indicated that if children are not exposed to language by their early teens, they will never be able to fully learn it.

• Much of this information refers to children who were born deaf to hearing parents who were not aware the child was deaf.

• Children exposed to ASL before age 6 did much better with complex signs than those not exposed until after age 12.

Second Language Acquisition

•Children exposed to a new language before the age of 3 will be able to learn that language and speak without an accent. However, if a person learns the new language later, he or she can learn to speak it, but with an accent.

•There’s something about puberty, researchers think, that changes the way a person acquires a new language.

Noam Chomsky, LAD, and Universal Grammar

•Born in 1928, Noam Chomsky is a 30-year linguistics professor at MIT and a widely-respected linguistic scholar and author. He is still alive.

•He says that humans are hard-wired for language. He also says that humans have in their brains a built-in system called a Language Acquisition Device to facilitate their learning of language. Within this LAD is all the information that is common to all languages in the world, and when children learn a language they only learn how to speak the specific words; they already innately know the constructions.

NOTE: PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scans confirm the presence of an area in the brain that appears to govern language.

• To support his hard-wired theory, Chomsky says that it is impossible for humans to acquire language through imitation or through any other known method other than an innate ability. Chomsky developed this theory that includes Universal Grammar.

• Universal Grammar states that every language has common properties, e.g., nouns, verbs, a way to modify, a way to ask a question or negate. Those qualities, he says, are innate to all humans and play a key role in language acquisition.

----------- BE A LINGUIST ----------

As a linguist, you need to test babies and children 2 months to 3 years to see how many words they recognize.

Assume they have hearing.

1. Your task is to first make a list of at least 30 words you want to test for.

2. Next, make a device and/or a design a procedure to test for word recognition. Design a chart to record results.

3. Chart your results using two or more hypothetical or real children.

4. Describe the test, your results, identify the acquisition stage(s), and defend your testing method in a summary report. Include actual test results.

SOUNDS AND SOUND PRODUCTION

•The shape of your mouth, whether or not you have all your teeth (especially front ones) or whether you have nasal congestion all affect the way you speak. Every structure in your mouth as well as some in your throat govern your speech.

•All those various sounds that you make have been isolated, and an alphabet based on those sounds has been developed called the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

All sounds are produced in your head -- specifically your mouth, throat, and nasal cavity.

[pic]

IPA -- The International Phonetic Alphabet is a set of symbols that represent sounds produced in the English language. Other sounds are produced in other languages which are not represented here.



Brain image 2002

[pic]

----------- BE A LINGUIST ----------

Using the IPA, write your name, the name of your favorite song or band, and a sentence about yourself. Remember, use only IPA symbols in your work.

Leave room for transcription. Trade with a person across the room and transcribe using the IPA symbols.

DO ANIMALS HAVE LANGUAGE?

Again, the Seven Characteristics of Language:

Use these to decide whether something is a language.

• It can change and adapt as required.

• You can speak to and be understood by others who know that language.

• It relates sounds or gestures to meanings.

• It can negate, ask questions, and refer to the past or future.

• It is acquired without external instruction.

• It is used creatively rather than in response to internal or external stimuli.

• It has symbols that have discrete meanings.

----------- BE A LINGUIST ----------

Read what linguists and researchers had to say about language in animals using the links below. Then visit the website below and see what researchers are doing today in this interesting field. You decide: Do animals have the capacity for language? Why or why not? Write a paper that explains your considered opinion, and give support for your conclusions.

What do linguists and new research say?





language / language and animals

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