Chapter 25



Chapter 25

Metabolism

Outline and Objectives

Introduction

1. Generalize the way in which nutrients are processed through the three major metabolic fates in order to perform various energetic and structural functions in the body.

Metabolic Reactions

2. Define metabolism in terms of the different types of compartmentalized chemical reactions that constantly renew tissues from the molecules on up.

Catabolism and Anabolism

3. Describe catabolic and anabolic reactions with respect to energy availability when the reaction occurs.

Coupling of Catabolism and Anabolism by ATP

4. Examine the temporary storage of energy in the phosphate bond of ATP and the efficiency of its transfer to other bonds or performance of enzymatic reactions.

Energy Transfer

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

5. Define oxidation and reduction.

6. Give examples of the transfer of electrons from a molecule through the extraction of hydrogen atom from an oxidized molecule, and then bonding of the hydrogen to a reduced molecule.

7. Discuss how the coenzymes NAD and FAD perform the oxidation-reduction reactions that capture the energy held by the electron of the H (from H-bonds in food molecules), which can then be used by the oxidative-phosphorylation system to make ATP.

Generation of ATP

8. Describe the three types of phosphorylation reactions in which kinase enzymes form a high energy phosphate bond to make ATP.

Carbohydrate Metabolism

9. Discuss the processes in the path of monosaccharide absorption from the intestines to their conversion to glucose in the liver.

Fate of Carbohydrates

10. Describe the fates of carbohydrates in the body depending upon the energy needs of cells.

Glucose Movement into Cells

11. Describe the controlled, facilitated entry of glucose into different cell types, and the means to capture and/or release it from specific cells.

Glucose Catabolism

12. Describe the four sets of reactions in cellular respiration.

Glycolysis

13. Describe the ten steps of glycolysis, noting the steps directly involved in producing ATP.

Fate of Pyruvic Acid

14. Discuss the fate of pyruvic acid based on oxygen availability.

Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A

15. Discuss the steps in the formation of acetyl coenzyme A.

Krebs Cycle

16. Discuss the nine reactions that constitute the Krebs cycle and why these reactions are considered to constitute a cycle.

17. Distinguish between the decarboxylation and oxidation-reduction reactions that occur in the cycle.

Electron Transport Chain

18. Describe the events of chemiosmosis.

19. Identify several types of molecules and atoms that serve as electron carriers.

20. Discuss the steps in electron transport and chemiosmotic generation of ATP.

Summary of Aerobic Cellular Respiration

21. Look at the overall equation of glucose oxidation to carbon dioxide, water, and ATP, and point out the number of ATP's generated in each of the four stages of cellular respiration.

22. Discuss the practice of carbohydrate loading.

Glucose Anabolism

23. Note the general types of anabolic reactions that involve glucose.

Glucose Storage: Glycogenesis

24. Discuss how glucose is liked into glycogen, where glycogen is stored, in what circumstances, and under control of what hormone.

Glucose Release: Glycogenolysis

25. Discuss the steps by which hepatocytes convert glycogen back into glucose units to provide energy for the body, principally the brain.

26. Discuss the form by which glucose is available from muscles for use by other areas of the body.

Formation of Glucose from Proteins and Fats: Gluconeogenesis

27. Discuss metabolic paths through which specific parts of amino acids and fatty acids are transformed into glucose.

Lipid Metabolism

Transport of Lipids by Lipoproteins

28. Explain the formation and removal of chylomicrons from blood.

29. Discuss how lipids are transported in blood.

Blood Cholesterol

30. Discuss the sources of cholesterol and indicate the concentrations that are considered as potential problems for coronary artery disease.

Fate of Lipids

31. Discuss the fate of lipids in the body.

Triglyceride Storage

32. Specify the means by which lipids are delivered to adipose cells and the distribution of dynamic adipose storage.

Lipid Catabolism: Lipolysis

33. Describe how lipolysis breaks down the triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids for release from adipose cells and then catabolizes them via oxidation to produce twice as much energy per gram as glucose.

34. Explain where glycerol enters the gluconeogenic pathway to produce glucose or the glycolytic path to make energy or ketone bodies.

35. Explain the central role of acetyl CoA in beta oxidation and synthesis of ketone bodies.

36. Describe how ketone bodies are used for energy metabolism during starvation and the effect on blood pH.

37. Describe the way molecules of glycolysis and acetyl CoA are used to construct triglycerides.

38. Explain the clinical significance of ketosis.

Protein Metabolism

39. Trace the general path of amino acid absorption and use by the liver and the body as a whole.

Fate of Protiens.

40. Discuss the fate of proteins in the body.

Protein Catabolism

41. Discuss the constant turnover of proteins and the route through which amino acids enter the metabolic pathways to become either glucose, fatty acids, or energy for ATP.

Protein Anabolism

42. Review the process of protein synthesis under the influence of pertinent hormones and different conditions.

Key Molecules at Metabolic Crossroads

43. Identify the three key molecules in metabolism.

Glucose-6-Phosphate

44. Discuss the four major directions of metabolic use of glucose-6-phosphate.

Pyruvic Acid

45. Discuss the anaerobic and aerobic fates of pyruvic acid.

Acetyl Coenzyme A

46. Describe the central role of acetyl CoA in the metabolism and conversion of glucose, amino acids, and lipids.

METABOLIC ADAPTATIONS

47. Distinguish between the major characters of the absorptive and postabsorptive state in term of the conditions that establish the states and hormones that control the associated activities.

Metabolism During the Absorptive State

48. List the two major hallmarks of the absorptive state.

Absorptive State Reactions

49. Discuss the metabolic reactions that occur for glucose, amino acids, and lipids that predominate during the absorptive state.

Regulation of Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State

50. Describe how metabolism during the absorptive state is regulated.

Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State

51. Specify the primary goal of energy conservation metabolism during the postabsorptive state.

Postabsorptive State Reactions

52. Describe the reactions of the postabsorptive state.

Regulation of Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State

53. Describe how metabolism during the postabsorptive state is regulated.

Metabolism During Fasting and Starvation

54. Discuss the significance of ketogenesis during fasting and starvation and the chemical reactions that occur during these periods.

55. Discuss the absorption of alcohol in the body and its effect on body function.

Heat and Energy Balance

56. Discuss the concept of body temperature maintenance as a balance between the rate of heat production, from all the chemical reactions in the body, and the rate of heat loss through several controlled avenues.

Metabolic Rate

57. Define metabolic rate and explain several factors that affect metabolic rate.

Body Temperature Homeostasis

58. Discuss the effect on cell function and body temperature when heat production and loss are not in balance.

Heat Production

59. Discuss the major factors that influence metabolic rate and indicate how they are related via a negative feedback system that controls vascular, autonomic, muscular, and hormonal heat production mechanisms.

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

60. State the ways that heat is lost from the body and how these are controlled by heat conservation mechanisms.

Hypothalamic Thermostat

61. Discuss the role of the hypothalamus in maintaining and regulating body temperature.

Thermoregulation

62. Discuss how body temperature is regulated.

Regulation of Food Intake

63. Discuss the means by which body composition and food intake are regulated through actions of the hypothalmic centers.

Nutrition

64. Identify the nutrients needed in the body.

Guidelines for Healthy Eating

65. Discuss the seven guidelines for healthy eating.

Minerals

66. Discuss the importance of minerals in the body.

Vitamins

67. Discuss the importance of vitamins in the body.

68. Discuss the benefits of and problems associated with vitamin and mineral supplementation.

Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalance

69. Discuss body temperature abnormalities, obesity and malnutrition.

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