Chapter 12



Chapter 12The Lymphatic System and Body DefensesPart I: The Lymphatic SystemConsists of two semi-independent parts:Lymphatic ____________________________Lymphoid ____________________________ and ____________________________Lymphatic system functions____________________________escaped fluids from the ____________________________system back to the bloodPlays essential roles in body ____________________________and ____________________________to diseaseNOTES:Lymphatic VesselsLymph consists of excess ____________________________ and ____________________________ carried by lymphatic vesselsIf fluids are not picked up, ____________________________occurs as fluid accumulates in tissuesLymphatic vessels (lymphatics) pick up excess fluid (lymph) and return it to the bloodLymphatic vessels (lymphatics)Form a ____________________________ system Lymph flows _________________________ toward the _______________________Lymph ____________________________Weave between tissue cells and blood capillaries Walls overlap to form flaplike minivalvesFluid leaks into lymph capillaries____________________________are anchored to connective tissue by ____________________________Higher pressure on the inside closes minivalvesFluid is forced along the vesselLymphatic collecting vesselsCollect lymph from ____________________________Carry lymph to and away from ____________________________Return fluid to circulatory veins near the heart____________________________ duct drains the lymph from the right arm and the right side of the head and thorax____________________________ drains lymph from rest of bodyLymphatic vessels are similar to veins of the cardiovascular systemThin-walledLarger vessels have ____________________________Low-pressure, ____________________________systemLymph ____________________________is aided by:Milking action of ____________________________Pressure changes in thorax during breathingSmooth muscle in walls of lymphaticsNOTES:Lymph NodesLymph nodes filter lymph before it is returned to the bloodHarmful materials that are filtered________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Defense cells within lymph nodes____________________________—engulf and destroy bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances in lymph____________________________—respond to foreign substances in lymphMost ____________________________ are kidney-shaped, less than 1 inch long, and buried in connective tissueSurrounded by a capsuleDivided into compartments by ________________________________________________________ (outer part)Contains follicles—collections of ____________________________Germinal centers enlarge when ____________________________are released by plasma cells____________________________ (inner part)Contains phagocytic macrophagesFlow of lymph through ____________________________Lymph enters the convex side through afferent lymphatic vesselsLymph flows through a number of sinuses inside the nodeLymph exits through efferent lymphatic vesselsBecause there are fewer efferent than afferent vessels, flow is slowedNOTES:Other Lymphoid OrgansSeveral other lymphoid organs contribute to lymphatic function (in addition to the lymph nodes)____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________SpleenLocated on the left side of the abdomen____________________________and ____________________________blood of bacteria, viruses, debrisProvides a site for lymphocyte ____________________________and ____________________________surveillance____________________________worn-out blood cellsForms blood cells in the ____________________________Acts as a ____________________________ThymusFound ____________________________the heartFunctions at peak levels only during ____________________________TonsilsSmall masses of ____________________________ deep to the mucosa surrounding the pharynx (throat)Trap and remove ____________________________and other foreign ____________________________Tonsillitis results when the tonsils become ____________________________with bacteriaPeyer’s patchesFound in the wall of the ____________________________Similar lymphoid follicles are found in the ________________________________________________________capture and destroy bacteria in the intestineMucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)Includes:Peyer’s patchesTonsilsAppendixActs as a sentinel to protect ____________________________and ____________________________tractsNOTES:Part II: Body DefensesTwo mechanisms that make up the immune system defend us from foreign materials____________________________ (nonspecific) defense system____________________________ (specific) defense system____________________________—specific resistance to diseaseImmune system is a ____________________________system rather than an organ system in an anatomical senseNOTES:Internal Defenses: Cells and ChemicalsCells and chemicals provide a ____________________________of defense Natural killer cells and phagocytesInflammatory responseChemicals that kill pathogensFever____________________________ (NK) cellsLyse (burst) and kill cancer cells, virus-infected cellsRelease chemicals called ____________________________and ____________________________to degrade target cell contents____________________________responseTriggered when body tissues are injuredFour most common indicators (cardinal signs) of acute inflammation________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ (edema)Damaged cells release inflammatory chemicals ________________________________________________________These chemicals cause:Blood vessels to ____________________________Capillaries to become ____________________________Phagocytes and white blood cells to move into the area (called positive chemotaxis)Functions of the inflammatory response Prevents spread of damaging agentsDisposes of cell debris and pathogens through ____________________________Sets the stage for repair____________________________of the inflammatory responseNeutrophils migrate to the area of inflammation by rolling along the vessel wall (following the scent of chemicals from inflammation)Neutrophils squeeze through the capillary walls by diapedesis to sites of inflammationNeutrophils gather in the precise site of tissue injury (positive chemotaxis) and consume any foreign material present____________________________Cells such as ____________________________and ____________________________engulf foreign material by phagocytosisThe phagocytic vesicle is fused with a lysosome, and enzymes digest the cell’s contentsFeverAbnormally high body temperature is a systemic response to invasion by microorganisms____________________________regulates body temperature at 37?C (____________________________)The hypothalamus thermostat can be reset higher by ____________________________ (secreted by white blood cells)____________________________ inhibit the release of iron and zinc (needed by bacteria) from the liver and spleenFever also increases the speed of ____________________________processesNOTES:AntigensAntigens are any substance capable of exciting the immune system and provoking an immune responseExamples of common ____________________________antigensForeign proteins provoke the strongest responseNucleic acidsLarge carbohydratesSome lipidsPollen grainsMicroorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses)Self-antigens Human cells have many protein and carbohydrate moleculesSelf-antigens ____________________________ trigger an immune response in usThe presence of our cells in another person’s body can trigger an immune response because they are ____________________________Restricts donors for ________________________________________________________, or incomplete antigens, are not antigenic by themselvesWhen they link up with our own proteins, the immune system may recognize the combination as foreign and respond with an attackFound in __________________________________________________________________________________NOTES:Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response ____________________________with specific receptors bind to a specific antigenThe binding event sensitizes, or activates, the lymphocyte to undergo clonal selectionA large number of clones is produced (____________________________)Most of the B cell clone members (descendants) become plasma cellsProduce ____________________________to destroy ____________________________Activity lasts for 4 or 5 daysPlasma cells begin to dieSome B cells become long-lived memory cells capable of mounting a rapid attack against the same antigen in subsequent meetings (____________________________________________)These cells provide immunological memory____________________________immunityOccurs when B cells encounter antigens and produce antibodiesActive immunity can be:Naturally acquired during bacterial and viral infectionsArtificially acquired from vaccines____________________________immunity Occurs when antibodies are obtained from someone else____________________________from a mother to her fetus or in the breast milk____________________________ from immune serum or gamma globulin (donated antibodies)Immunological memory does not occurProtection is ____________________________ (2–3 weeks)____________________________ antibodies Antibodies prepared for clinical testing for diagnostic servicesProduced from descendants of a single cell lineExhibit specificity for only one antigenExamples of uses for monoclonal antibodiesCancer treatmentDiagnosis of pregnancyTreatment after exposure to hepatitis and rabies____________________________ (immunoglobulins, Igs)Constitute gamma globulin part of blood proteinsSoluble proteins secreted by activated B cells (plasma cells)Formed in response to a huge number of antigensAntibody ____________________________Four polypeptide chains, two heavy and two light, linked by disulfide bonds to form a ______________________________________________Each polypeptide chain has a variable (V) region and a constant (C) region____________________________regions form antigen-binding sites, one on each arm of the T or Y ____________________________regions determine the type of antibody formed (antibody class)Antibody classes Antibodies of each class have slightly different roles and differ structurally and functionallyFive major immunoglobulin classes (MADGE)____________________________—can fix complement____________________________—found mainly in secretions, such as mucus or tears____________________________—important in activation of B cell____________________________—can cross the placental barrier and fix complement; most abundant antibody in plasma____________________________—involved in allergiesAntibody functionAntibodies inactivate antigens in a number of ways____________________________: chief antibody ammunition used against cellular antigens____________________________: antibodies bind to specific sites on bacterial exotoxins or on viruses that can cause cell injury____________________________: antibody-antigen reaction that causes clumping of cells____________________________: cross-linking reaction in which antigen-antibody complex settles out of solutionNOTES:BloodBlood transports everything that must be carried from one place to another, such as:________________________________________________________________________________________________________________NOTES:Components of BloodBlood is the only ____________________________, a type of connective tissue, in the human bodyComponents of blood____________________________ (living cells)____________________________ (nonliving fluid matrix)When blood is separated:____________________________sink to the ____________________________ (45 percent of blood, a percentage known as the ____________________________)____________________________contains leukocytes and platelets (less than 1 percent of blood)Buffy coat is a thin, whitish layer between the erythrocytes and plasma____________________________rises to the top (55 percent of blood)NOTES:Physical Characteristics and Volume____________________________Sticky, opaque fluidHeavier and thicker than waterColor rangeOxygen-rich blood is ____________________________Oxygen-poor blood is ____________________________Metallic, salty tasteBlood pH is slightly alkaline, between ____________________________Blood temperature is slightly ____________________________than body temperature, at 38?C or 100.4?FBlood volumeAbout ____________________________________, of blood are found in a healthy adultBlood makes up ____________________________of body weightNOTES:Plasma____________________________percent waterStraw-colored fluidIncludes many dissolved substances________________________________________________________ (electrolytes)____________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________Most abundant solutes in plasmaMost are made by the ____________________________Include:____________________________—an important blood buffer and contributes to osmotic pressure____________________________—help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured____________________________—help protect the body from pathogens____________________________varies as cells exchange substances with the blood ____________________________makes more proteins when levels drop____________________________and ____________________________systems restore blood pH to normal when blood becomes too acidic or alkalinePlasma helps distribute ____________________________NOTES:Formed Elements____________________________ Red blood cells (RBCs)____________________________ White blood cells (WBCs)____________________________ Cell fragmentsErythrocytes (red blood cells, or RBCs)Main function is to carry ____________________________RBCs differ from other blood cells______________________ (no nucleus)Contain few organelles; lack mitochondriaEssentially bags of hemoglobin (Hb)Shaped like ____________________________ discsNormal count is ____________________________per cubic millimeter (mm3) of bloodHemoglobin is an ____________________________proteinBinds oxygenEach hemoglobin molecule can bind ____________________________moleculesEach erythrocyte has ____________________________hemoglobin moleculesNormal blood contains 12–18 g of hemoglobin per 100 milliliters (ml) of blood____________________________ (white blood cells, or WBCs)Crucial in body’s defense against disease_____________________________, with nucleus and organellesAble to move into and out of blood vessels (diapedesis)Respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues (known as positive chemotaxis)Move by ___________________________ motion4,800 to 10,800 WBCs per mm3 of bloodTypes of leukocytes____________________________Granules in their cytoplasm can be stainedPossess lobed nucleiInclude _____________________, ______________________, and _________________________________________________Lack visible cytoplasmic granulesNuclei are spherical, oval, or kidney-shapedInclude _______________________ and _______________________List of the WBCs, from most to least abundant_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________NeutrophilsMost ____________________________ WBCMultilobed nucleusCytoplasm stains pink and contains fine granulesFunction as ____________________________at active sites of infection Numbers increase during infection3,000–7,000 neutrophils per mm3 of blood (40–70 percent of WBCs)____________________________Nucleus stains blue-redBrick-red cytoplasmic granulesFunction is to kill parasitic worms and play a role in allergy attacks100–400 eosinophils per mm3 of blood (1–4 percent of WBCs)____________________________Rarest of the WBCsLarge histamine-containing granules that stain dark blueContain heparin (anticoagulant)20–50 basophils per mm3 of blood (0–1 percent of WBCs)________________________________________________________Large, dark purple nucleusSlightly ____________________________ than RBCsReside in lymphatic tissues Play a role in immune response1,500–3,000 lymphocytes per mm3 of blood (20–45 percent of WBCs)___________________________sLargest of the white blood cellsDistinctive U- or kidney-shaped nucleus Function as ____________________________ when they migrate into tissuesImportant in fighting chronic infection100–700 monocytes per mm3 of blood (4–8 percent of WBCs)____________________________Fragments of megakaryocytes (multinucleate cells)Needed for the ____________________________Normal platelet count is 300,000 platelets per mm3 of bloodNOTES:Hematopoiesis (Blood Cell Formation)____________________________ is the process of blood cell formationOccurs in ____________________________ (myeloid tissue)All blood cells are derived from a common stem cell (hemocytoblast)____________________________form two types of descendants____________________________ stem cell, which produces lymphocytes____________________________ stem cell, which can produce all other formed elementsFormation of Red Blood CellsSince RBCs are anucleate, they are unable to divide, grow, or synthesize proteinsRBCs wear out in ____________________________daysWhen worn out, RBCs are eliminated by ____________________________ in the spleen or liverLost cells are replaced by division of ____________________________in the red bone marrowRate of RBC production is controlled by a hormone called ________________________________________________________produce most erythropoietin as a response to reduced oxygen levels in the blood____________________________is maintained by negative feedback from ____________________________levelsNOTES:Formation of White Blood Cells and Platelets____________________________and ____________________________production is controlled by ____________________________Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and interleukins prompt ____________________________to generate leukocytes____________________________stimulates production of platelets from megakaryocytesNOTES:Blood Groups and TransfusionsLarge losses of blood have serious consequencesLoss of ____________________________causes weaknessLoss of over ____________________________causes shock, which can be fatalBlood transfusions are given for ____________________________, to treat ____________________________, or for ____________________________NOTES:Human Blood GroupsBlood contains genetically determined proteins known as ________________________________________________________are substances that the body recognizes as foreign and that the immune system may attackMost antigens are foreign proteinsWe tolerate our own “self” antigensAntibodies are the “recognizers” that bind foreign ____________________________Blood is “typed” by using ____________________________that will cause blood with certain proteins to clump (____________________________) and lyseThere are over 30 common red blood cell antigensThe most vigorous transfusion reactions are caused by ____________________________and ____________________________ group antigensABO blood groupBlood types are based on the presence or absence of two antigens________________________________________________________Presence of both ____________________________is called type ABPresence of ____________________________ is called type A Presence of ____________________________ is called type BLack of both ____________________________is called type OType AB can receive A, B, AB, and O bloodType AB is the “universal recipient”Type B can receive ____________________________Type A can receive ____________________________Type O can receive ____________________________Type O is the “____________________________”Rh blood groupNamed for the eight Rh antigens (agglutinogen D) Most Americans are Rh+ (Rh-positive), meaning they ____________________________If an Rh–(Rh-negative) person receives Rh+ blood:The immune system becomes ____________________________and begins producing antibodies; ____________________________does not occur, because as it takes time to produce antibodiesSecond, and subsequent, transfusions involve antibodies attacking donor’s Rh+ RBCs, and hemolysis occurs (rupture of RBCs)Rh-related problem during ____________________________Danger occurs only when the mother is Rh–, the father is Rh+, and the child inherits the Rh+ factor____________________________can prevent buildup of anti-Rh+ antibodies in mother’s bloodThe mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the unborn childThe first pregnancy usually ____________________________; the immune system is sensitized after the first pregnancyIn a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune system produces antibodies to attack the Rh+ blood (____________________________of the newborn)NOTES:Blood TypingBlood samples are mixed with ____________________________and ____________________________serum ____________________________ or the ____________________________leads to identification of blood typeTyping for ABO and Rh factors is done in the same manner____________________________—testing for agglutination of donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum, and vice versa ................
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