L=sc^2 .com
1) Earth’s Motor – God’s Love makes the world go round
2) E=mc^2 - L=sc^2
Putting a New Spin on Earth's Core
By William J. Cromie
Gazette Staff
The metallic core of our planet is spinning faster than the rest of it, according to evidence unearthed by Harvard geologists. And this hellishly hot core, almost as big as the moon, apparently is growing in size.
"It's like a planet within a planet," says Adam Dziewonski, Baird Professor of Science.
It's the first major finding about Earth since the 1960s, when geologists confirmed that continents and ocean bottoms drift across the planet's surface at a rate of less than an inch to about four inches a year. "You very seldom make planetary-scale discoveries like these," Dziewonski notes.
The whole Earth spins completely around once a day, while the inner core rotates an extra three degrees or so each year. In approximately 120 years, the planet within completes an extra lap (360 degrees).
If you could stand on the surface of the inner core and look up at the bottoms of continents, you would see them falling behind at a languid rate of about a half-mile a day.
The solid inner is surrounded by a liquid outer core. They, in turn, sit inside a 1,800-mile deep mantle of rock like a partly cooked yolk enveloped by egg white. Atop the white lies a 20-mile-thick cracked "shell" representing the moving continents and oceans.
The inner core itself was only discovered in 1936. Dziewonski and Freeman Gilbert of the University of California, San Diego, proved it was solid, rather than liquid, a scant 25 years ago.
In 1986, Andrea Morelli, John Woodhouse, and Dziewonski, working at Harvard, found a strange unevenness, or anisotropy, in the inner core. Shock waves from earthquakes travel through it in a north-south direction faster than in other directions. Geologists attribute this to the crystalline structure that iron, its major ingredient, assumes under the intense pressure near Earth's center, more than a million pounds on every square inch.
Two years ago, Dziewonski and research associate Wei-jia Su showed that the axis of symmetry of the iron tilts about 12 degrees from the north-south axis of its rotation. Dziewonski and Su located the asymmetry axis when they analyzed records from 15,722 earthquakes that sent shock waves though the inner core.
Earth scientists began to discuss whether the inner "planet" might rotate at a different speed than the rest of Earth. While visiting the University of California, Berkeley, last year, Dziewonski and geophysicist Raymond Jeanloz talked about how they might solve that riddle.
"We were riding around in a car sightseeing and discussing how we could measure such rotation," Dziewonski recalled. "We came up with the idea of using the axis of symmetry as a marker. The many years of data we had collected could tell us if and how much its position changed with time. If it moved around, then the inner core must rotate at a different speed."
Su divided 30 years of earthquake records into three 10-year periods, but he couldn't come up with a clean result. Some months later, Dziewonski suggested using six five-year periods. When that was done, the change showed up clearly. They found that path along which shock waves travel fastest, the axis of symmetry, moved from west to east about 3 degrees a year.
Talk of Torque
Meanwhile, seismologists at Columbia University analyzed the travel paths of quakes that had rattled the ocean floor south of South America. These temblors sent shock waves through the center of Earth and out the other side at Fairbanks, Alaska. They, too, conclude that the inner core spins independently but at a slower speed -- one degree a year. At that rate, it would take the solid iron core 360 years to lap the rest of Earth.
The extra rotation apparently comes from a twisting force generated by the interaction between the magnetic fields of the inner and outer cores. The inner core, more than 3,000 miles below our feet and roasting at a temperature of about 7,000 degrees Fahrenheit, steadily releases its heat to the liquid outer core. This heat stimulates convective motion in the latter, causing molten iron to move like air over a radiator. Hot fluid moves upward, cools, then slips downward.
The highly conductive iron moving in a magnetic field generates electricity, creating the equivalent of a huge generator, or dynamo, at the planet's center. This electricity, in turn, has its own magnetic field which is responsible for compasses pointing north, northern and southern lights, and other effects at the planet's surface.
Magnetic fields in the core reach strengths of 200 or more times greater than at the surface. The intense field at the bottom of the outer core penetrates into the inner core, coupling the two together.
"We believe this coupling provides enough twisting motion, or torque, to power for extra rotation of the inner core," Dziewonski says. The mechanism works somewhat like that of a motor wherein a rapidly changing electromagnetic force causes a rotor to rotate. In this case, the motor rotor is the size of the moon.
This neat explanation leaves one frustrating question: where did the magnetic field come from that originally started the geodynamo? "Once you get things going, the electric current generated by the dynamo can reinforce it," Dziewonski notes. "But we don't know how things got started in the first place."
Sometime after Earth formed, nearly 5 billion years ago, it must have been completely molten. During that time, heavy metals like iron sank toward the center.
"At first, there was no inner core," Dziewonski says. "Now it is about 1,500 miles wide and 4,700 miles in circumference. We believe it grows by the freezing-out of iron as Earth cools. The heat that is released provides the energy to roil the outer core and drive the geodynamo."
When the inner core began to solidify, and why it developed its anisotropy, remain unknown.
It's also possible that the inner core changes its axis of symmetry over time, or that the overlying mantle is slowing down compared to the inner core rather than the other way around. However, Dziewonski says, "the best explanation of what we see is that the anisotropy is frozen so its position changes correspond to movement of the inner core."
Discovery Within Discovery
During their analysis of earthquake records, Su and Dziewonski found something they call "every bit as exciting" as discovering the independent spin. Around 1971, the axis of anisotropy, and presumably the inner core, shifted ahead some 50 degrees. That's as much motion as takes place in about 17 years, or 50 years if you take the Columbia researchers' slower rotation rate.
"We were surprised and stunned when we saw it," Dziewonski remarked.
At nearly the same time, the magnetic field at the surface underwent an abrupt change known as a "magnetic jerk."
"This instability probably came from a change in the outer core, where the field originates," Dziewonski guesses. "The change may also have produced a temporary torque that jerked the inner core forward. The motion of the outer-core fluid is complex and poorly understood, however, so this may be just a hand-waving explanation."
To answer questions raised by finding a planet within a planet, and a discovery within a discovery, "we need to constantly monitor the inner core," Dziewonski says.
That's not easy. Earthquakes occur frequently only in certain parts of the world, and many of them don't produce shock waves that pass through the metal core. To do a better job, Dziewonski wants to add more recording stations to the worldwide net of some 100 stations already in existence. He also sees a need for more powerful computers to find out exactly how the geodynamo works and how it interacts with the inner core.
"The expense would not be unreasonable," he maintains. "If we made similar discoveries about Mars or our moon, there would be a clamor to send a space mission there."
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Copyright 1998 President and Fellows of Harvard College
The motor of the world*
The innards of our planet, as presently visualized, consist of an inner core of solid iron about 2,400 kilometers in diameter. Surrounding this is a fluid outer core, which in turn is wrapped onionlike by the mantle and outer crust. Earthquakes are always sending seismic waves through these regions and jostling seismometers installed all over the globe. From this wealth of seismic signals, geophysicists have found that the inner core, lubricated by the fluid outer core, rotates about 1.1° per year faster than the mantle and crust. The inner core interacts with the geomagnetic field and is, in effect, like the rotor of a slow, ponderous induction motor. Expanding upon this vision of the earth as a colossal electrical machine, E. Stokstad writes:
"Electric currents of about a billion amps flow across the boundary between the solid inner core and the fluid outer core that lies around it. In the presence of the Earth's magnetic field, these currents generate massive forces that tug on the inner core. And because the outer core has a relatively low viscosity, the inner core can spin freely."
(Stokstad, Erik; "Earth's Heart Is in a Spin," New Scientist, p. 18, July 20, 1996. The basic paper is: Song, Xiadong, and Richards, Paul G.; "Seismological Evidence for Differential Rotation of the Earth"s Inner Core," Nature, 382:221, 1996)
Comments. Awesome as this gigantic natural electric motor may be, it doesn't challenge any paradigms; in fact, it reinforces current notions concerning the origin of the geomagnetic field. The anomalist, however, inevitably asks questions and makes iconoclastic connections.
1. Why couldn't this planet-size piece of rotating machinery actually be a generator rather than a motor? The kinetic energy of the faster-spinning inner core might actually create the geomagnetic field.
2. What happens when the geomagnetic field reverses, as it has often done according to the magnetostratigraphic record? Does the earth's motor go into reverse?
3. If the inner core can slip relative to the crust and mantle, why cannot the crust-plus-mantle slip, too -- perhaps catastrophically? Pole-shift proponents will like this idea!
*Title idea from A. Rand's Atlas Shrugged. Of course, Rand's hero was talking about a different kind of motor.
From Science Frontiers #108, NOV-DEC 1996. © 1996-2000 William R. Corliss
Demo #14: The Core Dynamo
Purpose:
Demonstrations of the conceptual ingredients for generating the Earth's magnetic field
Supplies:
DC Motor, Ammeter, Electromagnet, DC power supply or battery
Background and Demonstration:
The Earth's magnetic field cannot be generated by a permanent magnet in the Core, because although the Core is predominantly iron, the temperature is well above the Curie temperature for iron. Therefore, the Earth's magnetic field must be generated by electromagnetic means. A system that uses electromagnetic induction to convert mechanical energy (motion) into a magnetic field is called a dynamo. Conceptually, it consists of two components (or ingredients), each of which can be demonstrated.
The first ingredient is the concept of a DC generator. The principle involved is that an electrical conductor in motion within a magnetic field generates a current. To illustrate this concept, we use a toy DC motor. A motor consists of a coil of wires which rotate within the field of a permanent magnet. As current is applied to the coil of wires (connect the DC power supply to the motor), an electromagnetic field is generated which is repelled or attracted by the permanent magnet, causing the coil of wires to turn on its axis (the motor axis spins). A generator acts in exactly the reverse of this. If we turn the coil of wires (connect the motor leads to the ammeter and rotate the axis of the motor by hand), recalling that they are within the field of the permanent magnet, we see that a current is generated. The faster we turn the axis, the more current is generated. If we turn the motor in the other direction, we generate a current in the opposite direction (the meter should indicate positive current one way and negative current the other way). Nearly all power plants make use of this principle in generating electricity; coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear fission (etc.) are burned to make steam, which turns a turbine, attached to which is a large coil of wires within the field of a permanent magnet.
The second ingredient is the electromagnet. This principle is that current flowing in a loop generates a magnetic field perpendicular to the loop. To demonstrate this, supply power to an electromagnet, which consists of many coils of wire wrapped around a ferromagnetic core (this core enhances the field, but is not necessary in principle). When current is applied, the electromagnet develops a magnetic field just like a permanent magnet. [You can pick up paper clips or, with a really big electromagnet, a waste basket or metal lab stool.] As soon as the current is turned off, the electromagnet looses its field (except for a weak remnant field in the core). Using a compass or a permanent magnet, you can show that if the direction of current is reversed (by reversing the poles on the battery or power supply), the direction of the electromagnet field is reversed (the compass rotates, or where the permanent magnet had been attracted, it is now repelled).
Putting the two together, we see that if an electrical conductor is in motion within a magnetic field, a current will be generated in the conductor, and if that current flows around in a loop, it will, in turn, generate a magnetic field. If the current loop can be oriented in the proper direction, the generated magnetic field will reinforce the original magnetic field and the process will continue even if the original magnetic field stops. This is the idea of the self-exciting dynamo. It is not a perpetual motion machine, since it requires mechanical energy (motion), but once started, it will continue to generate a magnetic field.
The Outer Core of the Earth consists primarily of molten iron, which is a good electrical conductor. Because it is a liquid, it is not rigidly connected to the overlying mantle, and need not rotate at the same rate as the outer portions of the Earth. This differential rotation, as well as convection in the Outer Core, ensure that the conductor is in motion. The tricky part is how to get the resulting currents to generate a magnetic field like the dipole field observed on the Earth's surface. The details are quite complex, and are the subject of continuing study.
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Jeffrey S. Barker (SUNY Binghamton) Demonstrations of Geophysical Principles Applicable to the Properties and Processes of the Earth's Interior, NE Section GSA Meeting, Binghamton, NY, March 28-30, 1994.
Earth's core rotates faster than its crust, scientists say
James E. Kloeppel, Physical Sciences Editor
217-244-1073; kloeppel@uiuc.edu
8/25/05
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|Illinois, is corresponding author of a |
|paper to appear in the Aug. 26 issue of |
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CHAMPAIGN, Ill. — Scientists have ended a 9-year-old debate by proving that Earth’s core rotates faster than its surface, by about 0.3 to 0.5 degree per year.
“Extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof,” said Xiaodong Song, a professor of geology at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and corresponding author of a paper to appear in the Aug. 26 issue of the journal Science. “We believe we have that proof.”
Earth’s iron core consists of a solid inner core about 2,400 kilometers in diameter and a fluid outer core about 7,000 kilometers in diameter. The inner core plays an important role in the geodynamo that generates Earth’s magnetic field, and an electromagnetic torque from the geodynamo is thought to drive the inner core to rotate relative to the mantle and crust.
The first observational evidence for differential rotation was presented in 1996 by Song and Paul Richards, a seismologist at the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University. For the past nine years, some seismologists have suspected that flaws, or artifacts, in the data were responsible for the purported movement.
By comparing historical seismic waves traversing Earth’s fluid and solid cores, Song and his colleagues found compelling evidence for differential rotation of the solid inner core. The researchers reported observations of 17 sets of similar seismic waves – called waveform doublets – from earthquakes occurring in the South Sandwich Islands region off the coast of South America.
The doublets, which were recorded at up to 58 seismic stations in and near Alaska with a time separation of up to 35 years, allowed the researchers to detect temporal changes along the sampling paths.
“The similar seismic waves that passed through the inner core show systematic changes in travel times and wave shapes when the two events of the doublet are separated in time by several years,” Song said. “The only plausible explanation is a motion of the inner core.”
The most likely explanation for why the inner core is rotating at a different speed, Song said, is electromagnetic coupling. “The magnetic field generated in the outer core diffuses into the inner core, where it generates an electric current. The interaction of that electric current with the magnetic field causes the inner core to spin, like the armature in an electric motor.”
The fluid outer core decouples the solid inner core’s movement from the mantle. Because the fluid outer core is not very viscous, frictional drag is small.
“Differential rotation is a fundamental dynamic process that goes to the heart of the origin of our planet and how it has evolved,” Song said. “There is still much to learn about the inner Earth.”
In addition to Song and Richards, co-authors are Illinois graduate students Yingchun Li and Xinlei Sun and Columbia graduate student Jian Zhang and research scientist Felix Waldhauser. The work was funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation and the Natural Science Foundation of China.
Editor’s note: To reach Xiaodong Song, call 217-333-1841; e-mail: xsong@uiuc.edu.
God’s Love makes the world go round
God's Love - John 15:13
God's love towards us, His estranged creation, is graphically depicted in the sacrifice He made on our behalf. "Greater love has no one than this, that he lay down his life for his friends" (John 15:13 NIV).
Jesus Christ, is God's unique and eternal Son.1 He is the Alpha and Omega,2 the Great I AM,3 the "Mighty God"4 by whom all things were created5 and in whom all things consist.6 Jesus, who is the head of all things,7 humbled Himself in such a way that the human mind couldn't even bare the thought of it. He came into this sin-cursed world and actively partook in our sufferings. Even as we are flesh and blood, He shared in the same.8 He became a man and dwelt among us.9 He shared in the sufferings we brought upon ourselves through our rejection of His holy precepts.10 And as if that were not enough to convince us of His love and concern for us, Jesus, the immortal God and the Giver of Life, gave up His own life upon the cross in the greatest act of love the world has ever known! In doing so He took our sins away, effectively nailing them to the cross with Himself. Thus, He who knew no sin became sin for us11 and He who gave life to all, tasted death for those condemned to it.12
God's Love - For God so Loved the World
This is God's love! "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him (John 3:16-17). Jesus Christ loved the world so much that He gave everything for it, from His rights and privileges as the unique eternal Son of God, to His very life! If you want to see the love of God, look to the cross. "This is how God showed his love among us: He sent his one and only Son into the world that we might live through him. This is love: not that we loved God, but that he loved us and sent his Son as an atoning sacrifice for our sins" (1 John 4:9-10). "For the wages of sin is death, but the gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord" (Romans 6:23).
God's Love - It's For You!
God's love has been made known to us and now He stands at the door and knocks.13 It's up to every individual to either pursue a personal relationship with God or else reject Him outright. The only barrier between us and God's love is our own freewill and Jesus Christ is the door.14 "Jesus answered, 'I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me'" (John 14:6). Salvation is a free gift bought and paid for by the blood of Christ. There is no other way. "…Do not set aside the grace of God, for if righteousness could be gained through the law, Christ died for nothing!" (Galatians 2:21). You can't earn God's forgiveness through good works. How will doing the good works that you should have done all your life make up for the countless times you've failed? God's no fool. You can "use an abundance of soap, the stain of your guilt is still before Me…" (Jeremiah 2:22).
A man once fell on his knees before Christ and begged, "If You are willing, You can make me clean." Christ, "filled with compassion" replied, "I am willing; be clean" (Mark 1:40-41). We too can fall on our knees and acknowledge God's only provision for our sins. We too can hear, "I am willing; be clean." Christ willingly took God's righteous indignation upon Himself so that you don't have to; whoever accepts His death upon the cross as payment for their sins will be reconciled to the God whom they've offended. "All this is from God, who reconciled us to himself through Christ…God was reconciling the world to himself in Christ, not counting men's sins against them…God made him who had no sin to be sin for us, so that in him we might become the righteousness of God" (2 Corinthians 5:18-19, 21). Will you accept God's love today?
Discover True Love!
Footnotes:
Bible References: 1John 1:1-3; 3:16; 2Revelation 1:8; cf. Revelation 1:13-18, 21:4-7; 22:6-7, 12-16, 20; 3John 8:56-59; cf. Exodus 3:13-14; 4Isaiah 9:6; 5Colossians 1:16; 6Colossians 1:17; 7Colossians 1:17; 2:10; 8Hebrews 2:14; 9John 1:14; cf. John 1:1-3; 10Galatians 6:7; 1 Peter 3:18; 112 Corinthians 5:21; 12Hebrews 2:9; 13Revelation 3:20; 14John 10:1-7.
Love Defined (by the Bible)
by Rich Deem
What is love?
Everybody seems to believe that love is a good thing. However, not all agree what is love. Is love that warm touchy-feely feeling a person has when he is with a familiar person? According to the Bible, love is caring in action. Love isn't what we feel, but what we do.
Rich Deem
Introduction
The true meaning of love, as defined in the Bible, has been corrupted in the common usage of our English language and society. Most often, love is confused with infatuation - that elated, "high" feeling we get when we "fall in love." This kind of "love" is something that lasts typically less than a year, and unless replaced by true love, results in broken relationships.
Origin of Love
The Bible indicates that love is from God. In fact, the Bible says "God is love."1 Love is one of the primary characteristics of God. Likewise, God has endowed us with the capacity for love. This capacity for love is one of the ways in which we are "created in the image of God."2
Different Kinds of Love
The Greek language (the language of the New Testament) uses two different words to describe and define love. The most commonly used Greek word translated "love" in the New Testament is "agape." This love is represented by God's love for us. It is a non-partial, sacrificial love probably best exemplified by God's provision for our rebellion:
"For God so loved (agape) the world, that He gave His only begotten Son, that whoever believes in Him should not perish, but have eternal life. (John 3:16)
The gift3 of God's son as a provision for sin4 was given to all humans,5 regardless of who we are.6 God's love is unconditional.7
In contrast, our love is usually conditional and based upon how other people behave toward us. This kind of love is based upon familiarity and direct interaction. The Greek word "phileo" defines this kind of love, often translated "brotherly love." Phileo is a soulish (connected through our emotions) kind of love - something that can be experienced by both believers and non-believers. This is in contrast to agape, which is love extended through the spirit. Agape love requires a relationship with God through Jesus Christ, since the non-regenerated soul is unable to love unconditionally. Agape love gives and sacrifices expecting nothing back in return.8
Those who have studied the Bible and know about Peter's character know that Peter was ruled by his emotions and often responded to situations emotionally, rather than thinking before acting. Sometimes this kind of response lead to good things (e.g., Peter walking on the water to meet Jesus - Matthew 14:25-33), whereas at other times, Peter's response was inappropriate (He was interrupted by God while suggesting that he build three tabernacles, one for Jesus, one for Moses, and one for Elijah on the Mount of Transfiguration - Matthew 17:4). Peter was quite proficient at expressing phileo love, and was probably very popular because of his dynamic character. However, God wants us to express both phileo love and agape love. Peter expressed this idea in his first epistle:
Since you have in obedience to the truth purified your souls for a sincere love [phileo] of the brethren, fervently love [agape] one another from the heart, (1 Peter 1:22)
Believers in the churches of Asia Minor had already expressed phileo love, but Peter was encouraging them to fervently express agape love as well. If you are a Christian, you are encouraged to express both soulish, familiar love and spirit-led unconditional love. The goal of the Christian is to become "partakers of the divine nature."9 In Peter's second epistle, he says that we are to behave with moral excellence. However, this is not enough. Christians tend to be characterized by non-believers as telling other people how they ought to behave. However, the Christian life should not be restricted to just moral excellence, but, above all else, should include both phileo and agape love:
Now for this very reason also, applying all diligence, in your faith supply moral excellence, and in your moral excellence, knowledge, and in your knowledge, self-control, and in your self-control, perseverance, and in your perseverance, godliness, and in your godliness, brotherly kindness [phileo], and in your brotherly kindness, love [agape]. (2 Peter 1:5-7)
The most famous biblical chapter on love is from 1 Corinthians:
If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but have not love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but have not love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the poor and surrender my body to the flames, but have not love, I gain nothing. Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails. But where there are prophecies, they will cease; where there are tongues, they will be stilled; where there is knowledge, it will pass away. For we know in part and we prophesy in part, but when perfection comes, the imperfect disappears. When I was a child, I talked like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child. When I became a man, I put childish ways behind me. Now we see but a poor reflection as in a mirror; then we shall see face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I am fully known. And now these three remain: faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love. (1 Corinthians 13:1-13)
This is a description of apage love. It is described as being patient, kind, truthful, unselfish, trusting, believing, hopeful, and enduring. It is not jealous, boastful, arrogant, rude, selfish, or angry. True love never fails. The description perfectly fits God's love toward us, and should be the way we love each other and God. However, I have never met any person who perfectly fulfills this biblical definition of love. The Bible says that this unconditional love is more important than everything else (a partial list includes oratory ability, prophecy, knowledge, faith, philanthropy and hope). All of these things, which are "good" things, will pass away. Only love is eternal, since love will be the basis of eternal life. In fact, when Jesus was asked what the greatest commandment was, He said, "YOU SHALL LOVE THE LORD YOUR GOD WITH ALL YOUR HEART, AND WITH ALL YOUR SOUL, AND WITH ALL YOUR MIND." (Matthew 22:37)9 He then added that the second most important law was "YOU SHALL LOVE YOUR NEIGHBOR AS YOURSELF." Jesus said that the entire law was dependent upon these two commandments.9
Conclusion [pic]
If you are not a Christian, I hope you desire to express love as defined in the Bible. However, wanting to do so and attempting to do so in the power of your own will is guaranteed to fail. This kind of love is only possible through relying on the power of God, through faith in Jesus Christ. Even if you are a Christian, you will not succeed if you do not abide in Christ. May the Lord direct your hearts into the love of God and into the steadfastness of Christ.10
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Related Pages [pic]
• God's Outrageous Love
• The Greatest Love Of All
• The New Commandment That is Old
• Tiger Under the Big Tent
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References [pic]
1. Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love. (1 John 4:8)
2. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them. (Genesis 1:27)
3. being justified as a gift by His grace through the redemption which is in Christ Jesus; (Romans 3:24)
For the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord. (Romans 6:23)
For by grace you have been saved through faith; and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God; (Ephesians 2:8)
4. In this is love, not that we loved God, but that He loved us and sent His Son to be the propitiation for our sins. (1 John 4:10)
5. So then as through one transgression there resulted condemnation to all men, even so through one act of righteousness there resulted justification of life to all men. (Romans 5:18)
For the death that He [Jesus] died, He died to sin, once for all; but the life that He lives, He lives to God. (Romans 6:10)
...God our Savior, who desires all men to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth. (1 Timothy 2:3-4)
For it is for this we labor and strive, because we have fixed our hope on the living God, who is the Savior of all men, especially of believers. (1 Timothy 4:10)
For the grace of God has appeared, bringing salvation to all men, (Titus 2:11)
and He Himself is the propitiation for our sins; and not for ours only, but also for those of the whole world. (1 John 2:2)
6. For I am not ashamed of the gospel, for it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes, to the Jew first and also to the Greek. (Romans 1:16)
For there is no distinction between Jew and Greek; for the same Lord is Lord of all, abounding in riches for all who call upon Him; (Romans 10:12)
There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free man, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus. (Galatians 3:28)
7. But God demonstrates His own love toward us, in that while we were yet sinners, Christ died for us. (Romans 5:8)
8. But love [agape] your enemies, do good to them, and lend to them without expecting to get anything back. Then your reward will be great, and you will be sons of the Most High, because he is kind to the ungrateful and wicked. (Luke 6:35)
9. For by these He has granted to us His precious and magnificent promises, so that by them you may become partakers of the divine nature, having escaped the corruption that is in the world by lust. (2 Peter 1:4)
10. "Teacher, which is the great commandment in the Law?" And He said to him, "'YOU SHALL LOVE THE LORD YOUR GOD WITH ALL YOUR HEART, AND WITH ALL YOUR SOUL, AND WITH ALL YOUR MIND.' This is the great and foremost commandment. The second is like it, 'YOU SHALL LOVE YOUR NEIGHBOR AS YOURSELF.' On these two commandments depend the whole Law and the Prophets."(Matthew 22:36-40)
11. 2 Thessalonians 3:5
Scripture References (phileo)
The Pharisees, who loved money, heard all this and were sneering at Jesus. (Luke 16:14)
The next day we landed at Sidon; and Julius, in kindness to Paul, allowed him to go to his friends so they might provide for his needs. (Acts 27:3)
The islanders showed us unusual kindness. They built a fire and welcomed us all because it was raining and cold. (Acts 28:2)
Be devoted to one another in brotherly love. Honor one another above yourselves. (Romans 12:10)
Now about brotherly love we do not need to write to you, for you yourselves have been taught by God to love each other. (1 Thessalonians 4:9)
For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil. Some people, eager for money, have wandered from the faith and pierced themselves with many griefs. (1 Timothy 6:10)
Their teaching will spread like gangrene. Among them are Hymenaeus and Philetus, (2 Timothy 2:17)
People will be lovers of themselves, lovers of money, boastful, proud, abusive, disobedient to their parents, ungrateful, unholy, (2 Timothy 3:2)
treacherous, rash, conceited, lovers of pleasure rather than lovers of God-- (2 Timothy 3:4)
Rather he must be hospitable, one who loves what is good, who is self-controlled, upright, holy and disciplined. (Titus 1:8)
Then they can train the younger women to love their husbands and children, (Titus 2:4)
But when the kindness and love of God our Savior appeared, (Titus 3:4)
Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus, and Timothy our brother, To Philemon our dear friend and fellow worker, (Philemon 1:1)
Keep on loving each other as brothers. (Hebrews 13:1)
Now that you have purified yourselves by obeying the truth so that you have sincere love for your brothers, love one another deeply, from the heart. (1 Peter 1:22)
Finally, all of you, live in harmony with one another; be sympathetic, love as brothers, be compassionate and humble. (1 Peter 3:8)
Greet one another with a kiss of love. Peace to all of you who are in Christ. (1 Peter 5:14)
and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, love. (2 Peter 1:7)
Scripture References (agape)
And a voice from heaven said, "This is my Son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased." (Matthew 3:17)
"You have heard that it was said, 'Love your neighbor and hate your enemy.' (Matthew 5:43)
But I tell you: Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, (Matthew 5:44)
If you love those who love you, what reward will you get? Are not even the tax collectors doing that? (Matthew 5:46)
"No one can serve two masters. Either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve both God and Money. (Matthew 6:24)
"Here is my servant whom I have chosen, the one I love, in whom I delight; I will put my Spirit on him, and he will proclaim justice to the nations. (Matthew 12:18)
While he was still speaking, a bright cloud enveloped them, and a voice from the cloud said, "This is my Son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased. Listen to him!" (Matthew 17:5)
honor your father and mother,' and 'love your neighbor as yourself.'" (Matthew 19:19)
Jesus replied: "'Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.' (Matthew 22:37)
And the second is like it: 'Love your neighbor as yourself.' (Matthew 22:39)
Because of the increase of wickedness, the love of most will grow cold, (Matthew 24:12)
And a voice came from heaven: "You are my Son, whom I love; with you I am well pleased." (Mark 1:11)
Then a cloud appeared and enveloped them, and a voice came from the cloud: "This is my Son, whom I love. Listen to him!" (Mark 9:7)
Jesus looked at him and loved him. "One thing you lack," he said. "Go, sell everything you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven. Then come, follow me." (Mark 10:21)
"He had one left to send, a son, whom he loved. He sent him last of all, saying, 'They will respect my son.' (Mark 12:6)
Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind and with all your strength.' (Mark 12:30)
The second is this: 'Love your neighbor as yourself.' There is no commandment greater than these." (Mark 12:31)
To love him with all your heart, with all your understanding and with all your strength, and to love your neighbor as yourself is more important than all burnt offerings and sacrifices." (Mark 12:33)
and the Holy Spirit descended on him in bodily form like a dove. And a voice came from heaven: "You are my Son, whom I love; with you I am well pleased." (Luke 3:22)
"But I tell you who hear me: Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, (Luke 6:27)
"If you love those who love you, what credit is that to you? Even 'sinners' love those who love them. (Luke 6:32)
But love your enemies, do good to them, and lend to them without expecting to get anything back. Then your reward will be great, and you will be sons of the Most High, because he is kind to the ungrateful and wicked. (Luke 6:35)
because he loves our nation and has built our synagogue." (Luke 7:5)
Neither of them had the money to pay him back, so he canceled the debts of both. Now which of them will love him more?" (Luke 7:42)
Therefore, I tell you, her many sins have been forgiven--for she loved much. But he who has been forgiven little loves little." (Luke 7:47)
He answered: "'Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength and with all your mind' ; and, 'Love your neighbor as yourself.'" (Luke 10:27)
"Woe to you Pharisees, because you give God a tenth of your mint, rue and all other kinds of garden herbs, but you neglect justice and the love of God. You should have practiced the latter without leaving the former undone. (Luke 11:42)
"Woe to you Pharisees, because you love the most important seats in the synagogues and greetings in the marketplaces. (Luke 11:43)
"No servant can serve two masters. Either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve both God and Money." (Luke 16:13)
"Then the owner of the vineyard said, 'What shall I do? I will send my son, whom I love; perhaps they will respect him.' (Luke 20:13)
"For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. (John 3:16)
This is the verdict: Light has come into the world, but men loved darkness instead of light because their deeds were evil. (John 3:19)
The Father loves the Son and has placed everything in his hands. (John 3:35)
but I know you. I know that you do not have the love of God in your hearts. (John 5:42)
Jesus said to them, "If God were your Father, you would love me, for I came from God and now am here. I have not come on my own; but he sent me. (John 8:42)
The reason my Father loves me is that I lay down my life--only to take it up again. (John 10:17)
Jesus loved Martha and her sister and Lazarus. (John 11:5)
for they loved praise from men more than praise from God. (John 12:43)
It was just before the Passover Feast. Jesus knew that the time had come for him to leave this world and go to the Father. Having loved his own who were in the world, he now showed them the full extent of his love. (John 13:1)
One of them, the disciple whom Jesus loved, was reclining next to him. (John 13:23)
"A new command I give you: Love one another. As I have loved you, so you must love one another. (John 13:34)
By this all men will know that you are my disciples, if you love one another." (John 13:35)
"If you love me, you will obey what I command. (John 14:15)
Whoever has my commands and obeys them, he is the one who loves me. He who loves me will be loved by my Father, and I too will love him and show myself to him." (John 14:21)
Jesus replied, "If anyone loves me, he will obey my teaching. My Father will love him, and we will come to him and make our home with him. (John 14:23)
He who does not love me will not obey my teaching. These words you hear are not my own; they belong to the Father who sent me. (John 14:24)
"You heard me say, 'I am going away and I am coming back to you.' If you loved me, you would be glad that I am going to the Father, for the Father is greater than I. (John 14:28)
but the world must learn that I love the Father and that I do exactly what my Father has commanded me. "Come now; let us leave. (John 14:31)
"As the Father has loved me, so have I loved you. Now remain in my love. (John 15:9)
If you obey my commands, you will remain in my love, just as I have obeyed my Father's commands and remain in his love. (John 15:10)
My command is this: Love each other as I have loved you. (John 15:12)
Greater love has no one than this, that he lay down his life for his friends. (John 15:13)
This is my command: Love each other. (John 15:17)
I in them and you in me. May they be brought to complete unity to let the world know that you sent me and have loved them even as you have loved me. (John 17:23)
"Father, I want those you have given me to be with me where I am, and to see my glory, the glory you have given me because you loved me before the creation of the world. (John 17:24)
I have made you known to them, and will continue to make you known in order that the love you have for me may be in them and that I myself may be in them." (John 17:26)
When Jesus saw his mother there, and the disciple whom he loved standing nearby, he said to his mother, "Dear woman, here is your son," (John 19:26)
Then the disciple whom Jesus loved said to Peter, "It is the Lord!" As soon as Simon Peter heard him say, "It is the Lord," he wrapped his outer garment around him (for he had taken it off) and jumped into the water. (John 21:7)
When they had finished eating, Jesus said to Simon Peter, "Simon son of John, do you truly love me more than these?" "Yes, Lord," he said, "you know that I love you." Jesus said, "Feed my lambs." (John 21:15)
Again Jesus said, "Simon son of John, do you truly love me?" He answered, "Yes, Lord, you know that I love you." Jesus said, "Take care of my sheep." (John 21:16)
Peter turned and saw that the disciple whom Jesus loved was following them. (This was the one who had leaned back against Jesus at the supper and had said, "Lord, who is going to betray you?") (John 21:20)
So we all agreed to choose some men and send them to you with our dear friends Barnabas and Paul-- (Acts 15:25)
To all in Rome who are loved by God and called to be saints: Grace and peace to you from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ. (Romans 1:7)
And hope does not disappoint us, because God has poured out his love into our hearts by the Holy Spirit, whom he has given us. (Romans 5:5)
But God demonstrates his own love for us in this: While we were still sinners, Christ died for us. (Romans 5:8)
And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose. (Romans 8:28)
Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall trouble or hardship or persecution or famine or nakedness or danger or sword? (Romans 8:35)
No, in all these things we are more than conquerors through him who loved us. (Romans 8:37)
neither height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God that is in Christ Jesus our Lord. (Romans 8:39)
Just as it is written: "Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated." (Romans 9:13)
As he says in Hosea: "I will call them 'my people' who are not my people; and I will call her 'my loved one' who is not my loved one," (Romans 9:25)
As far as the gospel is concerned, they are enemies on your account; but as far as election is concerned, they are loved on account of the patriarchs, (Romans 11:28)
Love must be sincere. Hate what is evil; cling to what is good. (Romans 12:9)
Do not take revenge, my friends, but leave room for God's wrath, for it is written: "It is mine to avenge; I will repay," says the Lord. (Romans 12:19)
Let no debt remain outstanding, except the continuing debt to love one another, for he who loves his fellowman has fulfilled the law. (Romans 13:8)
The commandments, "Do not commit adultery," "Do not murder," "Do not steal," "Do not covet," and whatever other commandment there may be, are summed up in this one rule: "Love your neighbor as yourself." (Romans 13:9)
Love does no harm to its neighbor. Therefore love is the fulfillment of the law. (Romans 13:10)
If your brother is distressed because of what you eat, you are no longer acting in love. Do not by your eating destroy your brother for whom Christ died. (Romans 14:15)
I urge you, brothers, by our Lord Jesus Christ and by the love of the Spirit, to join me in my struggle by praying to God for me. (Romans 15:30)
Greet also the church that meets at their house. Greet my dear friend Epenetus, who was the first convert to Christ in the province of Asia. (Romans 16:5)
Greet Ampliatus, whom I love in the Lord. (Romans 16:8)
Greet Urbanus, our fellow worker in Christ, and my dear friend Stachys. (Romans 16:9)
Greet Tryphena and Tryphosa, those women who work hard in the Lord. Greet my dear friend Persis, another woman who has worked very hard in the Lord. (Romans 16:12)
However, as it is written: "No eye has seen, no ear has heard, no mind has conceived what God has prepared for those who love him"-- (1 Corinthians 2:9)
I am not writing this to shame you, but to warn you, as my dear children. (1 Corinthians 4:14)
For this reason I am sending to you Timothy, my son whom I love, who is faithful in the Lord. He will remind you of my way of life in Christ Jesus, which agrees with what I teach everywhere in every church. (1 Corinthians 4:17)
What do you prefer? Shall I come to you with a whip, or in love and with a gentle spirit? (1 Corinthians 4:21)
Now about food sacrificed to idols: We know that we all possess knowledge. Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up. (1 Corinthians 8:1)
But the man who loves God is known by God. (1 Corinthians 8:3)
Therefore, my dear friends, flee from idolatry. (1 Corinthians 10:14)
If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but have not love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. (1 Corinthians 13:1)
If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but have not love, I am nothing. (1 Corinthians 13:2)
If I give all I possess to the poor and surrender my body to the flames, but have not love, I gain nothing. (1 Corinthians 13:3)
Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. (1 Corinthians 13:4)
Love never fails. But where there are prophecies, they will cease; where there are tongues, they will be stilled; where there is knowledge, it will pass away. (1 Corinthians 13:8)
And now these three remain: faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love. (1 Corinthians 13:13)
Follow the way of love and eagerly desire spiritual gifts, especially the gift of prophecy. (1 Corinthians 14:1)
Therefore, my dear brothers, stand firm. Let nothing move you. Always give yourselves fully to the work of the Lord, because you know that your labor in the Lord is not in vain. (1 Corinthians 15:58)
Do everything in love. (1 Corinthians 16:14)
My love to all of you in Christ Jesus. Amen. (1 Corinthians 16:24)
For I wrote you out of great distress and anguish of heart and with many tears, not to grieve you but to let you know the depth of my love for you. (2 Corinthians 2:4)
I urge you, therefore, to reaffirm your love for him. (2 Corinthians 2:8)
For Christ's love compels us, because we are convinced that one died for all, and therefore all died. (2 Corinthians 5:14)
in purity, understanding, patience and kindness; in the Holy Spirit and in sincere love; (2 Corinthians 6:6)
Since we have these promises, dear friends, let us purify ourselves from everything that contaminates body and spirit, perfecting holiness out of reverence for God. (2 Corinthians 7:1)
But just as you excel in everything--in faith, in speech, in knowledge, in complete earnestness and in your love for us --see that you also excel in this grace of giving. (2 Corinthians 8:7)
I am not commanding you, but I want to test the sincerity of your love by comparing it with the earnestness of others. (2 Corinthians 8:8)
Therefore show these men the proof of your love and the reason for our pride in you, so that the churches can see it. (2 Corinthians 8:24)
Each man should give what he has decided in his heart to give, not reluctantly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver. (2 Corinthians 9:7)
Why? Because I do not love you? God knows I do! (2 Corinthians 11:11)
So I will very gladly spend for you everything I have and expend myself as well. If I love you more, will you love me less? (2 Corinthians 12:15)
Have you been thinking all along that we have been defending ourselves to you? We have been speaking in the sight of God as those in Christ; and everything we do, dear friends, is for your strengthening. (2 Corinthians 12:19)
Finally, brothers, good-by. Aim for perfection, listen to my appeal, be of one mind, live in peace. And the God of love and peace will be with you. (2 Corinthians 13:11)
May the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit be with you all. (2 Corinthians 13:14)
I have been crucified with Christ and I no longer live, but Christ lives in me. The life I live in the body, I live by faith in the Son of God, who loved me and gave himself for me. (Galatians 2:20)
For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision has any value. The only thing that counts is faith expressing itself through love. (Galatians 5:6)
You, my brothers, were called to be free. But do not use your freedom to indulge the sinful nature ; rather, serve one another in love. (Galatians 5:13)
The entire law is summed up in a single command: "Love your neighbor as yourself." (Galatians 5:14)
But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, (Galatians 5:22)
For he chose us in him before the creation of the world to be holy and blameless in his sight. In love (Ephesians 1:4)
to the praise of his glorious grace, which he has freely given us in the One he loves. (Ephesians 1:6)
For this reason, ever since I heard about your faith in the Lord Jesus and your love for all the saints, (Ephesians 1:15)
But because of his great love for us, God, who is rich in mercy, (Ephesians 2:4)
so that Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith. And I pray that you, being rooted and established in love, (Ephesians 3:17)
and to know this love that surpasses knowledge--that you may be filled to the measure of all the fullness of God. (Ephesians 3:19)
Be completely humble and gentle; be patient, bearing with one another in love. (Ephesians 4:2)
Instead, speaking the truth in love, we will in all things grow up into him who is the Head, that is, Christ. (Ephesians 4:15)
From him the whole body, joined and held together by every supporting ligament, grows and builds itself up in love, as each part does its work. (Ephesians 4:16)
Be imitators of God, therefore, as dearly loved children (Ephesians 5:1)
and live a life of love, just as Christ loved us and gave himself up for us as a fragrant offering and sacrifice to God. (Ephesians 5:2)
Husbands, love your wives, just as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her (Ephesians 5:25)
In this same way, husbands ought to love their wives as their own bodies. He who loves his wife loves himself. (Ephesians 5:28)
However, each one of you also must love his wife as he loves himself, and the wife must respect her husband. (Ephesians 5:33)
Tychicus, the dear brother and faithful servant in the Lord, will tell you everything, so that you also may know how I am and what I am doing. (Ephesians 6:21)
Peace to the brothers, and love with faith from God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. (Ephesians 6:23)
Grace to all who love our Lord Jesus Christ with an undying love. (Ephesians 6:24)
And this is my prayer: that your love may abound more and more in knowledge and depth of insight, (Philippians 1:9)
The latter do so in love, knowing that I am put here for the defense of the gospel. (Philippians 1:16)
If you have any encouragement from being united with Christ, if any comfort from his love, if any fellowship with the Spirit, if any tenderness and compassion, (Philippians 2:1)
then make my joy complete by being like-minded, having the same love, being one in spirit and purpose. (Philippians 2:2)
Therefore, my dear friends, as you have always obeyed--not only in my presence, but now much more in my absence--continue to work out your salvation with fear and trembling, (Philippians 2:12)
Therefore, my brothers, you whom I love and long for, my joy and crown, that is how you should stand firm in the Lord, dear friends! (Philippians 4:1)
because we have heard of your faith in Christ Jesus and of the love you have for all the saints-- (Colossians 1:4)
You learned it from Epaphras, our dear fellow servant, who is a faithful minister of Christ on our behalf, (Colossians 1:7)
and who also told us of your love in the Spirit. (Colossians 1:8)
For he has rescued us from the dominion of darkness and brought us into the kingdom of the Son he loves, (Colossians 1:13)
My purpose is that they may be encouraged in heart and united in love, so that they may have the full riches of complete understanding, in order that they may know the mystery of God, namely, Christ, (Colossians 2:2)
Therefore, as God's chosen people, holy and dearly loved, clothe yourselves with compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness and patience. (Colossians 3:12)
And over all these virtues put on love, which binds them all together in perfect unity. (Colossians 3:14)
Husbands, love your wives and do not be harsh with them. (Colossians 3:19)
Tychicus will tell you all the news about me. He is a dear brother, a faithful minister and fellow servant in the Lord. (Colossians 4:7)
He is coming with Onesimus, our faithful and dear brother, who is one of you. They will tell you everything that is happening here. (Colossians 4:9)
Our dear friend Luke, the doctor, and Demas send greetings. (Colossians 4:14)
We continually remember before our God and Father your work produced by faith, your labor prompted by love, and your endurance inspired by hope in our Lord Jesus Christ. (1 Thessalonians 1:3)
For we know, brothers loved by God, that he has chosen you, (1 Thessalonians 1:4)
We loved you so much that we were delighted to share with you not only the gospel of God but our lives as well, because you had become so dear to us. (1 Thessalonians 2:8)
But Timothy has just now come to us from you and has brought good news about your faith and love. He has told us that you always have pleasant memories of us and that you long to see us, just as we also long to see you. (1 Thessalonians 3:6)
May the Lord make your love increase and overflow for each other and for everyone else, just as ours does for you. (1 Thessalonians 3:12)
Now about brotherly love we do not need to write to you, for you yourselves have been taught by God to love each other. (1 Thessalonians 4:9)
But since we belong to the day, let us be self-controlled, putting on faith and love as a breastplate, and the hope of salvation as a helmet. (1 Thessalonians 5:8)
Hold them in the highest regard in love because of their work. Live in peace with each other. (1 Thessalonians 5:13)
We ought always to thank God for you, brothers, and rightly so, because your faith is growing more and more, and the love every one of you has for each other is increasing. (2 Thessalonians 1:3)
and in every sort of evil that deceives those who are perishing. They perish because they refused to love the truth and so be saved. (2 Thessalonians 2:10)
But we ought always to thank God for you, brothers loved by the Lord, because from the beginning God chose you to be saved through the sanctifying work of the Spirit and through belief in the truth. (2 Thessalonians 2:13)
May our Lord Jesus Christ himself and God our Father, who loved us and by his grace gave us eternal encouragement and good hope, (2 Thessalonians 2:16)
May the Lord direct your hearts into God's love and Christ's perseverance. (2 Thessalonians 3:5)
The goal of this command is love, which comes from a pure heart and a good conscience and a sincere faith. (1 Timothy 1:5)
The grace of our Lord was poured out on me abundantly, along with the faith and love that are in Christ Jesus. (1 Timothy 1:14)
But women will be saved through childbearing--if they continue in faith, love and holiness with propriety. (1 Timothy 2:15)
Don't let anyone look down on you because you are young, but set an example for the believers in speech, in life, in love, in faith and in purity. (1 Timothy 4:12)
Those who have believing masters are not to show less respect for them because they are brothers. Instead, they are to serve them even better, because those who benefit from their service are believers, and dear to them. These are the things you are to teach and urge on them. (1 Timothy 6:2)
But you, man of God, flee from all this, and pursue righteousness, godliness, faith, love, endurance and gentleness. (1 Timothy 6:11)
To Timothy, my dear son: Grace, mercy and peace from God the Father and Christ Jesus our Lord. (2 Timothy 1:2)
For God did not give us a spirit of timidity, but a spirit of power, of love and of self-discipline. (2 Timothy 1:7)
What you heard from me, keep as the pattern of sound teaching, with faith and love in Christ Jesus. (2 Timothy 1:13)
Flee the evil desires of youth, and pursue righteousness, faith, love and peace, along with those who call on the Lord out of a pure heart. (2 Timothy 2:22)
You, however, know all about my teaching, my way of life, my purpose, faith, patience, love, endurance, (2 Timothy 3:10)
Now there is in store for me the crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous Judge, will award to me on that day--and not only to me, but also to all who have longed for his appearing. (2 Timothy 4:8)
for Demas, because he loved this world, has deserted me and has gone to Thessalonica. Crescens has gone to Galatia, and Titus to Dalmatia. (2 Timothy 4:10)
Teach the older men to be temperate, worthy of respect, self-controlled, and sound in faith, in love and in endurance. (Titus 2:2)
Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus, and Timothy our brother, To Philemon our dear friend and fellow worker, (Philemon 1:1)
because I hear about your faith in the Lord Jesus and your love for all the saints. (Philemon 1:5)
Your love has given me great joy and encouragement, because you, brother, have refreshed the hearts of the saints. (Philemon 1:7)
yet I appeal to you on the basis of love. I then, as Paul--an old man and now also a prisoner of Christ Jesus-- (Philemon 1:9)
no longer as a slave, but better than a slave, as a dear brother. He is very dear to me but even dearer to you, both as a man and as a brother in the Lord. (Philemon 1:16)
You have loved righteousness and hated wickedness; therefore God, your God, has set you above your companions by anointing you with the oil of joy." (Hebrews 1:9)
Even though we speak like this, dear friends, we are confident of better things in your case--things that accompany salvation. (Hebrews 6:9)
God is not unjust; he will not forget your work and the love you have shown him as you have helped his people and continue to help them. (Hebrews 6:10)
And let us consider how we may spur one another on toward love and good deeds. (Hebrews 10:24)
because the Lord disciplines those he loves, and he punishes everyone he accepts as a son." (Hebrews 12:6)
Blessed is the man who perseveres under trial, because when he has stood the test, he will receive the crown of life that God has promised to those who love him. (James 1:12)
Don't be deceived, my dear brothers. (James 1:16)
My dear brothers, take note of this: Everyone should be quick to listen, slow to speak and slow to become angry, (James 1:19)
Listen, my dear brothers: Has not God chosen those who are poor in the eyes of the world to be rich in faith and to inherit the kingdom he promised those who love him? (James 2:5)
If you really keep the royal law found in Scripture, "Love your neighbor as yourself," you are doing right. (James 2:8)
Though you have not seen him, you love him; and even though you do not see him now, you believe in him and are filled with an inexpressible and glorious joy, (1 Peter 1:8)
Now that you have purified yourselves by obeying the truth so that you have sincere love for your brothers, love one another deeply, from the heart. (1 Peter 1:22)
Dear friends, I urge you, as aliens and strangers in the world, to abstain from sinful desires, which war against your soul. (1 Peter 2:11)
Show proper respect to everyone: Love the brotherhood of believers, fear God, honor the king. (1 Peter 2:17)
For, "Whoever would love life and see good days must keep his tongue from evil and his lips from deceitful speech. (1 Peter 3:10)
Above all, love each other deeply, because love covers over a multitude of sins. (1 Peter 4:8)
Dear friends, do not be surprised at the painful trial you are suffering, as though something strange were happening to you. (1 Peter 4:12)
Greet one another with a kiss of love. Peace to all of you who are in Christ. (1 Peter 5:14)
and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, love. (2 Peter 1:7)
For he received honor and glory from God the Father when the voice came to him from the Majestic Glory, saying, "This is my Son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased." (2 Peter 1:17)
They have left the straight way and wandered off to follow the way of Balaam son of Beor, who loved the wages of wickedness. (2 Peter 2:15)
Dear friends, this is now my second letter to you. I have written both of them as reminders to stimulate you to wholesome thinking. (2 Peter 3:1)
But do not forget this one thing, dear friends: With the Lord a day is like a thousand years, and a thousand years are like a day. (2 Peter 3:8)
So then, dear friends, since you are looking forward to this, make every effort to be found spotless, blameless and at peace with him. (2 Peter 3:14)
Bear in mind that our Lord's patience means salvation, just as our dear brother Paul also wrote you with the wisdom that God gave him. (2 Peter 3:15)
Therefore, dear friends, since you already know this, be on your guard so that you may not be carried away by the error of lawless men and fall from your secure position. (2 Peter 3:17)
But if anyone obeys his word, God's love is truly made complete in him. This is how we know we are in him: (1 John 2:5)
Dear friends, I am not writing you a new command but an old one, which you have had since the beginning. This old command is the message you have heard. (1 John 2:7)
Whoever loves his brother lives in the light, and there is nothing in him to make him stumble. (1 John 2:10)
Do not love the world or anything in the world. If anyone loves the world, the love of the Father is not in him. (1 John 2:15)
How great is the love the Father has lavished on us, that we should be called children of God! And that is what we are! The reason the world does not know us is that it did not know him. (1 John 3:1)
Dear friends, now we are children of God, and what we will be has not yet been made known. But we know that when he appears, we shall be like him, for we shall see him as he is. (1 John 3:2)
This is how we know who the children of God are and who the children of the devil are: Anyone who does not do what is right is not a child of God; nor is anyone who does not love his brother. (1 John 3:10)
This is the message you heard from the beginning: We should love one another. (1 John 3:11)
We know that we have passed from death to life, because we love our brothers. Anyone who does not love remains in death. (1 John 3:14)
This is how we know what love is: Jesus Christ laid down his life for us. And we ought to lay down our lives for our brothers. (1 John 3:16)
If anyone has material possessions and sees his brother in need but has no pity on him, how can the love of God be in him? (1 John 3:17)
Dear children, let us not love with words or tongue but with actions and in truth. (1 John 3:18)
Dear friends, if our hearts do not condemn us, we have confidence before God (1 John 3:21)
And this is his command: to believe in the name of his Son, Jesus Christ, and to love one another as he commanded us. (1 John 3:23)
Dear friends, do not believe every spirit, but test the spirits to see whether they are from God, because many false prophets have gone out into the world. (1 John 4:1)
Dear friends, let us love one another, for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God. (1 John 4:7)
Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love. (1 John 4:8)
This is how God showed his love among us: He sent his one and only Son into the world that we might live through him. (1 John 4:9)
This is love: not that we loved God, but that he loved us and sent his Son as an atoning sacrifice for our sins. (1 John 4:10)
Dear friends, since God so loved us, we also ought to love one another. (1 John 4:11)
No one has ever seen God; but if we love one another, God lives in us and his love is made complete in us. (1 John 4:12)
And so we know and rely on the love God has for us. God is love. Whoever lives in love lives in God, and God in him. (1 John 4:16)
In this way, love is made complete among us so that we will have confidence on the day of judgment, because in this world we are like him. (1 John 4:17)
There is no fear in love. But perfect love drives out fear, because fear has to do with punishment. The one who fears is not made perfect in love. (1 John 4:18)
We love because he first loved us. (1 John 4:19)
If anyone says, "I love God," yet hates his brother, he is a liar. For anyone who does not love his brother, whom he has seen, cannot love God, whom he has not seen. (1 John 4:20)
And he has given us this command: Whoever loves God must also love his brother. (1 John 4:21)
Everyone who believes that Jesus is the Christ is born of God, and everyone who loves the father loves his child as well. (1 John 5:1)
This is how we know that we love the children of God: by loving God and carrying out his commands. (1 John 5:2)
This is love for God: to obey his commands. And his commands are not burdensome, (1 John 5:3)
The elder, To the chosen lady and her children, whom I love in the truth--and not I only, but also all who know the truth-- (2 John 1:1)
Grace, mercy and peace from God the Father and from Jesus Christ, the Father's Son, will be with us in truth and love. (2 John 1:3)
And now, dear lady, I am not writing you a new command but one we have had from the beginning. I ask that we love one another. (2 John 1:5)
And this is love: that we walk in obedience to his commands. As you have heard from the beginning, his command is that you walk in love. (2 John 1:6)
The elder, To my dear friend Gaius, whom I love in the truth. (3 John 1:1)
Dear friend, I pray that you may enjoy good health and that all may go well with you, even as your soul is getting along well. (3 John 1:2)
Dear friend, you are faithful in what you are doing for the brothers, even though they are strangers to you. (3 John 1:5)
They have told the church about your love. You will do well to send them on their way in a manner worthy of God. (3 John 1:6)
Dear friend, do not imitate what is evil but what is good. Anyone who does what is good is from God. Anyone who does what is evil has not seen God. (3 John 1:11)
Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James, To those who have been called, who are loved by God the Father and kept by Jesus Christ: (Jude 1:1)
Mercy, peace and love be yours in abundance. (Jude 1:2)
Dear friends, although I was very eager to write to you about the salvation we share, I felt I had to write and urge you to contend for the faith that was once for all entrusted to the saints. (Jude 1:3)
These men are blemishes at your love feasts, eating with you without the slightest qualm--shepherds who feed only themselves. They are clouds without rain, blown along by the wind; autumn trees, without fruit and uprooted--twice dead. (Jude 1:12)
But, dear friends, remember what the apostles of our Lord Jesus Christ foretold. (Jude 1:17)
But you, dear friends, build yourselves up in your most holy faith and pray in the Holy Spirit. (Jude 1:20)
Keep yourselves in God's love as you wait for the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ to bring you to eternal life. (Jude 1:21)
and from Jesus Christ, who is the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth. To him who loves us and has freed us from our sins by his blood, (Revelation 1:5)
Yet I hold this against you: You have forsaken your first love. (Revelation 2:4)
I know your deeds, your love and faith, your service and perseverance, and that you are now doing more than you did at first. (Revelation 2:19)
I will make those who are of the synagogue of Satan, who claim to be Jews though they are not, but are liars--I will make them come and fall down at your feet and acknowledge that I have loved you. (Revelation 3:9)
They overcame him by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony; they did not love their lives so much as to shrink from death. (Revelation 12:11)
They marched across the breadth of the earth and surrounded the camp of God's people, the city he loves. But fire came down from heaven and devoured them. (Revelation 20:9)
Sacred Heart
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For other uses, see Sacred Heart (disambiguation).
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Typical illustration of the Sacred Heart of Jesus Christ
The Sacred Heart is a religious devotion to Jesus' physical heart as the representation of the divine love for humanity.
This devotion is predominantly used in the Roman Catholic Church, and also in strains of the Anglican Church and some Lutheran Churches. It stresses the central Christian concept of loving and adoring Jesus. The origin of this devotion in its modern form is derived from a French Roman Catholic nun, Marguerite Marie Alacoque, who said she learned the devotion from Jesus in visions. Predecessors to the modern devotion existed to some extent in the Middle Ages in various mystical sects.[1]
In the Roman Catholic tradition, the Sacred Heart has been closely associated with Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ. In his encyclical Miserentissimus Redemptor, Pope Pius XI stated: "the spirit of expiation or reparation has always had the first and foremost place in the worship given to the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus".[2]
Devotion to the Sacred Heart is sometimes seen in the Eastern Catholic Churches, where it remains a point of controversy and is seen as an example of liturgical latinisation.
The Sacred Heart is often depicted in Christian art as a flaming heart shining with divine light, pierced by the lance-wound, surrounded by a crown of thorns, and bleeding. Sometimes the image is over Jesus' body with his wounded hands pointing at the heart. The wounds and crown of thorns allude to the manner of Jesus' death, while the fire represents the transformative power of love.
The Feast of the Sacred Heart has been a Solemnity in the Roman Catholic liturgical calendar since 1856, and is celebrated 19 days after Pentecost. As Pentecost is always celebrated on Sunday, the Feast of the Sacred Heart always falls on a Friday. In 2009, it will be celebrated on June 19.
|A series of articles on |
|Roman Catholic |
|Devotions to Christ |
| |
|[pic] |
|Overview of Devotions |
|Holy Face |
|Sacred Heart |
|Divine Mercy |
|Eucharistic adoration |
|Holy Name |
|Acts of Reparation |
|Holy Wounds |
|Rosary of Holy Wounds |
|Shoulder Wound |
|Stations of the Cross |
|Precious Blood |
|Infant of Prague |
|Contents |
|[hide] |
|1 History of Devotion |
|1.1 Early devotion |
|1.2 Visions of St. Margaret Mary |
|1.3 Papal Approval |
|1.4 Worship and Devotion |
|2 Institution Names |
|3 Sacred Heart Imagery |
|3.1 In folklore |
|3.2 In popular culture |
|3.3 In Eastern Catholicism |
|4 Promises of the Sacred Heart |
|5 Litany of the Sacred Heart of Jesus |
|6 See also |
|7 References |
|8 External links |
[pic][edit] History of Devotion
[edit] Early devotion
From the time of John the Evangelist and Paul of Tarsus there has always been in the Church something like devotion to the love of God, but there is nothing to indicate that, during the first ten centuries of Christianity, any worship was rendered to the wounded Heart of Jesus.[3] It is in the eleventh and twelfth centuries that the first indications of devotion to the Sacred Heart are found. It was in the fervent atmosphere of the Benedictine or Cistercian monasteries, in the world of Anselmian or Bernardine thought, that the devotion arose, although it is impossible to say positively what were its first texts or who were its first devotees c. To St. Gertrude, St. Mechtilde, and the author of the "Vitis mystica" (previously ascribed to St. Bernard, now attributed to St. Bonaventure) it was already well known.
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Another depiction of Jesus and His Most Sacred Heart
From the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, the devotion was propagated but it did not seem to have developed in itself. It was everywhere practised by individuals and by different religious congregations, such as the Franciscans, Dominicans, Carthusians, etc. It was, nevertheless, a private, individual devotion of the mystical order. Nothing of a general movement had been inaugurated, except for similarities found in the devotion to the Five Wounds by the Franciscans, in which the wound in Jesus' Heart figured most prominently.
In the sixteenth century, the devotion passed from the domain of mysticism into that of Christian asceticism. It was established as a devotion with prayers already formulated and special exercises, found in the writings of Lanspergius (d. 1539) of the Carthusians of Cologne, the Louis of Blois (Blosius; 1566), a Benedictine and Abbot of Liessies in Hainaut, John of Avila (d. 1569) and St. Francis de Sales, the latter belonging to the seventeenth century.
The historical record from that time shows an early bringing to light of the devotion. Ascetic writers spoke of it, especially those of the Society of Jesus. The image of the Sacred Heart of Jesus was everywhere in evidence, largely due to the Franciscan devotion to the Five Wounds and to the habit formed by the Jesuits of placing the image on their title-page of their books and the walls of their churches.
Nevertheless, the devotion remained an individual, or at least a private, devotion. Jean Eudes (1602-1680) made it public, gave it an Office, and established a feast for it. Père Eudes was the apostle of the Heart of Mary; but in his devotion to the Immaculate Heart there was a share for the Heart of Jesus. Little by little, the devotion to the Sacred Heart became a separate one, and on August 31, 1670, the first feast of the Sacred Heart was celebrated in the Grand Seminary of Rennes. Coutances followed suit on October 20, a day with which the Eudist feast was from then on to be connected. The feast soon spread to other dioceses, and the devotion was likewise adopted in various religious communities. It gradually came into contact with the devotion begun at Paray, and resulting in a fusion of the two.
[edit] Visions of St. Margaret Mary
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The Sacred Heart Sculpture on the High Altar of the Cathedral Church of Saint Patrick in El Paso, TX.
The most significant source for the devotion to the Sacred Heart in the form it is known today was Visitandine Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque (1647-1690), who claimed to have received visions of Jesus Christ. There is nothing to indicate that she had known the devotion prior to the revelations, or at least that she had paid any attention to it. The revelations were numerous, and the following apparitions are especially remarkable:
• On December 27, probably 1673, the feast of St. John, Margaret Mary reported that Jesus permitted her, as He had formerly allowed St. Gertrude, to rest her head upon His Heart, and then disclosed to her the wonders of His love, telling her that He desired to make them known to all mankind and to diffuse the treasures of His goodness, and that He had chosen her for this work.
• In probably June or July, 1674, Margaret Mary claimed that Jesus requested to be honored under the figure of His Heart of flesh, also claiming that, when He appeared radiant with love, He asked for a devotion of expiatory love: frequent reception of Communion, especially Communion on the First Friday of the month, and the observance of the Holy Hour.
• During the octave of Corpus Christi, 1675, probably on June 16, the vision known as the "great apparition" reportedly took place, where Jesus said, "Behold the Heart that has so loved men ... instead of gratitude I receive from the greater part (of mankind) only ingratitude ...", and asked Margaret Mary for a feast of reparation of the Friday after the octave of Corpus Christi, bidding her consult Father de la Colombière, then superior of the small Jesuit house at Paray. Solemn homage was asked on the part of the king, and the mission of propagating the new devotion was especially confided to the religious of the Visitation and to the priests of the Society of Jesus.
A few days after the "great apparition", Margaret Mary reported everything she saw to Father de la Colombière, and he, acknowledging the vision as an action of the Spirit of God, consecrated himself to the Sacred Heart and directed her to write an account of the apparition. He also made use of every available opportunity to circulate this account, discreetly, through France and England. Upon his death on February 15, 1682, there was found in his journal of spiritual retreats a copy in his own handwriting of the account that he had requested of Margaret Mary, together with a few reflections on the usefulness of the devotion. This journal, including the account and an "offering" to the Sacred Heart, in which the devotion was well explained, was published at Lyons in 1684. The little book was widely read, especially at Paray. Margaret Mary reported feeling "dreadful confusion" over the book's contents, but resolved to make the best of it, approving of the book for the spreading of her cherished devotion. Outside of the Visitandines, priests, religious, and laymen espoused the devotion, particularly the Capuchins, Margaret Mary's two brothers, and some Jesuits. The Jesuit Father Croiset wrote a book called The Devotion to the Sacred Heart[4], a book which Jesus is said to told Margaret to tell Fr Croiset to write, and Fr Joseph de Gallifet, also a Jesuit, promoted the devotion.
|Dates for the Feast of the Sacred Heart, 2002-2020 |
|Year |Date |
|2002 |June 7 |
|2003 |June 27 |
|2004 |June 18 |
|2005 |June 3 |
|2006 |June 23 |
|2007 |June 15 |
|2008 |May 30 |
|2009 |June 19 |
|2010 |June 11 |
|2011 |July 1 |
|2012 |June 15 |
|2013 |June 7 |
|2014 |June 27 |
|2015 |June 12 |
|2016 |June 3 |
|2017 |June 23 |
|2018 |June 8 |
|2019 |June 28 |
|2020 |June 19 |
[edit] Papal Approval
The death of Margaret Mary, October 17, 1690, did not dampen the zeal of those interested; on the contrary, a short account of her life published by Father Croiset in 1691, as an appendix to his book "De la Dévotion au Sacré Cœur", served only to increase it. In spite of all sorts of obstacles, and of the slowness of the Holy See, which in 1693 imparted indulgences to the Confraternities of the Sacred Heart and, in 1697, granted the feast to the Visitandines with the Mass of the Five Wounds, but refused a feast common to all, with special Mass and Office. The devotion spread, particularly in religious communities. The Marseilles plague, 1720, furnished perhaps the first occasion for a solemn consecration and public worship outside of religious communities. Other cities of the South followed the example of Marseilles, and thus the devotion became a popular one. In 1726 it was deemed advisable once more to importune Rome for a feast with a Mass and Office of its own, but, in 1729, Rome again refused. However, in 1765, it finally yielded and that same year, at the request of the queen, the feast was received quasi-officially by the episcopate of France. On all sides it was asked for and obtained, and finally, in 1856, at the urgent entreaties of the French bishops, Pope Pius IX extended the feast to the Roman Catholic Church under the rite of double major. In 1889 it was raised by the Roman Catholic Church to the double rite of first class.
In his 1928 encyclical Miserentissimus Redemptor Pope Pius XI affirmed the Church's position with respect to Saint Margaret Mary's visions of Jesus Christ by stating that Jesus had "manifested Himself" to Saint Margaret and had "promised her that all those who rendered this honor to His Heart would be endowed with an abundance of heavenly graces." The encyclical refers to the conversation between Jesus and Saint Margaret several times.[5]
On May 15, 2006, Pope Benedict XVI sent a letter to Father Peter Hans Kolvenbach, the Superior General of the Society of Jesus, on the 50th Anniversary of the encyclical Haurietis Aquas, about the Sacred Heart, by Pope Pius XII. In his letter to Father Kolvenbach, Pope Benedict reaffirmed the importance of the devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus.
[edit] Worship and Devotion
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Depiction of the Sacred Heart in a convent chapel
The Roman Catholic acts of consecration, reparation and devotion were introduced when the feast of the Sacred Heart was declared. In his Papal Bull Auctorem Fidei, Pope Pius VI praised devotion to the Sacred Heart. Finally, by order of Leo XIII, in his encyclical Annum Sacrum (May 25, 1899), as well as on June 11, he consecrated every human to the Sacred Heart. The idea of this act, which Leo XIII called "the great act" of his pontificate, had been proposed to him by a religious woman of the Good Shepherd from Oporto (Portugal) who said that she had supernaturally received it from Jesus. Since c. 1850, groups, congregations, and States have consecrated themselves to the Sacred Heart. In 1873, by petition of president Gabriel García Moreno, Ecuador was the first country in the world to be consecrated to the Sacred Heart, fulfilling God's petition to Saint Margaret Mary over two hundred years later.
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The Titular Statue of the Sacred Heart on Feast Day in Fontana, Gozo in Malta. All families in Gozo were consecrated to the Sacred Heart in the year 2000, on the initiative of Fontana's Parish.
Peter Coudrin of France founded the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary on December 24, 1800. A religious order of the Roman Catholic Church, the order is best known for its missionary work in Hawaii.
Mother Clelia Merloni from Forlì (Italy) founded the Congregation of the Apostles of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in Viareggio, Italy, May 30, 1894.
Worship of the Sacred Heart mainly consists of several hymns, the Salutation of the Sacred Heart, and the Litany of the Sacred Heart. It is common in Roman Catholic services and occasionally is to be found in Anglican services.
The Feast of the Sacred Heart is a solemnity in the Roman Catholic liturgical calendar, and is celebrated 19 days after Pentecost. As Pentecost is always celebrated on Sunday, the Feast of the Sacred Heart always falls on a Friday.
The Enthronement of the Sacred Heart is a Roman Catholic ceremony in which a priest or head of a household consecrates the members of the household to the Sacred Heart. A blessed image of the Sacred Heart, either a statue or a picture, is then "enthroned" in the home to serve as a constant reminder to those who dwell in the house of their consecration to the Sacred Heart. The practice of the Enthronement is based upon Pope Pius XII's declaration that devotion to the Sacred of Jesus is "the foundation on which to build the kingdom of God in the hearts of individuals, families, and nations..."[6]
[edit] Institution Names
Sacred Heart is still a widely used name for many Roman Catholic institutions, including schools, colleges, and hospitals in many countries around the world. It is also the name of many Roman Catholic parishes, religious orders, and stores selling Roman Catholic goods.
For a list of institutions named after the Sacred Heart, see Sacred Heart (disambiguation).
[edit] Sacred Heart Imagery
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The Sacred Heart crowned with thorns, appearing on the Miraculous Medal
The Sacred Heart has also been involved in (and been depicted) in saintly apparitions such as those to Saint Catherine Labouré in 1830 and appears on the Miraculous Medal.[7] On the Miraculous Medal, the Sacred Heart is crowned with thorns. The Immaculate Heart of Mary also appears on the medal, next to the Sacred Heart, but is pierced by a sword, rather than being crowned with thorns. The M on the medal signifies the Blessed Virgin at the foot of the Cross when Jesus was being crucified.
Religious imagery depicting the Sacred Heart is frequently featured in Roman Catholic, and sometimes Anglican homes. Sometimes images display beneath them a list of family members, indicating that the entire family is entrusted to the protection of Jesus in the Sacred Heart, from whom blessings on the home and the family members are sought. The prayer "O Sacred Heart of Jesus, I place all my trust in Thee" is often used. One particular image has been used as part of a set, along with an image of the Blessed Virgin Mary. In that image, Mary too was shown pointing to her Immaculate Heart, expressing her love for the human race and for her Son, Jesus Christ. The mirror images reflect an eternal binding of the two hearts.
Roman Catholics are encouraged to wear a small, postage-stamp sized paper portrait of the Sacred Heart, usually glued to red flannel, on a thin ribbon necklace with a similar amulet hanging at the back. This is known as a scapular.
[edit] In folklore
Many members of the Carlist military forces of the 19th and 20th centuries in Spain wore detentes or amulets with an image of the Sacred Heart. These Roman Catholic monarchists believed the image would protect them against wounding by the enemy firearms.
[edit] In popular culture
This motif has become a part of vernacular culture through its appropriation by tattoo artists.[8] An image significantly similar to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, or the Immaculate Heart of His Mother Mary, was used as the logo for Baz Luhrmann's movie Romeo + Juliet (1996). In addition, the hospital featured on the television sitcom Scrubs is named "Sacred Heart Hospital."
[edit] In Eastern Catholicism
Devotion to the Sacred Heart may be found in some Eastern Catholic Churches, but is a contentious issue. Those who favour purity of rite are opposed to the devotion, while those who are in favour of the devotion cite it as a point of commonality with their Latin Catholic brethren.
[edit] Promises of the Sacred Heart
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Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Koekelberg, Brussels, Belgium
Christ, in his appearances to Margaret Mary, allegedly promised these blessings to those who practice devotion to his Sacred Heart. This tabular form of promises was not made by St. Margaret Mary or her contemporaries. It first appeared at 1863. In 1882, an American businessman spread the tabular form of the promises profusely throughout the world, the twelve promises appearing in 238 languages. In 1890, Cardinal Adolph Perraud deplored this circulation of the promises in the tabular form which were different from the words and even from the meaning of the expressions used by St. Margaret Mary, and wanted the promises to be published in the full, authentic texts as found in the writings of St. Margaret Mary.[9]
1. I will give them all the graces necessary for their state of life.
2. I will give peace in their families.
3. I will console them in all their troubles.
4. I will be their refuge in life and especially in death.
5. I will abundantly bless all their undertakings.
6. Sinners shall find in my Heart the source and infinite ocean of mercy.
7. Tepid souls shall become fervent.
8. Fervent souls shall rise speedily to great perfection.
9. I will bless those places wherein the image of My Sacred Heart shall be exposed and venerated.
10. I will give to priests the power to touch the most hardened hearts.
11. Persons who propagate this devotion shall have their names eternally written in my Heart.
12. In the excess of the mercy of my Heart, I promise you that my all powerful love will grant to all those who will receive Communion on the First Fridays, for nine consecutive months, the grace of final repentance: they will not die in my displeasure, nor without receiving the sacraments; and my Heart will be their secure refuge in that last hour.
The last promise has given rise to the pious Roman Catholic practice of making an effort to attend Mass and receive Communion on the first Friday of each month.
Great efficacy of converting people has been attached to the use of the image of the Sacred Heart.
"Even at the hour of death, incredulous, indifferent, hardened souls have been converted by simply showing them a picture of the Sacred Heart, which sufficed to restore these sinners to the life of hope and love, in a word, to touch the most hardened. It would, indeed, be a great misfortune to any apostolic man to neglect so powerful a means of conversion, and in proof of this I will mention a single fact which will need no comment. A religious of the Company of Jesus had been requested by the Blessed Margaret Mary to make a careful engraving of the Sacred Heart. Being often hindered by other occupations, there was much delay in preparing this plate. ' This good father,' writes the saint, 'is so much occupied by Mon- signor d'Autun in the conversion of heretics, that he has neither time nor leisure to give to the work so ardently desired by the Heart of our Divine Master. You cannot imagine, my much-loved mother, how greatly this delay afflicts and pains me. I must avow confidently to you my belief that it is the cause of his converting so few infidels in this town. I seem constantly to hear these words : ' That if this good father had acquitted himself at once of his promise to the Sacred Heart, Jesus would have changed and converted the hearts of these infidels, on account of the joy He would have felt at seeing Himself honoured in the picture He so much wishes for. As, however, he prefers other work, even though to the glory of God, to that of giving Him this satisfaction, He will harden the hearts of these infidels, and the labours of this mission will not be crowned with much fruit.'
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[edit] Litany of the Sacred Heart of Jesus
V. Lord, have mercy on us.
R. Christ, have mercy on us.
V. Lord, have mercy on us. Christ, hear us.
R. Christ, graciously hear us.
V. God the Father of Heaven, have mercy on us.
God the Son, Redeemer of the world, have mercy on us.
God the Holy Spirit, have mercy on us.
Holy Trinity, one God, have mercy on us.
Heart of Jesus, Son of the Eternal Father, have mercy on us.
Heart of Jesus, formed by the Holy Spirit in the Virgin Mother's womb, [etc.]
Heart of Jesus, substantially united to the Word of God.
Heart of Jesus, of infinite majesty.
Heart of Jesus, holy temple of God.
Heart of Jesus, tabernacle of the Most High.
Heart of Jesus, house of God and gate of heaven.
Heart of Jesus, glowing furnace of charity.
Heart of Jesus, vessel of justice and love.
Heart of Jesus, full of goodness and love.
Heart of Jesus, abyss of all virtues.
Heart of Jesus, most worthy of all praise.
Heart of Jesus, King and center of all hearts.
Heart of Jesus, in whom are all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge.
Heart of Jesus, in whom dwells all the fullness of the Godhead.
Heart of Jesus, in whom the Father was well pleased.
Heart of Jesus, of whose fullness we have all received.
Heart of Jesus, desire of the everlasting hills.
Heart of Jesus, patient and rich in mercy.
Heart of Jesus, rich to all who call upon You.
Heart of Jesus, fount of life and holiness.
Heart of Jesus, propitiation for our offenses.
Heart of Jesus, overwhelmed with reproaches.
Heart of Jesus, bruised for our iniquities.
Heart of Jesus, obedient even unto death.
Heart of Jesus, pierced with a lance.
Heart of Jesus, source of all consolation.
Heart of Jesus, our life and resurrection.
Heart of Jesus, our peace and reconciliation.
Heart of Jesus, victim for our sins.
Heart of Jesus, salvation of those who hope in You.
Heart of Jesus, hope of those who die in You.
Heart of Jesus, delight of all saints.
V. Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world,
R. spare us, O Lord.
V. Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world,
R. graciously hear us, O Lord.
V. Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world,
R. have mercy on us.
V. Jesus, meek and humble of Heart,
R. Make our hearts like unto Thine.
Let us pray.
Almighty and eternal God, look upon the Heart of Thy most beloved Son and upon the praises and satisfaction which He offers Thee in the name of sinners; and to those who implore Thy mercy, in Thy great goodness, grant forgiveness in the name of the same Jesus Christ, Thy Son, who livest and reignest with Thee forever and ever. Amen.
[edit] See also
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Sacred Heart
• Immaculate Heart of Mary
• Catholic devotions
[edit] References
This article incorporates text from the public-domain Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913.
1. ^ "Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus II. Historical Ideas on the Development of the Devotion, para (3-4)". Catholic Encyclopedia. New Advent. Retrieved on 11 July 2006.
2. ^ Miserentissimus Redemptor Encyclical of Pope Pius XI
3. ^ "Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus II. Historical Ideas on the Development of the Devotion, para (1)". Catholic Encyclopedia. New Advent. Retrieved on 11 July 2006.
4. ^ Devotion to the sacred heart of Jesus. by Jean Croiset
5. ^ Miserentissimus Redemptor Encyclical of Pope Pius XI
6. ^ Pope Pius XII. "Haurietis Aquas". Vatican Archives. Retrieved on November 17, 2006.
7. ^ Catholic encyclopedia [1]
8. ^ "Photos of Sacred Heart tattoos". Religious Tattoos. Retrieved on 11 July 2006.
9. ^ [The Fr. Paul Wenisch. Promises of Our Lord to St. Margaret (1920) pg. 3 ]
[edit] External links
• Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, which was commanded to be written by Jesus Himself through St. Margaret Mary
• The Sacred Heart Prayer.
• Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, from Catholic Encyclopedia.
• Catholic Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus.
• What is consecration and commitment to the hearts of Jesus and Mary
Mass–energy equivalence
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For other uses, see E=MC2 (disambiguation).
[pic]
[pic]
3-meter-tall sculpture of Einstein's 1905 E = mc2 formula at the 2006 Walk of Ideas, Germany
In physics, mass–energy equivalence is the concept that for particles slower than light any mass has an associated energy and vice versa. In special relativity this relationship is expressed using the mass–energy equivalence formula
[pic]
where
• E = energy,
• m = mass,
• c = the speed of light in a vacuum (celeritas),
Two definitions of mass in special relativity may be validly used with this formula. If the mass in the formula is the rest mass, the energy in the formula is called the rest energy. If the mass is the relativistic mass, then the energy is the total energy.
The formula was derived by Albert Einstein, who arrived at it in 1905 in the paper "Does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy-content?", one of his Annus Mirabilis ("Miraculous Year") Papers.[1] While Einstein was not the first to propose a mass–energy relationship, and various similar formulas appeared before Einstein's theory, Einstein was the first to propose that the equivalence of mass and energy is a general principle, a consequence of the symmetries of space and time.
In the formula, c2 is the conversion factor required to convert from units of mass to units of energy. The formula does not depend on a specific system of units. In the International System of Units, the unit for energy is the joule, for mass the kilogram, and for speed meters per second. Note that 1 joule equals 1 kg·m2/s2. In unit-specific terms, E (in joules) = m (in kilograms) multiplied by (299,792,458 m/s)2.
|Contents |
|[hide] |
|1 Conservation of mass and energy |
|1.1 Fast-moving object |
|2 Meanings of the mass–energy equivalence formula |
|3 Consequences for nuclear physics |
|4 Practical examples |
|5 Perfect conversion |
|6 Background |
|6.1 Relativistic mass |
|6.2 Low-speed Expansion |
|7 History |
|7.1 Newton: Matter and light |
|7.2 Electromagnetic rest mass |
|7.3 Inertia of energy and radiation |
|7.4 Einstein: Mass–energy equivalence |
|7.5 Others |
|7.6 Nuclear energy and popular culture |
|8 See also |
|9 References |
|10 External links |
[pic][edit] Conservation of mass and energy
The concept of mass–energy equivalence unites the concepts of conservation of mass and conservation of energy, allowing rest mass to be converted to forms of active energy (such as kinetic energy, heat, or light) while still retaining mass. Conversely, active energy in the form of kinetic energy or radiation can be converted to particles which have rest mass. The total amount of mass/energy in a closed system (as seen by a single observer) remains constant because energy cannot be created or destroyed and, in all of its forms, trapped energy exhibits mass. In relativity, mass and energy are two forms of the same thing, and neither one appears without the other.
[edit] Fast-moving object
If a force is applied to an object in the direction of motion, the object gains momentum. It also gains energy because the force is doing work. But an object cannot be accelerated to the speed of light, regardless of how much energy it absorbs. Its momentum and energy continue to increase, but its speed approaches a constant value--- the speed of light. This means that in relativity the momentum of an object cannot be a constant times the velocity, nor is the kinetic energy given by ½mv2. (The latter is just a very good low-velocity approximation.)
The relativistic mass is defined as the ratio of the momentum of an object to its velocity, and it depends on the motion of the object relative to the observer. If the object is moving slowly, the relativistic mass is nearly equal to the rest mass and both are equal to the usual Newtonian mass. If the object is moving quickly, the relativistic mass is greater than the rest mass. As the object approaches the speed of light, the relativistic mass tends towards infinity. When a force acts in the direction of motion, the relativistic mass goes up and the momentum goes up, but the speed hardly increases.
The relativistic mass is always equal to the total energy divided by c2 shown as: m = E/c2 The difference between the relativistic mass and the rest mass is the relativistic kinetic energy (divided by c2). Because the relativistic mass is exactly proportional to the energy, relativistic mass and relativistic energy are nearly synonyms; the only difference between them is the units. If length and time are measured in natural units, the speed of light is equal to 1, and even this difference disappears. Then mass and energy have the same units and are always equal, so it is redundant to speak about relativistic mass, because it is just another name for the energy.
For this reason, in relativity people almost always reserve the useful short word "mass" to mean the rest mass. The rest mass of an object is the relativistic mass as measured when moving along with the object. By definition, rest mass is the same in all inertial frames. For a system of particles going off in different directions, the invariant mass is the analog of the rest mass, and it is defined as the total energy (divided by c2) in the center of mass frame.
For a system made up of many parts, linked in (nucleus, atom, planet, star, …), the relativistic mass is the sum of the relativistic masses of the parts, because the energy adds up.
[edit] Meanings of the mass–energy equivalence formula
[pic]
[pic]
The mass–energy equivalence formula was displayed on Taipei 101 during the event of the World Year of Physics 2005.
Mass–energy equivalence says that a "body" (i.e. a mass) has a certain energy, even when it isn't moving. In Newtonian mechanics, a massive body at rest has no kinetic energy, and it may or may not have other (relatively small) amounts of internal stored energy such as chemical energy or thermal energy, in addition to any potential energy it may have from its position in a field of force. In Newtonian mechanics, none of these energies contributes to the mass.
In relativity, all the energy which moves along with a body adds up to the total energy of the body, which is proportional to the relativistic mass. Even a single photon traveling in empty space has a relativistic mass, which is its energy divided by c2. If a box of ideal mirrors contains light, the mass of the box is increased by the energy of the light, since the total energy of the box is its mass.
Although a photon is never "at rest", it still has a rest mass, which is zero. If an observer chases a photon faster and faster, the observed energy of the photon approaches zero as the observer approaches the speed of light. This is why photons are massless. They have zero rest mass even though they have varying amounts of energy and relativistic mass. But, systems of two or more photons moving in different directions (as for example from an electron–positron annihilation) may have zero momentum over all. Their energy E then adds up to an invariant mass m = E/c2, when they are considered as a system.
This formula also gives the amount of mass lost from a body when energy is removed. In a chemical or nuclear reaction, when heat and light are removed, the mass is decreased. So the E in the formula is the energy released or removed, corresponding to a mass m which is lost. In those cases, the energy released and removed is equal in quantity to the mass lost, times c2. Similarly, when energy of any kind is added to a resting body, the increase in the mass is equal to the energy added, divided by c2.
The rest mass of a system, however, is not the sum of the rest masses of its parts taken one-by-one, free from the system[2]. The difference between the rest mass of the system and the rest masses of the (free) parts is the binding energy, which has been emitted in the formation of the system.
But the rest mass of a system is always the sum of the relativistic masses of its parts, in the frame where the system as a whole is at rest. Because the inertia (the relativistic mass) of a system (linked or free) is always the sum of all the inertias (all the relativistic masses) of its parts ; and the rest mass of a object could be seen as the particular value of its relativistic mass, when it's at rest.
[edit] Consequences for nuclear physics
Max Planck pointed out that the mass–energy equivalence formula implied that bound systems would have a mass less than the sum of their constituents, once the binding energy had been allowed to escape. However, Planck was thinking about chemical reactions, where the binding energy is too small to measure. Einstein suggested that radioactive materials such as radium would provide a test of the theory, but even though a large amount of energy is released per atom, only a small fraction of the atoms decay.
Once the nucleus was discovered, experimenters realized that the very high binding energies of the atomic nuclei should allow calculation of their binding energies from mass differences. But it was not until the discovery of the neutron in 1932, and the measurement of its mass, that this calculation could actually be performed (see nuclear binding energy for example calculation). A little while later, the first transmutation reactions (such as [pic]) verified Einstein's formula to an accuracy of +/- 0.5%.
The mass–energy equivalence formula was used in the development of the atomic bomb. By measuring the mass of different atomic nuclei and subtracting from that number the total mass of the protons and neutrons as they would weigh separately, one gets the exact binding energy available in an atomic nucleus. This is used to calculate the energy released in any nuclear reaction, as the difference of the total energies of the nuclei that enter and exit the reaction.
[edit] Practical examples
Einstein used the CGS system of units (centimeters, grams, seconds, dynes, and ergs), but the formula is independent of the system of units. In natural units, the speed of light is defined to equal 1, and the formula expresses an identity: E = m. In the SI system (expressing the ratio E / m in joules per kilogram using the value of c in meters per second):
E / m = c2 = (299,792,458 m/s)2 = 89,875,517,873,681,764 J/kg (≈9.0 × 1016 joules per kilogram)
So one gram of mass — approximately the mass of a U.S. dollar bill — is equivalent to the following amounts of energy:
89.9 terajoules
24.9 million kilowatt-hours (≈25 GW·h)
21.5 billion kilocalories (≈21 Tcal) [3]
21.5 kilotons of TNT-equivalent energy (≈21 kt) [3]
85.2 billion BTUs [3]
Any time energy is generated, the process can be evaluated from an E = mc2 perspective. For instance, the "Gadget"-style bomb used in the Trinity test and the bombing of Nagasaki had an explosive yield equivalent to 21 kt of TNT. About 1 kg of the approximately 6.15 kg of plutonium in each of these bombs fissioned into lighter elements totaling almost exactly one gram less, after cooling [The heat, light, and electromagnetic radiation released in this explosion carried the missing one gram of mass.][4] This occurs because nuclear binding energy is released whenever elements with more than 62 nucleons fission.
Another example is hydroelectric generation. The electrical energy produced by Grand Coulee Dam’s turbines every 3.7 hours represents one gram of mass. This mass passes to the electrical devices which are powered by the generators (such as lights in cities), where it appears as a gram of heat and light.[5] Turbine designers look at their equations in terms of pressure, torque, and RPM. However, Einstein’s equations show that all energy has mass, and thus the electrical energy produced by a dam's generators, and the heat and light which result from it, all retain their mass, which is equivalent to the energy. The potential energy – and equivalent mass – represented by the waters of the Columbia River as it descends to the Pacific Ocean would be converted to heat due to viscous friction and the turbulence of white water rapids and waterfalls were it not for the dam and its generators. This heat would remain as mass on site at the water, were it not for the equipment which converted some of this potential and kinetic energy into electrical energy, which can be moved from place to place (taking mass with it).
Whenever energy is added to a system, the system gains mass. A spring's mass increases whenever it is put into compression or tension. Its added mass arises from the added potential energy stored within it, which is bound in the stretched chemical (electron) bonds linking the atoms within the spring. Raising the temperature of an object (increasing its heat energy) increases its mass. If the temperature of the platinum/iridium "international prototype" of the kilogram — the world’s primary mass standard — is allowed to change by 1°C, its mass will change by 1.5 picograms (1 pg = 1 × 10–12 g).[6]
Note that no net mass or energy is really created or lost in any of these scenarios. Mass/energy simply moves from one place to another. These are some examples of the transfer of energy and mass in accordance with the principle of mass–energy conservation.
Note further that in accordance with Einstein’s Strong Equivalence Principle (SEP), all forms of mass and energy produce a gravitational field in the same way.[7] So all radiated and transmitted energy retains its mass. Not only does the matter comprising Earth create gravity, but the gravitational field itself has mass, and that mass contributes to the field too. This effect is accounted for in ultra-precise laser ranging to the Moon as the Earth orbits the Sun when testing Einstein’s theory of general relativity.[7]
According to E=mc2, no closed system (any system treated and observed as a whole) ever loses mass, even when rest mass is converted to energy. This statement is more than an abstraction based on the principle of equivalence - it is a real-world effect.
Potential energy also has mass, but where this mass sits is sometimes difficult to determine. The concept of potential energy is Newtonian, it is defined for the system as a whole. The mass-energy relation together with the law of gravity requires that the potential energy be somewhere, so that its mass can produce a gravitational field. So in relativity, the potential energy always comes from a local field, and it is found wherever the field is varying or has a value which carries energy. Gravitational experiments can locate the field energy, and therefore the potential energy, in principle.
The one exception is the gravitational field itself. Because the gravitational field can be made to vanish locally by choosing a free-falling frame, it is difficult to locate gravitational energy in an observer independent way. Still, it is possible to define the location of the gravitational energy consistently in several different ways, all of which agree on the total energy. The field energy in the Newtonian limit is the potential energy of a system.
Although all mass, including that in ordinary objects, is energy, this energy is not always in a form which can be used to generate power. All energy, both usable and unusable, has mass, so when people say that certain reactions "convert" mass into "energy", they mean that the mass is converted into specific types of energy, which can be used to do work, which is sometimes called the "active energy". Practical "conversions" of mass into active energy never make all of the mass into the sort of energy which can be used to do work.
For example, in nuclear fission roughly 0.1% of the mass of fissioned atoms is converted to heat energy and radiation. In turn, the mass of fissioned atoms is only part of the mass of the fissionable material: e.g. in a nuclear fission weapon, the efficiency is 40% at most, meaning that 40% of fissionable atoms actually fission. In nuclear fusion roughly 0.3% of the mass of fused atoms is converted to active energy. In thermonuclear weapons (see nuclear weapon yield) some of the bomb mass is casing and non-reacting components, so the efficiency in converting passive energy to active energy, at 6 kilotons TNT equivalent energy output per kilogram of bomb mass (or 6 megatons per metric ton bomb mass), does not exceed 0.03%.
[edit] Perfect conversion
One theoretically perfect method of conversion of the rest mass of matter to usable energy is the annihilation of matter with antimatter. In this process, all the mass energy is released as light and heat. However, in our universe, antimatter is rare. To make antimatter requires more energy than would be liberated.
Since most of the mass of ordinary objects is in protons and neutrons, in order to convert all of the mass in ordinary matter to useful energy, the protons and neutrons must be converted to lighter particles. In the standard model of particle physics, the number of protons plus neutrons is nearly exactly conserved in all reactions at moderate energies. Nevertheless, Gerardus 't Hooft showed[8] that there is a process which will convert protons and neutrons to antielectrons and neutrinos. This is the weak SU(2) instanton discovered by Belavin Polyakov Schwarz and Tyupkin.[9] This process is capable of complete conversion of the mass of matter to usable energy, but it is extraordinarily slow at ordinary energies. Later it became clear that this process will happen at a fast rate at very high temperatures,[10] since then instanton-like configurations will be copiously produced from thermal fluctuations. The temperature required is so high that it would only have been reached shortly after the big bang.
All conservative extensions of the standard model contain magnetic monopoles, and in the usual models of grand unification, these monopoles catalyze proton decay, a process known as the Callan-Rubakov effect.[11] This process would be an efficient mass-energy conversion at ordinary temperatures, but it requires making monopoles and anti-monopoles first. The energy required to produce monopoles is enormous, but they are stable so they would only need to be produced once. However, magnetic monopoles have never been observed or produced at all in any experiment whatsoever, so far.
The third known method of total mass–energy conversion is using gravity, specifically black holes. Stephen Hawking showed[12] that black holes radiate thermally.
[edit] Background
E = mc2 where m stands for rest mass (invariant mass) m0, applies most simply to single particles with no net momentum. But it also applies to ordinary objects composed of many particles so long as the particles are moving in different directions so the total momentum is zero. The rest mass of the object includes contributions from heat and sound, chemical binding energies, and trapped radiation. Familiar examples are a tank of gas, or a hot poker. The kinetic energy of their particles, the heat motion and radiation, contribute to their weight on a scale according to E = mc2.
The formula is the special case of the relativistic energy-momentum relationship:
[pic]
This equation gives the rest mass of an object which has an arbitrary amount of momentum and energy. The interpretation of this equation is that the rest mass is the relativistic length of the energy-momentum four-vector.
If the equation E = mc2 is used with the rest mass or invariant mass of the object, the E given by the equation will be the rest energy of the object, and will change according to the object's internal energy, heat and sound and chemical binding energies (all of which must be added or subtracted from the object), but will not change with the object's overall motion (in the case of systems, the motion of its center of mass). However, if a system if closed, its invariant mass does not vary between observers, and is also constant and conserved.
If the equation E = mc2 is used with the relativistic mass of the object, the energy will be the total energy of the object, which is conserved so long as no energy is added to or subtracted from the object, but which will vary in quantity according to diffenent inertial observers.
Mass-Velocity Relationship
In developing special relativity, Einstein found that the kinetic energy of a moving body is
[pic]
with v the velocity, and m0 the rest mass.
He included the second term on the right to make sure that for small velocities, the energy would be the same as in classical mechanics:
[pic]
Without this second term, there would be an additional contribution in the energy when the particle is not moving.
Einstein found that the total momentum of a moving particle is:
[pic]
and it is this quantity which is conserved in collisions. The ratio of the momentum to the velocity is the relativistic mass, m.
[pic]
And the relativistic mass and the relativistic kinetic energy are related by the formula:
[pic]
Einstein wanted to omit the unnatural second term on the right-hand side, whose only purpose is to make the energy at rest zero, and to declare that the particle has a total energy which obeys:
[pic]
which is a sum of the rest energy m0c2 and the kinetic energy. This total energy is mathematically more elegant, and fits better with the momentum in relativity. But to come to this conclusion, Einstein needed to think carefully about collisions. This expression for the energy implied that matter at rest has a huge amount of energy, and it is not clear whether this energy is physically real, or just a mathematical artifact with no physical meaning.
In a collision process where all the rest-masses are the same at the beginning as at the end, either expression for the energy is conserved. The two expressions only differ by a constant which is the same at the beginning and at the end of the collision. Still, by analyzing the situation where particles are thrown off a heavy central particle, it is easy to see that the inertia of the central particle is reduced by the total energy emitted. This allowed Einstein to conclude that the inertia of a heavy particle is increased or diminished according to the energy it absorbs or emits.
[edit] Relativistic mass
Main article: mass in special relativity
After Einstein first made his proposal, it became clear that the word mass can have two different meanings. The rest mass is what Einstein called m, but others defined the relativistic mass with an explicit index:
[pic]
This mass is the ratio of momentum to velocity, and it is also the relativistic energy divided by c2 (it is not Lorentz-invariant, in contrast to m0). The equation E = mrelc2 holds for moving objects. When the velocity is small, the relativistic mass and the rest mass are almost exactly the same.
E = mc2 either means E = m0c2 for an object at rest, or E = mrelc2 when the object is moving.
Also Einstein (following Hendrik Lorentz and Max Abraham) used velocity- and direction-dependent mass concepts (longitudinal and transverse mass) in his 1905 electrodynamics paper and in another paper in 1906.[13] [14] However, in his first paper on E = mc2 (1905) he treated m as what would now be called the rest mass.[1] Some claim that (in later years) he did not like the idea of "relativistic mass." [15] When modern physicists say "mass", they are usually talking about rest mass, since if they meant "relativistic mass", they would just say "energy".
[edit] Low-speed Expansion
We can rewrite the expression for the energy as a Taylor series:
[pic]
For speeds much smaller than the speed of light, higher-order terms in this expression get smaller and smaller because v / c is small. For low speeds we can ignore all but the first two terms:
[pic]
The total energy is a sum of the rest energy and the Newtonian kinetic energy.
The classical energy equation ignores both the m0c2 part, and the high-speed corrections. This is appropriate, because all the high-order corrections are small. Since only changes in energy affect the behavior of objects, whether we include the m0c2 part makes no difference, since it is constant. For the same reason, it is possible to subtract the rest energy from the total energy in relativity. By considering the emission of energy in different frames, Einstein could show that the rest energy has a real physical meaning.
The higher-order terms are extra correction to Newtonian mechanics which become important at higher speeds. The Newtonian equation is only a low-speed approximation, but an extraordinarily good one. All of the calculations used in putting astronauts on the moon, for example, could have been done using Newton's equations without any of the higher-order corrections.
[edit] History
While Einstein was the first to have correctly deduced the mass–energy equivalence formula, he was not the first to have related energy with mass. But nearly all previous authors thought that the energy which contributes to mass comes only from electromagnetic fields.[16] [17] [18] [19]
[edit] Newton: Matter and light
In 1717 Isaac Newton speculated that light particles and matter particles were inter-convertible in "Query 30" of the Opticks, where he asks:
|“ |Are not the gross bodies and light convertible into one another, and may not bodies receive much of their |” |
| |activity from the particles of light which enter their composition? | |
Since Newton did not understand light as the motion of a field, he was not speculating about the conversion of motion into matter. Since he did not know about energy, he could not have understood that converting light to matter is turning work into mass.
[edit] Electromagnetic rest mass
There were many attempts in the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century - like those of J. J. Thomson (1881),[20]; Oliver Heaviside (1888),[21] George Frederick Charles Searle (1896),[22] - to understand how the mass of a charged object varied with the velocity. Because the electromagnetic field carries part of the momentum of a moving charge, it was suspected that the mass of an electron would vary with velocity near the speed of light.
Following Searle (1896), Wilhelm Wien (1900),[23] Max Abraham (1902),[24] and Hendrik Lorentz (1904)[25] concluded that the
velocity-dependent electromagnetic mass of a body at rest is m = (4 / 3)E / c2. According to them, this relation applies to the complete mass of bodies, because any form of inertial mass was considered to be of electromagnetic origin. Wien went on by stating, that if it is assumed that gravitation is an electromagnetic effect too, than there has to be a strict proportionality between (electromagnetic) inertial mass and (electromagnetic) gravitational mass. To explain the stability of the matter-electron configuration, Poincaré in 1906 introduced some sort of pressure of non-electrical nature, which contributes the amount − (1 / 3)E / c2 to the mass of the bodies, and therefore the 4/3-factor vanishes.[26]
[edit] Inertia of energy and radiation
Maxwell, Bartoli, Lorentz
James Clerk Maxwell (1874)[27] and Adolfo Bartoli (1876)[28] found out that the existence of tensions in the ether like the radiation pressure follows from the electromagnetic theory.
However, Lorentz (1895)[29] recognized that this led to a conflict between the action/reaction principle and Lorentz's ether theory.
Poincaré
In 1900 Henri Poincaré studied this conflict and tried to determine whether the center of gravity still moves with a uniform velocity when electromagnetic fields are included. He noticed that the action/reaction principle does not hold for matter alone, but that the electromagnetic field has its own momentum. The electromagnetic field energy behaves like a fictitious fluid ("fluide fictif") with a mass density of E / c2 (in other words m = E/c2). If the center of mass frame is defined by both the mass of matter and the mass of the fictitious fluid, and if the fictitious fluid is indestructible - it is neither created or destroyed - then the motion of the center of mass frame remains uniform. But electromagnetic energy can be converted into other forms of energy. So Poincaré assumed that there exists a non-electric energy fluid at each point of space, into which electromagnetic energy can be transformed and which also carries a mass proportional to the energy. In this way, the motion of the center of mass remains uniform. Poincaré said that one should not be too surprised by these assumptions, since they are only mathematical fictions.[30]
But Poincaré's resolution led to a paradox when changing frames: if a Hertzian oscillator radiates in a certain direction, it will suffer a recoil from the inertia of the fictitious fluid. In the framework of Lorentz ether theory Poincaré performed a Lorentz boost to the frame of the moving source. He noted that energy conservation holds in both frames, but that the law of conservation of momentum is violated. This would allow a perpetuum mobile, a notion which he abhorred. The laws of nature would have to be different in the frames of reference, and the relativity principle would not hold.
Poincaré's paradox was resolved by Einstein's insight that a body losing energy as radiation or heat was losing a mass of the amount m = E / c2. The Hertzian oscillator loses mass in the emission process, and momentum is conserved in any frame.[31] Einstein noted in 1906 that Poincaré's solution to the center of mass problem and his own were mathematically equivalent (see below).
Poincaré came back to this topic in "Science and Hypothesis" (1902) and "The Value of Science" (1905). This time he rejected the possibility that energy carries mass: "... [the recoil] is contrary to the principle of Newton since our projectile here has no mass, it is not matter, it is energy". He also discussed two other unexplained effects: (1) non-conservation of mass implied by Lorentz's variable mass γm, Abraham's theory of variable mass and Kaufmann's experiments on the mass of fast moving electrons and (2) the non-conservation of energy in the radium experiments of Madame Curie.
Abraham and Hasenöhrl
Following Poincaré, Max Abraham in 1902-1904[32] [33] introduced the term "electromagnetic momentum" to maintain the action/reaction principle. Poincaré's result, who according to Abraham gave no proof of his result, was verified by him, whereby the field density of momentum per cm3 is E / c2 and E / c per cm2.
In 1904, Friedrich Hasenöhrl specifically associated inertia with radiation in a paper, which was according to his own words very similar to some papers of Abraham. Hasenöhrl suggested that part of the mass of a body (which he called apparent mass) can be thought of as radiation bouncing around a cavity. The apparent mass of radiation depends on the temperature (because every heated body emits radiation) and is proportional to its energy, and he first concluded that m = (8 / 3)E / c2. However, in 1905 Hasenöhrl published a summary of a letter, which was written by Abraham to him. Abraham concluded that Hasenöhrl's formula of the apparent mass of radiation is not correct, and based on his definition of electromagnetic momentum and longitudinal electromagnetic mass Abraham changed it to m = (4 / 3)E / c2, the same value for the electromagnetic mass for a body at rest. Hasenöhrl re-calculated his own derivation and verified Abraham's result. He also noticed the similarity between the apparent mass and the electromagnetic mass. However, Hasenöhrl stated that this energy-apparent-mass relation only holds as long a body radiates, i.e. if the temperature of a body is greater than 0 K.[34] [35]
However, it was suggested that Hasenöhrl had made an error in that he did not include the pressure of the radiation on the cavity shell. If he had included the shell pressure and inertia as it would be included in the theory of relativity, the factor would have been equal to 1 or m = E / c2. This calculation assumes that the shell properties are consistent with relativity, otherwise the mechanical properties of the shell including the mass and tension would not have the same transformation laws as those for the radiation.[36] Nobel Prize-winner and Hitler advisor Philipp Lenard claimed that the mass–energy equivalence formula needed to be credited to Hasenöhrl to make it an Aryan creation.[37]
[edit] Einstein: Mass–energy equivalence
Albert Einstein did not formulate exactly the formula E=mc2 in his 1905 paper "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?" ("Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", published in Annalen der Physik on 27 September), one of the articles now known as his Annus Mirabilis Papers.[1]
That paper says: If a body gives off the energy L in the form of radiation, its mass diminishes by L / c2, "radiation" means electromagnetic radiation or light, and mass means the ordinary newtonian mass of a slow moving object.
In Einstein's first formulation, it is the difference in the mass '[pic]' before and after the ejection of energy that is equal to L / c2, not the entire mass '[pic]' of the object. Objects with zero mass presumably have zero energy, so the extension that all mass is proportional to energy is obvious from this result. In 1905, even the hypothesis that changes in energy are accompanied by changes in mass was untested. Not until the discovery of the first type of antimatter (the positron in 1932) was it found that all of the mass of pairs of resting particles could be converted to radiation.
1905 – First correct derivation
Einstein considered a body at rest with mass M. If the body is examined in a frame moving with nonrelativistic velocity v, it is no longer at rest and in the moving frame it has momentum Mv.
Suppose now that the body emits two pulses of light to the left and to the right, each carrying an equal amount of energy E/2. Since the two pulses are equal, the object remains at rest after the emission since the two beams are equal in strength and carry opposite momentum.
But if we consider the same process in a frame moving with velocity v to the left, the pulse moving to the left will be redshifted while the pulse moving to the right will be blueshifted. The blue light carries more momentum than the red light, so that the momentum of the light in the moving frame is not balanced. The light is carrying some net momentum to the right.
But the object hasn't changed its velocity before or after the emission. Yet in this frame it lost some right-momentum to the light. The only way it could have lost momentum is by losing mass. This also solves Poincaré's radiation paradox, discussed above.
The velocity is small, so the right moving light is blueshifted by an amount equal to the nonrelativistic Doppler shift factor (1-v/c). The momentum of the light is its energy divided by c, and it is increased by a factor of v/c. So the right moving light is carrying an extra momentum ΔP given by:
[pic]
The left moving light carries a little less momentum, by the same amount ΔP. So the total right-momentum in the light is twice ΔP. This is the right-momentum that the object lost.
[pic]
The momentum of the object in the moving frame after the emission is reduced by this amount:
[pic]
So the change in the object's mass is equal to the total energy lost divided by c2. Since any emission of energy can be carried out by a two step process, where first the energy is emitted as light and then the light is converted to some other form of energy, any emission of energy is accompanied by a loss of mass. Similarly, by considering absorption, a gain in energy is accompanied by a gain in mass. Einstein concludes that all the mass of a body is a measure of its energy content.
1906 – Relativistic center-of-mass theorem
Like Poincaré, Einstein concluded in 1906 that the inertia of electromagnetic energy is a necessary condition for the center-of-mass theorem to hold. On this occasion, Einstein referred to Poincaré's 1900-paper and wrote:[38]
|“ |Although the merely formal considerations, which we will need for the proof, are already mostly contained in a|” |
| |work by H. Poincaré2, for the sake of clarity I will not rely on that work.[39] | |
In Einstein's more physical, as opposed to formal or mathematical, point of view, there was no need for fictitious masses. He could avoid the perpetuum mobile problem, because based on the mass–energy equivalence he could show that the transport of inertia which accompanies the emission and absorption of radiation solves the problem. Poincaré's rejection of the principle of action-reaction can be avoided through Einstein's E = mc2, because mass conservation appears as a special case of the energy conservation law.
[edit] Others
During the nineteenth century there were several speculative attempts to show that mass and energy were proportional in various discredited ether theories.[40] In particular, the writings of Samuel Tolver Preston,[41] [42] and a 1903 paper by Olinto De Pretto,[43] [36] presented a mass energy relation. De Pretto's paper received recent press coverage, when Umberto Bartocci discovered that there were only three degrees of separation linking De Pretto to Einstein, leading Bartocci to conclude that Einstein was probably aware of De Pretto's work.[44] [45]
Preston and De Pretto, following Le Sage, imagined that the universe was filled with an ether of tiny particles which are always moving at speed c. Each of these particles have a kinetic energy of mc2 up to a small numerical factor. The nonrelativistic kinetic energy formula did not always include the traditional factor of 1/2, since Leibniz introduced kinetic energy without it, and the 1/2 is largely conventional in prerelativistic physics.[46] By assuming that every particle has a mass which is the sum of the masses of the ether particles, the authors would conclude that all matter contains an amount of kinetic energy either given by E=mc2 or 2E=mc2 depending on the convention. A particle ether was usually considered unacceptably speculative science at the time,[47] and since these authors didn't formulate relativity, their reasoning is completely different from that of Einstein, who used relativity to change frames.
Independently, Gustave Le Bon in 1905 speculated that atoms could release large amounts of latent energy, reasoning from an all-encompassing qualitative philosophy of physics.[48] [49]
[edit] Nuclear energy and popular culture
It was quickly noted after the discovery of radioactivity in 1897, that the total energy due to radioactive processes is about one million times greater than that involved in any known molecular change. However, it arose the question where this energy is coming from. After eliminating the idea of absorption and emission of some sort of Lesagian ether particles, the existence of a huge amount of latent energy, stored within matter, was proposed by Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy in 1903. Rutherford also suggested that this internal energy is stored within normal matter as well. He went on to speculate in 1904:[50][51]
|“ |If it were ever found possible to control at will the rate of disintegration of the radio-elements, an |” |
| |enormous amount of energy could be obtained from a small quantity of matter. | |
Einstein mentions in his 1905 paper that mass-energy equivalence might perhaps be tested with radioactive decay, which releases enough energy (the quantitative amount known roughly even by 1905) to possibly be "weighed," when missing. But the idea that great amounts of usable energy could be liberated from matter, however, proved initially difficult to substantiate in a practical fashion. Because it had been used as the basis of much speculation, Rutherford himself, rejecting his ideas of 1904, was once reported in the 1930s to have said that: "Anyone who expects a source of power from the transformation of the atom is talking moonshine."
[pic]
[pic]
The popular connection between Einstein, E=mc2, and the atomic bomb was prominently indicated on the cover of Time magazine in July 1946 by the writing of the equation on the mushroom cloud itself.
This changed dramatically after the demonstration of energy released from nuclear fission after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The equation E=mc2 became directly linked in the public eye with the power and peril of nuclear weapons. The equation was featured as early as page 2 of the Smyth Report, the official 1945 release by the US government on the development of the atomic bomb, and by 1946 the equation was close-enough linked with Einstein's work that the cover of Time magazine prominently featured a picture of Einstein next to an image of a mushroom cloud emblazoned with the equation.[52] Einstein himself had only a minor role in the Manhattan Project: he had cosigned a letter to the US President in 1939 urging funding for research into atomic energy, warning that an atomic bomb was theoretically possible. The letter persuaded Roosevelt to devote a significant portion of the wartime budget to atomic research. Without a security clearance, Einstein's only scientific contribution was an analysis of an isotope separation method based on the rate of molecular diffusion through pores, a now-obsolete process that was then competitive and contributed a fraction of the enriched uranium used in the project.[53]
While E=mc2 is useful for understanding the amount of energy released in a fission reaction, it was not strictly necessary to develop the weapon. As the physicist and Manhattan Project participant Robert Serber put it: "Somehow the popular notion took hold long ago that Einstein's theory of relativity, in particular his famous equation E=mc2, plays some essential role in the theory of fission. Albert Einstein had a part in alerting the United States government to the possibility of building an atomic bomb, but his theory of relativity is not required in discussing fission. The theory of fission is what physicists call a non-relativistic theory, meaning that relativistic effects are too small to affect the dynamics of the fission process significantly."[54] However the association between E=mc2 and nuclear energy has since stuck, and because of this association, and its simple expression of the ideas of Albert Einstein himself, it has become "the world's most famous equation".[55]
[edit] See also
• Energy density
• Energy-momentum relation
• Inertia
• Binding energy (mass defect)
• Mass in special relativity
• Mass, momentum, and energy
[edit] References
1. ^ a b c Einstein, A. (1905), "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?", Annalen der Physik 18: 639–643, doi:10.1002/andp.19053231314, . See also the English translation.
2. ^ It's an usual result in special relativity, like with an atomic nucleus and its protons and neutrons which it's constituted by.
3. ^ a b c Conversions used: 1956 International (Steam) Table (IT) values where one calorie ≡ 4.1868 J and one BTU ≡ 1055.05585262 J. Weapons designers’ conversion value of one gram TNT ≡ 1000 calories used.
4. ^ The 6.2 kg core comprised 0.8% gallium by weight. Also, about 20% of the Gadget’s yield was due to fast fissioning in its natural uranium tamper. This resulted in 4.1 moles of Pu fissioning with 180 MeV per atom actually contributing prompt kinetic energy to the explosion. Note too that the term "Gadget"-style is used here instead of "Fat Man" because this general design of bomb was very rapidly upgraded to a more efficient one requiring only 5 kg of the Pu/gallium alloy.
5. ^ Assuming the dam is generating at its peak capacity of 6,809 MW.
6. ^ Assuming a 90/10 alloy of Pt/Ir by weight, a Cp of 25.9 for Pt and 25.1 for Ir, a Pt-dominated average Cp of 25.8, 5.134 moles of metal, and 132 J.K–1 for the prototype. A variation of ±1.5 picograms is of course, much smaller than the actual uncertainty in the mass of the international prototype, which is ±2 micrograms.
7. ^ a b Earth’s gravitational self-energy is 4.6 × 10–10 that of Earth’s total mass, or 2.7 trillion metric tons. Citation: The Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-Ranging Operation (APOLLO), T. W. Murphy, Jr. et al. University of Washington, Dept. of Physics (132 kB PDF, here.).
8. ^ G. 't Hooft, "Computation of the Effects Due to a Four Dimensional Pseudoparticle.", Physical Review D14:3432-3450.
9. ^ A. Belavin, A. M. Polyakov, A. Schwarz, Yu. Tyupkin, "Pseudoparticle Solutions to Yang Mills Equations", Physics Letters 59B:85 (1975).
10. ^ F. Klinkhammer, N. Manton, "A Saddle Point Solution in the Weinberg Salam Theory", Physical Review D 30:2212.
11. ^ Rubakov V. A. "Monopole Catalysis of Proton Decay", Reports on Progress in Physics 51:189-241 (1988).
12. ^ S.W. Hawking "Black Holes Explosions?" Nature 248:30 (1974).
13. ^ Einstein, A. (1905), "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper.", Annalen der Physik 17: 891–921, doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004, . English translation.
14. ^ Einstein, A. (1906), "Über eine Methode zur Bestimmung des Verhältnisses der transversalen und longitudinalen Masse des Elektrons.", Annalen der Physik 21: 583–586, doi:10.1002/andp.19063261310, .
15. ^ See e.g. Lev B.Okun, The concept of Mass, Physics Today 42 (6), June 1969, p. 31-36,
16. ^ Born, M. (1964/2003), Die Relativitätstheorie Einsteins, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York: Springer, pp. 172–194, ISBN 3-540-00470-x .
17. ^ Jannsen, M., Mecklenburg, M. (2007), From classical to relativistic mechanics: Electromagnetic models of the electron., in V. F. Hendricks, et.al., Interactions: Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy (Dordrecht: Springer): 65–134, .
18. ^ Whittaker, E.T. (1910), 1. Edition: A History of the theories of aether and electricity., Dublin: Longman, Green and Co., pp. 411–466, .
19. ^ Whittaker, E.T. (1951-1953), 2. Edition: A History of the theories of aether and electricity, vol. 1: The classical theories / vol. 2: The modern theories 1900-1926, London: Nelson .
20. ^ Thomson, J.J. (1881), "On the Effects produced by the Motion of Electrified Bodies", Phil. Mag. 11: 229 .
21. ^ Heaviside, O. (1888), "The electro-magnetic effects of a moving charge", Electrician 22: 147–148 .
22. ^ Searle, G.F.C. (1896), "Problems in electric convection.", Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 187: 675–718, doi:10.1098/rsta.1896.0017, .
23. ^ Wien, W. (1900/1901), "Über die Möglichkeit einer elektromagnetischen Begründung der Mechanik.", Annalen der Physik 5: 501–513, .
24. ^ Abraham, M. (1902), "Prinzipien der Dynamik des Elektrons.", Physikalische Zeitschrift 4(1b): 57–62, .
25. ^ Lorentz, H.A. (1904b), "Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light.", Proc. Roy. Soc. Amst. 6: 809–831, .
26. ^ Poincaré, H. (1906), "Sur la dynamique de l'électron", Rendiconti del Circolo matematico Rendiconti del Circolo di Palermo 21: 129–176, Reprinted in Poincaré, Oeuvres, tome IX, pages 494-550. See also the partial English translation.
27. ^ Maxwell, J.C (1873), A Treatise on electricity and magnetism, Vol. 2., § 792, London: Macmillan & Co., pp. 391, .
28. ^ Bartoli, A. (1876), "Il calorico raggiante e il secondo principio di termodynamica.", Nuovo Cimento (1884) 15: 196–202, .
29. ^ Lorentz, H.A. (1895), Versuch einer theorie der electrischen und optischen erscheinungen in bewegten Kõrpern., Leiden: E.J. Brill .
30. ^ Poincaré, H. (1900), "La théorie de Lorentz et le principe de réaction.", Archives néerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles. 5: 252–278, . Reprinted in Poincaré, Oeuvres, tome IX, S. 464-488.
31. ^ Darrigol, O. (2005), "The Genesis of the theory of relativity.", Séminaire Poincaré 1: 1–22, .
32. ^ Abraham, M. (1903), "Prinzipien der Dynamik des Elektrons.", Annalen der Physik 10: 105–179, .
33. ^ Abraham, M. (1904), "Zur Theorie der Strahlung und des Strahlungsdruckes.", Annalen der Physik 14: 236–287, doi:10.1002/andp.19043190703, .
34. ^ Hasenöhrl, F. (1904), "Zur Theorie der Strahlung in bewegten Körpern.", Annalen der Physik 15: 344–370, doi:10.1002/andp.19043201206, .
35. ^ Hasenöhrl, F. (1905), "Zur Theorie der Strahlung in bewegten Körpern. Berichtigung.", Annalen der Physik 16: 589–592, doi:10.1002/andp.19053210312, .
36. ^ a b MathPages: Who Invented Relativity?
37. ^ Christian Schlatter: Philipp Lenard et la physique aryenne.
38. ^ Einstein, A. (1906), "Das Prinzip von der Erhaltung der Schwerpunktsbewegung und die Trägheit der Energie", Annalen der Physik 20: 627–633, doi:10.1002/andp.19063250814, .
39. ^ Einstein 1906: Trotzdem die einfachen formalen Betrachtungen, die zum Nachweis dieser Behauptung durchgeführt werden müssen, in der Hauptsache bereits in einer Arbeit von H. Poincaré enthalten sind2, werde ich mich doch der Übersichtlichkeit halber nicht auf jene Arbeit stützen.
40. ^ Helge Kragh, "Fin-de-Siècle Physics: A World Picture in Flux" in Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.
41. ^ Preston, S. T., Physics of the Ether, E. & F. N. Spon, London, (1875).
42. ^ Bjerknes: S. Tolver Preston's Explosive Idea E = mc2.
43. ^ De Pretto, O. Reale Instituto Veneto Di Scienze, Lettere Ed Arti, LXIII, II,439-500, reprinted in Bartocci.
44. ^ Umberto Bartocci, Albert Einstein e Olinto De Pretto - La vera storia della formula più famosa del mondo, editore Andromeda, Bologna, 1999.
45. ^ mathsyear2000.
46. ^ Prentiss, J.J. (August 2005). "Why is the energy of motion proportional to the square of the velocity?". American Journal of Physics 73 no 8: 705. .
47. ^ John Worrall, review of the book Conceptions of Ether. Studies in the History of Ether Theories by Cantor and Hodges, The British Journal of the Philosophy of Science vol 36, no 1, Mar 1985, p. 84. The article contrasts a particle ether with a wave-carrying ether, the latter was acceptable.
48. ^ Le Bon: The Evolution of Forces.
49. ^ Bizouard: Poincaré E = mc2 l’équation de Poincaré, Einstein et Planck.
50. ^ Rutherford, Ernest (1904). Radioactivity. Cambridge: University Press, 336-338.
51. ^ Heisenberg, Werner (1958). Physics And Philosophy: The Revolution In Modern Science. New York: Harper & Brothers, 118-119.
52. ^ Cover. Time magazine, July 1, 1946.
53. ^ Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe.
54. ^ Robert Serber, The Los Alamos Primer: The First Lectures on How to Build an Atomic Bomb (University of California Press, 1992), page 7. Note that the quotation is taken from Serber's 1992 version, and is not in the original 1943 Los Alamos Primer of the same name.
55. ^ David Bodanis, E=mc2: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation (New York: Walker, 2000).
• Bodanis, David (2001). E=mc2: A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation. Berkley Trade. ISBN 0425181642.
• Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph (2002). Modern Physics (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0716743450.
• "What is the significance of E = mc2? And what does it mean?", Scientific American (April 30, 2007).
Love = soul X speed ^ 2
L=sc^2
L = love (50% God’s love towards man (constant), 50% man’s love towards God (oscillatory)
S = soul mass
C^2 = the speed of a conscious point (soul) towards God
The massless soul is powered not by energy but by love. The more it loves God the closer does it come towards Him, thus resembling Him ever more. The less it loves God, the farther away from God it travels (0% love towards God – soul is farthest and probably finds itself in hell)
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