Species: Elassoma boehlkei



Species: Elassoma boehlkei

Common Name: Carolina pygmy sunfish

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Basic Description: A small fish.

Reproduction Comments: Suspected to have a one-year life cycle (Smith 1996).

Ecology Comments: May exhibit pronounced variations in abundance (Rohde and Arndt 1987).

Habitat Type: Freshwater

Non-Migrant: N

Locally Migrant: N

Long Distance Migrant: N

Riverine Habitat(s): CREEK, Low gradient, MEDIUM RIVER, Pool

Palustrine Habitat(s): FORESTED WETLAND

Habitat Comments: Habitat includes shallow, quiet water (ponds, pools, streams, and roadside ditches, including tidal freshwater), with a soft detritus-rich substrate and abundant emergent and/or submerged aquatic vegetation; occurrences are in weakly alkaline to strongly acidic waters; often in human-disturbed habitats (Shute et al. 1981, Rohde and Arndt 1987, Rohde 1997, Sandel and Harris 2006. P. W. Shute pers. obs.).

Length: 3 centimeters

Management Summary

Management Requirements: Emergency caretaking procedures are being developed to prevent extirpation of evolutionarily

significant units (M. Salmon and J.R. Shute, personal communication, cited by Sandel and Harros 2007).

Biological Research Needs: Better information is needed on metapopulation dynamics, geographic distribution, and life history (Sandel and Harris 2007).

Species: Heterodon simus

Common Name: Southern Hognose Snake

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Basic Description: A stocky snake with a sharply upturned snout.

General Description: A stocky, dark-blotched snake with a sharply upturned snout that is keeled above; belly unpatterned or mottled with grayish brown; dorsal scales keeled; anal divided; length usually 36-51 cm (up to 61 cm) (Conant and Collins 1991).

Diagnostic Characteristics: Differs from the eastern hognose snake (H. platirhinos) in that the underside of the tail is not conspicuously paler than the belly (Conant and Collins 1991).

Reproduction Comments: Clutches of 6-10 eggs have been reported. Based on Heterodon nasicus, females probably mature at 2-3 years, and some individuals likely live well into their second decade. Hence generation length may be 5-10 years.

Non-Migrant: Y

Locally Migrant: N

Long Distance Migrant: N

Palustrine Habitat(s): Riparian

Terrestrial Habitat(s): Grassland/herbaceous, Old field, Savanna, Woodland - Conifer, Woodland - Hardwood, Woodland - Mixed

Special Habitat Factors: Burrowing in or using soil, Fallen log/debris

Habitat Comments: This snake inhabits open, xeric habitats with well-drained, sandy or sandy-loam soils such as sand ridges, stabilized coastal sand dunes, pine flatwoods, mixed oak-pine woodlands and forests, scrub oak woods, and oak hammocks; also old fields and river floodplains (Ashton and Ashton 1981, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Tennant 1997, Ernst and Ernst 2003). This snake spends considerable time burrowed in the soil.

Adult Food Habits: Carnivore

Immature Food Habits: Carnivore

Food Comments: Eats mainly frogs and toads, sometimes lizards and small mammals (Ernst and Barbour 1989). May use snout to excavate buried toads.

Adult Phenology: Crepuscular, Diurnal

Immature Phenology: Crepuscular, Diurnal

Length: 61 centimeters

Management Summary

Stewardship Overview: Research is urgently needed to determine the factor or combination of factors responsible for the precipitous decline. Once the cause(s) is known, appropriate pro-active management measures may be implemented, and activities shown to be deleterious may be avoided. Specific research on the relationship, if any, between the disappearance of this species and the appearance of imported fire ants is needed.

Management Requirements: Implement/continue seasonally appropriate burning programs in pyric communities. Environmentally benign fire ant control may be beneficial (necessary?) on sites that still support H. simus but that are at edge of or within the belt of fire ant expansion.

Management Research Needs: Better information on ecology and behavior is needed (Ernst and Barbour 1989). See Management Summary.

Species: Myotis sodalis

Common Name: Indiana bat

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Basic Description: A small bat.

General Description: Pelage very fine and fluffy, dull grayish chestnut above (hair tips slightly glossy; basal two-thirds blackish, followed by a grayish band and cinnamon tip), pinkish white underparts; membranes and ears blackish-brown; total length 75-102 mm; tail length 27-44 mm; wingspread 240-267 mm; length of head and body 41-49 mm; ear 10-15 mm, does not extend past end of nose when laid forward; forearm 36-41 mm; calcar obviously keeled (not always evident in dried study skins); hind foot small, 7-11 mm, hairs do not extend beyond toes; mass 5-11 g; greatest length of skull 14.2-15.0 mm, usually greater than 14.5 mm; length of maxillary toothrow 5.2-5.6 mm; complete sagittal crest usually present in adults; dentition I 2/3, C 1/1, P 3/3, M 3/3 (Hall 1981, Barbour and Davis 1969, Sealander 1979).

Diagnostic Characteristics: Differs from M. grisescens, M. lucifugus, M. velifer, and M. austroriparius in having an obviously keeled calcar. Has shorter ears than does M. septentrionalis (in which the ears extend more than 2 mm beyond the nose when laid forward). Lacks the distinct black face mask of M. leibii, which has a shorter skull (greatest length 13.1-14.7 mm, usually less than 14.5 mm). Skull is smaller, narrower, and lower than that of M. lucifugus. Myotis lucifugushas long hairs on toes, foot length greater than 10 mm, fur with a glossy sheen. Myotis grisescens has fur the same color from base to tip, and web attached to ankle. Myotis austroriparius has long hairs on toes and foot is greater than 10 mm. Pipistrellus subflavus is smaller, with a lightly colored forearm, partially furred tail membrane, and paler fur. See Barbour and Davis (1969).

Reproduction Comments: Mating occurs from late August to early October prior to hibernation, or in spring. Bats assemble at cave entrances at dusk and dawn in late August and September. Such staging is believed to facilitate breeding and reduce the chances of inbreeding in small summer colonies (Humphrey and Cope 1977). Males arrive first at the staging areas. Females begin to appear as early as late July, and the number of bats and the proportion of females rise to a maximum in early September. Ovulation takes place after the bats arouse in spring. Delayed fertilization (from sperm stored during the autumn matings) occurs in most reproductively active females (Guthrie 1933). Young are born in June-July. Litter size is 1. Young first fly at 25-37 days. Maximum longevity is about 15 years. A maternity roost in Illinois included up to 95 individuals (including juveniles) (Kurta et al. 1993). Main tree roost in Michigan was inhabited by up to 45 individuals (Kurta et al. 1993). 

In Indiana, Humphrey et al. (1977) studied a maternity colony that contained between 25 and 28 reproductively active females. Females arrived at the roost sites starting on May 4, with the majority arriving in late May. Each female bore a single young between June 25 and July 4. The young required about 25 to 37 days before learning to fly; this time interval was dependent on weather, particularly the temperature. Mortality between birth and weaning was about 8%. The authors observed mothers moving non-volant young to warmer roost spots. Apparently, the first flights of the young were tandem flights with the mother.

Ecology Comments: Hibernating individuals characteristically form large, compact clusters of as many as 5,000 individuals (averaging 500 to 1,000 bats per cluster; Hall 1962). These individuals may be difficult to discern in these clusters that average 300 individuals per square foot (LaVal and LaVal 1980). Clusters form in the same area in a cave each year, with more than one cluster possible in a particular cave (Hall 1962, Engel et al. 1976). Clustering may perform certain functions, such as protecting the central individuals from temperature changes (Twente 1955), reducing the sensitivity of most bats to external disturbance (Hall 1962), or rapid arousal and escape from predators (Humphrey 1978). 

Garner and Gardner (1992) reported the following data on movements of foragers in Indiana. Data are sequenced as follows: reproductive condition-sex-age, number of individuals, number of nights, mean foraging range (ha), distance (km) (mean distance from the roost to the geometric center of foraging range). FEMALE: adult pregnant, 2, 8, 51.85, 1.05; adult lactating, 5, 16, 94.25, 1.04; adult post-lactating, 1, 6, 212.67, 2.60; volant juvenile, 2, 3, 37.00, 0.25. MALE: adult nonreproductive, 2, 6, 57.33, 0.56; volant juvenile nonreproductive, 2, 4, 28.25, 0.54. A post lactating female had the largest foraging range. Pregnant adults traveled farther than 1 km to reach preferred foraging areas but had a smaller mean foraging range. 

In Indiana, 11 foraging adult females that were tracked for 2-7 days moved up to 8.4 km from their roost; home range during this period averaged 3.35 square kilometers (335 ha) (Sparks et al. 2005).

Indiana bats show strong homing instincts after being released varying distances from their hibernaculum. For example, when Hassel (1963) released bats to the west of a winter cave in Kentucky, over 68% returned to the cave from 12 miles away and only 4% returned from 144 miles away. Hassell and Harvey (1965) released approximately 500 female bats in all directions (up to 200 miles from their winter cave) and found that over two-thirds returned. Hassell and Harvey (1965) noted much stronger homing tendencies along a north-south axis, the direction for migrating to and from summer roosts, than along the east-west direction. Strong homing tendencies are reflected in fidelity to hibernacula; although only 180 miles apart (east to west), the two major hibernating populations in Kentucky do not appear to mix (Hall 1962, Barbour and Davis 1969). 

Female survivorship in an Indiana population was 76% for ages 1 to 6 years, and 66% for ages 6 to 10 years (Humphrey and Cope 1977). Male survivorship was 70% for ages 1 to 6 years and 36% for ages 6 to 10 years. Maximum ages of banded individuals were 15 years for females and 14 years for males.

Habitat Type: Terrestrial

Non-Migrant: N

Locally Migrant: Y

Long Distance Migrant: Y

Mobility and Migration Comments: Northern breeding populations migrate south to limestone cave area in Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, Missouri, and West Virginia. Winter and summer habitats may be as much as 480 km apart (Layne 1978). Migrants leave hibernation sites in late March and April. Females generally leave earlier than do males, with the greatest exodus in mid- to late April (Barbour and Davis 1969). Some males migrate while most remain in the general geographic vicinity of the hibernaculum throughout the summer (Hall 1962). 

Migration from nursery roosts occurs during late summer; arrival at hibernacula occurs from late August to early September (Barbour and Davis 1969). Staging or swarming occurs from September to mid-October and involves a large number of bats congregating at the mouths of a few caves. Migrants are primarily females; males are more likely to stay near the hibernaculum.

Kurta and Murray (2002) banded 29 adult females, 2 juveniles, and 1 adult male from a maternity colony in Michigan. Four banded bats were later found in Indiana and Kentucky, hibernating in caves that were separated by 100-325 km, indicating that all members of a summer colony do not hibernate or mate in the same location. Migration distances were approximately 410, 424, 472, and 532 km (mean 460 km) for the four bats.

Palustrine Habitat(s): FORESTED WETLAND, Riparian

Terrestrial Habitat(s): Forest - Hardwood, Forest - Mixed, Forest/Woodland, Woodland - Hardwood

Subterranean Habitat(s): Subterrestrial

Special Habitat Factors: Standing snag/hollow tree

Habitat Comments: Myotis sodalis hibernates in caves; maternity sites generally are behind loose bark of dead or dying trees or in tree cavities (Menzel et al. 2001). Foraging habitats include riparian areas, upland forests, ponds, and fields (Menzel et al. 2001), but forested landscapes are the most important habitat in agricultural landscapes (Menzel et al. 2005).

In hibernation, limestone caves with pools are preferred. Hall (1962) noted that preferred caves are of medium size with large, shallow passageways. Roosts usually are in the coldest part of the cave. Preferred sites have a mean midwinter air temperature of 4-8 C (tolerates much broader range) (Hall 1962, Henshaw and Folk 1966), well below that of caves that are not chosen (Clawson et al. 1980). Roost sites within caves may shift such that bats remain in the coldest area (Clawson et al. 1980); individuals may move from a location deeper in the cave to a site nearer the entrance as the cold season progresses; they may move away from areas that go below freezing. Hibernation in the coldest parts of the cave ensures a sufficiently low metabolic rate so that the fat reserves last through the six-month hibernation period (Henshaw and Folk 1966, Humphrey 1978). Relative humidity in occupied caves ranges from 66 to 95% and averages 87% throughout the year (Barbour and Davis 1969, Clawson et al. 1980). Because of these requirements, M. SODALIS is highly selective of hibernacula. 

During the fall, when these bats swarm and mate at their hibernacula, males roost in trees nearby during the day and fly to the cave during the night. In Kentucky, Kiser and Elliott (1996) found males roosting primarily in dead trees on upper slopes and ridgetops within 2.4 km of their hibernaculum. During September in West Virginia, males roosted within 5.6 km in trees near ridgetops, and often switched roost trees from day to day (C. Stihler, West Virginia Division of Natural Resources, pers. observ., October 1996, cited in USFWS 1999). Fall roost trees tend to be in sunnier areas rather than being shaded (J. MacGregor, pers. observ., October 1996, cited in USFWS 1999). 

In summer, habitat consists of wooded or semiwooded areas, often but not always along streams. Solitary females or small maternity colonies bear their offspring in hollow trees or under loose bark of living or dead trees (Humphrey et al. 1977, Garner and Gardner 1992). Humphrey et al. (1977) determined that dead trees are preferred roost sites and that trees standing in sunny openings are attractive because the air spaces and crevices under the bark are warmer. In Illinois, Garner and Gardner (1992) found that typical roosts were beneath the exfoliating bark of dead trees; other roost sites were beneath the bark of living trees and in cavities of dead trees. Kurta et al. (1993) found a large maternity colony in a dead, hollow, barkless, unshaded sycamore tree in a pasture in Illinois. In Michigan, a reproductively active colony occupied eight different roost trees (all green ash), all of which were exposed to direct sunlight throughout the day; bats roosted beneath loose bark of dead trees (Kurta et al. 1993). In western Virginia, a male used a mature, live, shagbark hickry tree as a diurnal roost; the bat foraged primarily among tree canopies of an 80-year-old oak-hickory forest (Hobson and Holland 1995). In Missouri, primary maternity roosts were in standing dead trees exposed to direct sunlight; there were 1-3 primary roosts per colony; alternate roosts were in living and dead trees that typically were within the shaded forest interior (Callahan et al. 1997). See Garner and Garner (1992) for detailed information on summer habitat in Illinois. Though maternity sites have been reported as occurring mainly in riparian and floodplain forests (Humphrey et al. 1977, Garner and Gardner 1992), recent studies indicate that upland habitats are used by maternity colonies much more extensively than previously reported. Garner and Gardner (1992) reported that 38 of 51 roost trees in Illinois occurred in uplands and 13 trees were in floodplains. Of the 47 trees in forested habitat, 27 were in areas having a closed (80-100%) canopy, and 15 were in areas having an intermediate (30-80%) canopy. A single roost tree was found in the following types of habitat: a heavily grazed ridgetop pasture with a few scattered dead trees, a partially wooded swine feedlot, a palustrine wetland with emergent vegetation, a forested island in the Mississippi river, and a clearcut around a segment of an intermittent stream where dead trees were retained for wildlife. Roosts were not found in forests with open canopies (10-30%) or in old fields with less than or equal to 10% canopy cover. In eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina, several maternity colonies were in sun-exposed conifer snags (roost sites were above the surrounding canopy); some of these snags fell and were not used in subsequent years (Britzke et al. 2003). Rarely maternity colonies have been found in crevices in utility poles or in bat boxes (e.g., Ritzi et al. 2005). See Menzel et al. (2001) for a review of forest habitat relationships.

Known roost tree species include elm, oak, beech, hickory, maple, ash, sassafras, birch, sycamore, locust, aspen, cottonwood, pine, and hemlock (Cope et al. 1974, Humphrey et al. 1977, Garner and Gardner 1992, Britzke et al. 2003, Britzke et al. 2006), especially trees with exfoliating bark.

In Illinois, Indiana bats used the same, evidently traditional, roost sites in successive summers. Recapture of the same individuals within traditional roost sites during subsequent summers suggests site fidelity (Garner and Gardner 1992, Gardner et al. 1996). 

Relatively few individuals roost in caves at the mouths of which late summer swarming occurs (Cope and Humphrey 1977, Barbour and Davis 1969).

Adult Food Habits: Invertivore

Immature Food Habits: Invertivore

Food Comments: Flying insects are the typical prey items; diet reflects prey present in available foraging habitat. Forages along river and lake shorelines, in the crowns of trees in floodplains (Humphrey et al. 1977), and in upland forest (Brack and LaVal 1985). In Illinois, generally foraged within about a mile of roost tree (Garner and Gardner 1992). In Indiana, reproductively active females showed a preference for foraging in floodplain forests with closed canopies and impounded water (farm ponds; Garner and Gardner 1992). The foraging habitat for an Indiana colony included an airspace 2-30 m above a stream and a linear distance of 0.8 km; foraging density was 17-29 bats/ha; feeding rate on aerial insects was 8-17 capture attempts/minute (Humphrey et al. 1977).

Adult Phenology: Hibernates/aestivates, Nocturnal

Immature Phenology: Hibernates/aestivates, Nocturnal

Phenology Comments: Females begin hibernation soon after mating, whereas males often remain active through mid-October to November (Cope and Humphrey 1977). Most individuals are in hibernation by late November although some are still active until December (Barbour and Davis 1969). Activity is resumed generally in April, with few bats still in the hibernation caves by mid-May. In Michigan, bats were present at tree roosts as late as 10 September (Kurta et al. 1993). Primarily nocturnal.

Colonial Breeder: Y

Length: 9 centimeters

Weight: 8 grams

Management Summary

Stewardship Overview: Summer habitats need to be identified and protected. Monitoring of hibernacula should continue and entry to hibernacula should be restricted using signs, gates, or fences. Proper gating and fencing is critical. Before any management decisions are made concerning physical barriers at hibernacula, managers should consult with members of the Indiana bat recovery team (see MONIT.PROG for contact information).

Restoration Potential: A number of important hibernacula have been secured with varying success (see USFWS recovery plan). Further research is necessary to determine the recovery potential of summer roost sites.

Management Requirements: Hibernacula need continued protection and management (Engel et al. 1976, Thom 1981). Cave management involves preventing human disturbance. In addition, because deforestation alters cave temperature, humidity, and air and water flow, forests above and around hibernacula should not be dramatically altered. 

Signs at cave entrances may be used at most caves but should not be used at well-concealed caves where the sign might attract visitors. All signs should contain a warning and may include information on the Indiana bat (Brady et al. 1983). Signs should not block air flow or bat flight. 

In many cases, signs are not adequate to prevent human disturbance. Gating may be appropriate if the size and shape of the entrance are amenable. Improperly constructed gates can impede air flow and/or fill with debris; this may alter internal temperature/humidity characteristics, prevent bat flight, or subject bats to severe predation; abandonment of the site may result. Any constructed physical barriers should be monitored after they are in place. For details of acceptable types of physical barriers see Tuttle and Stevenson (1978) and Tuttle (1977). 

Fences are less expensive than gates but are easier to vandalize and climb. Chain link fences should have barbed wire on the top to discourage climbers, but the wire should not protrude into bat flying space (Brady et al. 1982, 1983). Fences have successfully blocked flooded entrances adjacent to reservoirs (Brady et al. 1983). See Tuttle and Stevenson (1978) and Tuttle (1977) for further details. 

Eliminating trails to cave entrances prevents many people from finding the cave. Public education, prosecution of trespassers, and strict control over who may enter the hibernacula may reduce human disturbance. 

Habitat within the currently delineated summer range needs to be identified as suitable or essential according to the guidelines set forth by Garner and Gardner (1992). If activity is planned in suitable or essential habitats, a mist net survey for Indiana bats should be conducted. If M. SODALIS is present, the project should be altered accordingly or terminated (Garner and Gardner 1992). Summer roosts and surrounding forest and foraging areas need to be maintained in as natural a state as possible (Brady et al. 1983, Garner and Gardner 1992), so that cave temperature, humidity, and air and water flow, forests above and around hibernacula should not be dramatically altered. 

Habitat within the currently delineated summer range needs to be identified as suitable or essential according to the guidelines set forth by Garner and Gardner (1992). If activity is planned in suitable or essential habitats, a mist net survey for Indiana bats should be conducted. If M. SODALIS is present, the project should be altered accordingly or terminated (Garner and Gardner 1992). Summer roosts and surrounding forest and foraging areas need to be maintained in as natural a state as possible (Brady et al. 1983, Garner and Gardner 1992). 

Draft revised recovery plan became available in 1999 (r3pao/bat.pdf). 

See Luensmann (2005) for some detailed management recommendations.

Monitoring Requirements: Searches for summer populations should be conducted where impoundments are proposed (reservoirs may destroy foraging habitat and nursery colonies) (Layne 1978). 

Miniature radio-transmitters can be used to study roosting ecology and foraging behavior in summer habitat (Garner and Gardner 1992). 

Since disruption during hibernation is detrimental, winter censuses should be conducted no more frequently than every other year; preferred dates are between January 15 and February 15. To reduce disturbance during a census, the cave should be mapped in the fall before the bats arrive. During the census, only two or three trained people should be involved, and they should collect the minimum data needed. Bright lights directly on the bats and excessive noise should be avoided. To estimate total population, measure the number of square feet of cave wall covered by roosting bats and multiply by 300 bats/square foot (Brady et al. 1983). 

See Garner and Garner (1992) for mist netting guidelines.

Management Research Needs: (1) Identify summer habitat requirements, and determine the effect of disturbance and habitat degradation. (2) Assess effects of cave management. (3) Study the effect of pesticides. (4) Study food sources, foraging habitat requirements, and threats to food resources. (5) Study reproductive biology and potential for artificial propagation and stocking. 

In the early 1990s, the recovery team recommended that genetic studies be initiated to determine if small peripheral populations warrant special protection (End. Sp. Tech. Bull. 16(6):10).

Species: Iasmigona decorata

Common Name: Carolina Heelsplitter

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Basic Description: A freshwater mussel with a greenish brown to dark brown shell. Younger shells may have faint rays.

General Description: The shell is an ovate trapezoid with the dorsal margin straight and may end with a slight wing. The umbo is flattened. Beaks are depressed and projectr a little above the hinge line. The beak sculpture is double-looped. The unsculpltured shell can have a yellowish, greenish or brownish periostracum. Periostracum can also have greenish or blackish rays. The lateral teeth may or may not be well developed, in most cases they are thin. The pseudocardinal teeth are lamellar and parallel to the dorsal margin, and there is a slight interdentum. Nacre varies from an iridescent white to a mottled pale orange (Adams et al., 1990).

Diagnostic Characteristics: The Carolina heelsplitter has an ovate, trapezoid-shaped, unsculptured (smooth with no distinct bumps or protrusions) shell. The shell of the largest known specimen measures 11.5 centimeters (cm) (4.5 inches (in)) in length, 3.9 cm (1.5 in) in width, and 6.8 cm (2.7 in) in height. The shell's outer surface varies from greenish brown to dark brown in color, and shells from younger specimens have faint greenish brown or black rays. The nacre (inside surface) is often pearly white to bluish white, grading to orange in the area of the umbo (bulge or beak that protrudes near the hinge of a mussel). However, in older specimens the entire nacre may be a mottled pale orange. The hinge teeth (pseudocardinal teeth and lateral teeth) of the species are well developed but thin and rather delicate. The left valve (half of a mussel shell) has two bladelike pseudocardinal teeth and two lateral teeth, and the right valve has one of each. The left valve may also have an interdental projection, a slight projection located between the lateral and pseudocardinal teeth (adapted from Keferl, 1991). Clarke (1985) provides a detailed description of the shell, with illustrations.

Reproduction Comments: Living specimens have been collected in late June, August and late October and none had any glochidia (Adams et al., 1990). Eads et al. (2010) found the species gravid from January and late February indicating it is bradytichtic, spawning in late summer or fall, and releasing glochidia in late winter or spring of the following year. Eads et al. (2010) confirmed the following fish hosts: bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), satinfin shiner (Cyprinella analostana), bluehead chub (Nocomis leptocephalus), golden shiner (Notemigonus crysoleucas), whitemouth shiner (Notropis alborus), highfin shiner (Notropis altipinnis), spottail shiner (Notropis hudsonius), yellow bullhead (Ameiurus natalis); with pirate perch (Aphredoderus sayanus), largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), redlip shiner (Notropis chiliticus), fantail darter (Etheostoma flabellare), tessellated darter (Etheostoma olmstedi) serving as poor hosts ( ................
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