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AP Lit Novel/Play ReviewStudent’s Name: _____________________Title: ____________________Author: ____________________ Publication year: 1818Author info. & how it relates to the book: Mary Shelley (1797-1851) was born in England to writer/philosopher parents. Came up w/ idea for Frankenstein at 18 while in Swiss Alps with lover (later husband), Percy Shelley, their friend Lord Byron, and others. Started as a ghost story competition and she developed the story. She first published Frankenstein anonymously (pub. date 1818, 1823, 1831). She got pregnant while Percy was still married, and his wife killed herself. Mary and Percy experienced social ostracizing, debt, and many children’s deaths; Percy drowned in 1822. She continued to write/raise a son.Percy Shelley and Lord Byron were famous Romantic writers (esp. poets) & their conversations, the contest, and her husband’s push influenced her writing. Percy Shelley also edited Frankenstein and prob. wrote the preface. Mary Shelley included an allusion to his poem, “Mutation” in Frankenstein.Mary Shelley tells that coming up with the idea for Frankenstein was a long process and was influenced by mentor texts (ghost stories she read as well as conversations between Percy and Lord Byron about Dr. Erasmus Darwin’s ideas/experiments about life). Victor also took a long time—years—to create his creation, and he learned from mentor texts of scientists/alchemists.Some say the death of M. Shelley’s mother, Mary Wollstonecraft, when Shelley was 10 days old influenced her writing/story—such as wanting to know her mother through her writing; also having Victor’s mother’s death be instrumental in his life. Perhaps even having Victor reject his creation. Or perhaps M. Shelley’s guilt as a mother/experience w/ dying babies (or wondering if she was to blame for her mother’s death) comes through in Victor’s anguished “creation” (critics qtd. in Wikipedia). (She may have also reflected feeling pushed aside by her stepmother and father—after father re-married.)Mary Shelley’s father was said to be an anarchist and her deceased mother was an outspoken/strong feminist. Wikipedia says M. Shelley was a radical politically while others say her writing critiques radical theories (e.g. Victor’s creation bring chaos). Her suggestion that cooperation/sympathy, esp. by women at home could bring calm and strongly influence the man was somewhat radical/distinct to the Romantic movement that preferred the solitary individual (critics qtd. in Wikipedia).Literary Movement (Is this work representative of that movement? How?)Frankenstein (1818) is part of the Romantic Period, and it fits with the subcategory of gothic. The Romantic period is known for believing nature can soothe our spirits and help us find peace and purpose. It’s known for focusing on emotions, imagination, intuition, etc. Writers—and especially poets—were sometimes seen as prophets, helping their audience find a higher truth. Dashing heroes or brooding, solitary men. (But M. Shelley may have been criticizing Rom.’s individualism by having Victor’s individualism lead to destruction and loss of ties with humanity [Wikipedia citing others].) The gothic includes settings that are wild, run-down, or isolated (misty moors, run-down castles, storms); an interest in the occult or supernatural/fantastical; and an interest in uncovering secrets. According to Sparknotes, gothic novels also include unsettling “psychological undercurrents” often relating to “family dynamics and repressed sexuality.” Frankenstein fits much, particularly the redeeming value of nature and using weather or nature similes to describe states of mind. The characters’ speech is often extravagant, emotional, expressing extreme urgency and honesty/vulnerability. Victor (& others) are on quests to discover secrets. The book delves into characters’ psychology. While the book fits aspects that have come before (the Gothic novel emerged in the 1750s), many also see it as distinct as a gothic novel in dealing with secrets related to science; in fact, some see it as the first science fiction novel. Douglas Clegg (Frankenstein intro, Signet ed.) says Mary Shelley “created the first modern monster.”Genre: gothic novel; tragedy (perhaps science fiction or horror; also has aspects of the bildungsroman)Protagonist characteristics/descriptive adjectives or phrases FOILs (a foil often goes w/ protagonist but it can be to another character; can be 2 settings as well)Foil (name & quick description/position)How is the foil & __________ tethered or comparable?What is illuminated by the use of this foil?Important interactions (events) with minor characters and their impact (more space on next page):?Dominant conflicts between specific characters and the problem/tension/idea they illustrate (include more than one):...Settings of importance and their impact on character/conflict/theme (esp. notice binaries & juxtapositions; consider archetypal settings)Motifs or symbols that reveal theme(s), tensions/conflicts, or character arc(s). Find at least 2.Motif or SymbolWhat it revealsTheme/Moral5-7 words that must/should be used while discussing/analyzing this novel; if the word applies to a character, specify which character3 significant issues the text considers and what, if anything, seems to be the author’s solution?Issue or Problem (i.e., tension, clashing worldviews, paradigm shifts)Suggested solution—if any (could be a character’s solution or a solution for a scene)Narrator/Narrative Structure & how these choices impact/contribute to the story (i.e., Is the narrator reliable or unreliable? Omniscient or with a limited perspective? Does the story use flashbacks or flash-forwards? Does it begin in media res? Does it repeat scenes or spend more time than expected on a scene? Is info. left unsaid? What action occurs “off stage”?)4-5 key quotes (or more) w/ page numbers—could illustrate a character’s arc, a theme, a symbol, an epiphany, etc. (Choose important quotes, such as something the author’s trying to convey, but you might steer clear of overly cited quotes.) Quote & Page number(opt.) Why significant?Key Literary TermsLiterary Terms (applicable to Frankenstein)AP English Literature, McPhersonNote: SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1Many in-context examples are taken from this website (as well as other sources). Definitions are from Kaplan, Cliff’s, 5 Steps to a 5, , Harmon & Holman’s Handbook to Literature, 10th ed., and various other sources and are not usually cited throughout (to aid readability).(adj.=adjective; n.=noun, v.=verb, etc.)Literary Period TermsWilliam Blake, Byron, Keats, Yates, Shelley, Coleridge, Mary Shelley James Fennimore Cooper, Edgar Allen Poe, Nathanial HawthorneRomanticismAn artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe in the late 18th century (which reached a peak in the early 19th century), characterized by a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individual's expression of emotion and imagination, departure from the forms of classicism, and rebellion against established social rules and conventions. It also sometimes enjoyed incorporating/examining folklore, Eastern/Asian influences, the occult, and the psychological/interior.In literature, its preoccupation is with the individual and his or her aspirations toward the realization of the ideal self and the creation of the ideal world; a modern corollary is the "back-to-nature" movement of the 1960s. (Not to be confused with the modern paperback “romance” or “love story.”)Note that the gothic, the grotesque figure, and Transcendentalism are all related (or perhaps subcategories) of romanticism.Prominent features of gothic fiction include terror (both psychological and physical), mystery, the supernatural, ghosts, haunted houses and Gothic architecture, castles, darkness, death, decay, doubles, madness, secrets and hereditary curses.The stock characters of gothic fiction include tyrants, villains, bandits, maniacs, Byronic heroes, persecuted maidens, femmes fatales (temptresses), madwomen, magicians, vampires, werewolves, monsters, demons, revenants, ghosts, perambulating skeletons, the Wandering Jew and the Devil himself.Examples of gothic lit. include Jane Eyre, Wuthering Heights, Poe’s “Fall of the House of Usher” and “The Pit and the Pendulum,” Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, and Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray.GothicThis developed, particularly in Europe, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The term “gothic” is linked with an appreciation of the joys of extreme emotion, the thrill of fearfulness and awe inherent in the sublime, and a quest for atmosphere.A genre of contemporary fiction typically relating the experiences of an often-ingenuous heroine imperiled, as at an old mansion, where she typically becomes involved with a stern or mysterious but attractive man (i.e., a Byronic hero).Gothic lit. combines elements of romance and horror.(Gothic can be considered a subcategory of Romantic literature.)Caliban in Shakespeare's The Tempest; Victor Hugo's Hunchback of Notre Dame (one of the most celebrated grotesques in literature); Victor Frankenstein's monster; the Phantom in The Phantom of the Opera; Gollum in Lord of the Rings.Southern Gothic is the genre most frequently identified with grotesques and William Faulkner is often cited as the ringmaster. Flannery O'Connor wrote, "Whenever I'm asked why Southern writers particularly have a penchant for writing about freaks, I say it is because we are still able to recognize one" ("Some Aspects of the Grotesque in Southern Fiction," 1960). In her often-anthologized short-story "A Good Man Is Hard To Find," the Misfit, a serial killer, is clearly a maimed soul, utterly callous to human life but driven to seek the truth, and he would be considered a “grotesque.”Grotesque The more colloquial/broader definition: Characterized by bizarre distortions, especially in the exaggerated or abnormal depiction of human features. A style of painting, sculpture, and ornamentation in which natural forms and monstrous figures are intertwined in bizarre or fanciful combinationsLiterary definition: In fiction, a character is usually considered a grotesque if he induces both empathy/pity and disgust. (A character who inspires disgust alone is simply a villain or a monster.) Examples might include characters who are physically deformed or mentally deficient; people with cringe-worthy social traits are also included. The reader becomes piqued by the grotesque's positive side, and continues reading to see if the character can conquer his darker side (or conquer society’s negative prejudices/assumptions).The SublimeThe?sublime?in literature refers to use of ideas, language, and description that excites thoughts and emotions beyond ordinary experience. It “takes us beyond ourselves.” Supposedly, it goes beyond mere beauty and helps us contemplate eternity. The concept goes back to the Romans, but a famous essay on the sublime by Edmund Burke in 1757 especially influenced Romantic writers. He felt that the strongest emotions are terror and pain, so images or texts that created a sense of danger, terror, and pain were especially encouraged. He also felt exalted subjects that we have trouble understanding—the unknown—can bring about the sublime. For example, Death and Satan in Paradise Lost are considered by Burke as sublime. Burke also believed that inciting terror in a reader allows for pleasure intermixed with the fear or pain. The philosopher Immanuel Kant said that a painful idea or terrifying object creates a sublime passion and allows readers to escape from their ordinary cares (uncertainty, self-consciousness). Edgar Allan Poe’s belief that the death of a beautiful woman is the most poetic subject is a similar concept. Another idea coming from this general philosophy is the use of ruins, castles, storms, mountains/cliffs, and misty moors to help produce a sense of painful grandeur or exalted emotion. The sublime is a subcategory of “the graveyard school” and the Gothic novel. The idea of the sublime was taken up by the?Romantic?poets, especially William Wordsworth. ?Character TermsHeroThe principal character of a story, play, or novel. The character who is the focus of interest. See protagonist. At its most basic, it just means main character (whether good or bad), but we often expect the hero to be good. Especially if we use the terms “hero” and “villain,” we expect the hero to hold to a moral compass; to care about society; to combat adversity through ingenuity, courage, or strength, etc. Some heroes are more flawed but, for the most part, they are heroic enough to be called heroes. See “hero types” handout for specific archetypes that fit, such as the epic hero, romantic hero, folk hero, etc.VillainA character that acts in opposition to the hero or protagonist. He/she is seen as evil or morally corrupt and guilty of (or potentially guilty of) serious crimes. Huck in Huck Finn, Frodo in Lord of the Rings, Luke in Star Wars, Jean Valjean in Les Misérables, Scarlet in Gone with the Wind, Hester in The Scarlet LetterProtagonistThe chief character in a work of literature. Often, the protagonist is “the good guy” but sometimes the main character is a thief or murderer, yet he is still the protagonist if the novel is written with a focus on him (such as Crime and Punishment; The Stranger; O Brother, Where Art Thou; and Oceans 11)AntagonistThe character who is in conflict with (or in opposition to) the protagonist (the principal character). If the protagonist is a thief, the antagonist may be the police officer trying to catch him. Taken from a different perspective, the antagonist could be a hero, but in the particular text in which he functions, he is opposed to the protagonist and, thus, the antagonist.“Many a pursued man fell before his nemesis in the streets.” —Agnes Morely Cleaveland“The team was defeated by its old nemesis.” “ . . . pursue them with the nemesis of outraged humanity.” —Donald Culross Peattie“A nemesis of humankind since the first hand slapped the first cheek, mosquitoes have bitten their way into the American experience.” —Jack CoxNemesisThe more colloquial/broader definition: A person’s enemy or someone they compete with or fight with and who brings them down or makes them look bad. Harry Potter and Draco Malfoy are nemeses. Megamind and Metro Man. In the movies, Thor and Loki are often nemeses. Note that sometimes nemeses will work together for a short period if the goal is important enough, but they will usually go back to being in competition or out to get each other soon thereafter.Literary definition: The Greek goddess of retribution, justice, or vengeance. The term nemesis is applied to divine retribution, where an evil act brings about its own punishment. The term is applied to both the agent (such as a person who carries it out) and the act of punishment. It often becomes synonymous with fate, but there is also a sense of justice in play. IRomeo and TybaltHamlet and Laertes, and Hamlet and FortinbrasHan Solo and Luke SkywalkerHuck Finn and Tom SawyerScarlett and Melanie or Rhett and Ashley (Gone with the Wind)Captain Kirk and Spock (in most recent Star Trek film)Bingley and Darcy in Pride and PrejudiceNote: Different characters could act as foils to each other at different times, so the Avengers or the characters from “Friends” have various moments of being foils.FoilA person or thing that makes another seem better by contrast. OR A character whose purpose is to provide contrast to the main character, thus showing the reader the qualities of the hero or heroine by negative (or positive) example. Basically, they remind us that there is a different way of responding to a similar stimulus, thus, making us take note of the way the protagonist reacted. For example, we might not appreciate how pragmatic or kind-hearted Huck is without Tom alongside, who is so intent on following the “rules” from the books that he’s ignoring Jim’s pain and plight. And we, likewise, might not notice how silly Tom’s behavior is without Huck’s questions and behavior.Note that the foils are usually of the same gender and similar in age; often, they are similar in station/class. For example, even though they are opposites, you would likely say Harry and Voldemort are not foils; instead, Harry and Draco are, or Voldemort and Dumbledore are. (At times, Ron or Hermione could also be a foil to Harry.)Dickens’s Christmas ghosts and alter egosHamlet’s father’s ghost can be referred to as a doppelg?nger. Hamlet doesn’t know if it’s truly his father’s spirit, but it has its image.Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde can be considered a story of doppelg?ngers. Dr. Jekyll, as a Victorian gentleman, cannot let his evil self run free, but in creating a second self, he is allowed to explore this negative side of himself.In Poe’s “William Wilson,” the protagonist meets a boy who looks like him, talks like him, and walks like him. But the doppelg?nger can only whisper. The protagonist is haunted by his double, and, worn out by his interference, eventually stabs him, only to realize he has stabbed himself. The doppelg?nger then says, “In me didst thou exist—and, in my death, see by this image, which is thine own, how utterly thou hast murdered thyself.”doppelganger/Doppelg?ngerThe ghostly counterpart of a living person or an alter ego.German, doppel, meaning “double,” and g?nger, as “walker.” The term has, in the vernacular, come to refer to any double or look-alike of a person, most commonly in reference to a so-called evil twin. Alternatively, the word is used to describe a phenomenon where you catch your own image out of the corner of your eye. In some mythologies, seeing one's own doppelg?nger is an omen of death, illness, or bad luck. A doppelg?nger can occur due to someone existing in two times at once, so it might be one’s future or past self. In some cases, a doppelg?nger could simply be a look-alike, but, in literature, usually there would be a deeper meaning for including such a doubling up of the protagonist.A doppelg?nger can bring harm to the protagonist or help him/her understand himself/herself better or become a more fully realized self. The doppelg?nger might show the “other self” that the protagonist hasn’t yet explored and, therefore, show the audience a more complex character. It can also bring conflict into the narrative as the protagonist often has to grapple with understanding themselves or facing their shadow selves, their darker psychology. Achilles’s heel (but also Achilles’ hurt feelings/stubbornness in staying offended)Anakin Skywalker’s disobedience/pride (partially due to fear and love for mother and wife in Star Wars)??Oedipus Rex (Oedipus’s pride—he thinks he can outsmart the oracle, he doesn’t listen to the prophet), Hamlet (Hamlet’s inability to act), Death of a Salesman (Willy Loman’s pride in superficial things and inability to disregard his definition of the American Dream), Macbeth (Macbeth’s ambition), Othello (Othello’s gullibility/na?veté and jealousy)Hamartia (some see as a synonym for tragic flaw)Tthe character flaw or error of a tragic hero that leads to his downfall. It is usually translated as tragic mistake or tragic flaw. A common hamartia is hubris (pride).A more up-to-date/nuanced view: more than just a character flaw, hamartia can be an error, misstep, mistake in judgment, accident of birth, moment of ignorance, etc. that brings about tragic consequences. It must, however, express itself through an action or a failure to act. It is necessary to the unfolding of the tragedy. As an example, the hero might want to achieve something, but by a choice he makes (a mistake or accident), he ends up achieving the exact opposite and experiencing a reversal of fortune. His mistake or accident is the hamartia.Hamartia imparts a sense of pity, fear, and empathy in the audience who can sympathize with the hero’s flaw or decision as the audience too is imperfect and can imagine themselves in the hero’s position. As they witness his/her reversal of fortune, their pity is heightened. Therefore, sometimes hamartia (and tragedy) is employed as a moral lesson, trying to help humankind to improve.Oedipus’s pride; Othello’s jealousy; Hamlet’s indecisivenessTragic flaw (some see synonym of hamartia)The character defect that causes the downfall of the protagonist of a tragedy. The tragic flaw is often hubris or pride. But hamartia is the overall category of tragic flaws, and hubris is a particular tragic flaw that commonly arises in literature.A more up-to-date/nuanced view: “Tragic flaw” is a philosophy that believes the protagonist had a flaw in character that brought about the tragedy, but this view has been refuted. Such critics (leading the refutation) say that some of the supposed flaws are integral parts of the character or even good aspects, such as Oedipus’s thirst for knowledge or Antigone’s devotion to duty. But it may still be worth noticing how this aspect of character opens the way for tragic consequences. Therefore, not all critics feel that a tragedy’s protagonist has a flaw, yet it’s still worth examining what decisions or what aspects of character allow for the conflict or downward spiral to occur.Owen Wilson’s character in Cars (at first);Achilles’s treatment of Hecktor’s corpse in The Iliad;Oedipus killing his father Laius in Oedipus Rex;In a quote about Titanic: “This is a real-life story of hubris, as the ship declared to be ‘unsinkable’ . . .”Hubris (sometimes Hybris)Greek “insolence” or “pride.” The tragic hero’s emotion (such as ambition, impetuousness, stubbornness, overconfidence) that leads him to ignore warnings from gods or to transgress against their moral codes, leading to the tragic outcome. This flaw causes the hero to break a moral law, attempt to transcend normal human limitations, or ignore a divine warning, which leads to his downfall and/or other disastrous results. When we see strong showings of pride early on, we often know that the protagonist’s fall, their reckoning, is coming, and that the story will be a tragedy or warning tale.There can be huge transformations, for example, In Kafka’s The Metamorphosis, a man is transformed overnight into a large bug, in Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, a gentle doctor experiences repeated violent shifts in personality after drinking a potent solution, but nearly all protagonists experience a strong character arc. Dorothy in?The Wizard of Oz?feels disconnected from her life-circumstance in Kansas, wishing she could go somewhere over the rainbow, only to return claiming, “There’s no place like home.”Metamorphosis A radical change in a character; either physical or emotional. An extreme transformation—can refer to mental/emotional growth (or degeneration). A dynamic character’s changes often help elucidate the importance of a catalyst or mentor, a conflict, etc. The changes can also highlight an important theme for the text. By the character’s change—for good or bad—the audience is likely supposed to become aware of something as well. (Transformations can also help highlight distinctions between characters as static characters stay the same and dynamic characters have a character arc—they change throughout the piece.)“Joseph Campbell asserted that transformation is at the heart of The Hero’s Journey: The Hero leaves their Ordinary World and goes on a journey into a New World. Through the challenges they face and experiences they have, combined with wisdom they learn along the way, both intellectual and emotional, the Hero returns home a changed individual. Carl Jung asserted the process of?individuation?is the greatest calling of the human adventure and that process is fundamentally about metamorphosis — becoming who we are meant to be, indeed, in a way, become who we already are (as represented in the various aspects of our psyche). Why is metamorphosis perhaps the single most universal narrative archetype? Again we could talk about this for days, but if I had to name one reason it’s this:?People want to believe they can change. Stories that feature characters who do change reinforce that belief” ( )Narrative Terms“Yesterday I went biking and made this massive drop; it was so cool” NarrativeThe telling of a story or an account of an event (or a series of events). A form of writing that tells a story—also called autobiographical writing or memoir.“Narrative devices” can be utilized to control how information is revealed, to whom and when. One form of narrative device is shifting in time, which includes flashbacks, flash-forwards, notions of the present (how slowly something is told or if the narrator is unaware of a key happening which is revealed later), repetition of a sequence, dream sequences, hallucinations, premonitions and supernatural projections.For example, a flashback can include signs that will alter the meaning of the signs in the present time frame and vice versa. In Saving Private Ryan, which is told almost entirely in flashback, the information at the end of the flashback reveals the identity of the person whose memories have been viewed, which also reveals a shift in narrative point-of-view which had, until that return to the notional “present,” been concealed. Another type of narrative device is shifting of the narrative point of view. Most commonly, the sharing of knowledge between the principal character and the audience reveals the story information, but sometimes another character is used. Narrative DevicesThis term describes the tools of the storyteller (also used in nonfiction memoir), such as ordering events so that they build to a climactic moment or withholding information until a crucial or appropriate moment when revealing it creates a desired effect. Narrative devices include the use of dialogue, narrator choices (such as having an omnipotent or a limited narrator), flashbacks, beginning a story in media res, using digressions, etc. Basically, any devices that help tell a story.The following is one critic discussing an author’s narrative method: “the narrator boldly imposed his own attitudes; always he assumed an omniscience that tended to reduce the characters to puppets and the action to a predetermined course with an end implicit in the beginning.”Narrative method (or technique)The style of telling the “story,” even if the passage is nonfiction. Concentrate on the order of events and on their detail in evaluating a writer’s technique. Could also include decisions concerning point of view and omniscience or limited perspective.Note: As best I can tell, narrative method and narrative devices are similar terms. Perhaps an author has a narrative method or technique, based on the narrative devices made.The beginning scenes of The Fugitive, Inception, Iron Man, Ratatouille, Thor: Ragnarok, Star Wars: A New Hope, Ladder 49, Mission Impossible 3, Tangled (at least the trailer—I can’t remember for the movie)Somewhat for Tuesdays with MorrieThe Iliad, Dante’s InfernoIn media resRefers to opening a story in the middle of the action, requiring filling in past details by exposition or flashback. A term from Horace, literally: “in the middle of things.” Sometimes, there is little exposition and the audience gets caught up on the gist of things as the story proceeds. Other times, the narrator starts in the middle and then backs up and fills us in, getting to the original start again much later on in the telling.“The recent outbreak of violence was foreshadowed by isolated incidents in the city earlier this year.”A weapon found in a drawer early in a story might foreshadow a future crime in the story.A storm might foreshadow coming problems in a relationship.A character saying “That would never happen to me” likely foreshadows that it soon will happen to him/her.Camera work can help foreshadow things, so if the camera focuses on a small item, such as a pen, the audience likely guesses that it will come into play in an important way later.Foreshadowing A warning or indication that suggests something, usually unpleasant, is going to happen later on.Writers use foreshadowing to build their readers’ expectations and to create suspense. Usually foreshadowing is subtle and not an outright announcement of what’s coming. So if I say, “There’s going to be a quiz next time,” you know what’s coming, but it’s not due to foreshadowing. It’s just an out-right announcement. But if a narrator is more subtle, such as talking about a dream for the future, and then saying, “But it was not meant to be” and then going on with his/her story, this quick hint of sadness to come could probably be included as a type of foreshadowing.Note that prophesying is not the same as foreshadowing. Pacing The movement of a literary piece from one point or one section to another. (Involves time spent on a scene or a problem, the sense of movement and structure, etc.) You might notice what’s skipped over/quickly summed up (like montage scenes in a movie) compared to what’s emphasized. Decisions on how much time to spend on exposition (background information) or description are also issues of pacing.Texts that use frame stories:Princess BrideCanterbury TalesThe Arabian NightsWuthering HeightsThe Name of the WindThe Great Gatsby (the recent movie version)Amadeus FrankensteinFrame Story (or Framework-Story or Frame Narrative)A story inside a story. A story that starts with a frame or outside story, often where the narrator is introduced and the reason for the main story explained. Traditionally, the text starts and finishes with the frame. Sometimes, it drops back to the frame at intervals during the other (“main”) story. (There may be exceptions; for ex., in Henry James’s Turn of the Screw, the story doesn’t return to the frame and leaves unanswered questions.) Sometimes there is a story inside the framework as well; other times, it’s just a quick set-up so that the narrator(s) can tell the story of greater interest. Some stories can lead to three or four degrees of quotation as the narrator tells what a character tells about what a character tells, etc.The frame story can be used to tell several stories, like Arabian Nights, The Decameron, and Canterbury Tales. It can also be used to help jump the reader to different parts of the story. In the case of The Princess Bride, it might have been used in place of a strong narrative hook, or to help diffuse the cynical reactions an audience might have through the grandfather’s persona, who tells his grandson to be patient or to wait for questions to be answered later.Mary Shelley’s FrankensteinBram Stroke’s DraculaC.S. Lewis’s The Screwtape LettersJane Austen’s Lady SusanLemony Snicket’s The Beatrice LettersWilkie Collins’s The Woman in WhiteAlice Walker’s The Color PurpleAvi’s Nothing but the TruthRobert C. O’Brien’s Z for ZachariahShannon Hale’s The Book of a Thousand DaysEpistolaryA piece of literature contained in or carried on by letters (or journal articles or other related items). An epistolary novel is a novel written as a series of documents. The usual form is letters, although diary entries, newspaper clippings, emails, and other documents are sometimes used. The word epistolary comes from the word “epistle,” meaning letter.One argument for using the epistolary form is that it can add greater realism and verisimilitude to the story, chiefly because it mimics the workings of real life. It is thus able to demonstrate differing points of view without recourse to the device of an omniscient narrator.(Mostly fell out of favor in the late eighteenth century.)NarratorThe speaker of a literary work. The “character” who tells the story. Remember that the author is not always the same person as his/her created speaker or narrator. Do not assume that a narrator’s stance parallels an author’s. (But if there are enough clues—or of the piece is a satire—it may.)First person: I saw . . . . We did . . . Second person: “You start walking toward . . .” (like Choose Your Own Adventure books)Third person: Robert watched the fight break out. He wondered if he could withstand . . . Perspective (or Point of View)A character or narrator’s view of the situation or events in the story. A perspective (or point of view) is the related experience of the narrator — not that of the author. Authors rarely, in fiction, insert or inject their own voice, as this challenges the suspension of disbelief. Texts encourage the reader to identify with the narrator, not with the author.The vantage point from which an author presents a story. The view the reader gets of the action and characters in a story.There are three points of view: 1st person, 3rd person, and 2nd person. Narration can occur from the first-person (“I,” “we”), or third-person point of view (“he,” “she,” “they,” “it”). In a novel, the first person is commonly used: "I saw, We did," etc. But the third person is used even more so. Note that second-person (“you”) is rarely used in narration—except Choose Your Own Adventure stories. In a textbook, it’s usually third person: "that happened, the king died," etc. For additional vagueness, imprecision, and detachment, some writers employ the passive voice: "It is said that the president was compelled to be heard . . . "Perspective/point of view also includes definitions of the narrator (such as 1st-person or 3rd-person narrator but also as in limited narrator or omniscient; trustworthy or unreliable, etc.)Omniscient NarratorHaving complete or unlimited knowledge, awareness, or understanding; perceiving all things. This term is usually used to reference a type of narrator who is able to see actions by different characters and even know their motives and thoughts. A third-person omniscient narrator gives a panoramic view of the world of the story, looking into many characters and into the broader background of a story. A third-person omniscient narrator can tell feelings of every character.Reliability(reliable narrator vs. unreliable narrator)The degree to which a narrator can be trusted. Most narrators are reliable—or they are supposed to be unbiased and/or omniscient. Other narrators, on the other hand, are supposed to be suspect or human/fallible. In this latter case, the narrator’s personal opinions and point of view may be biasing the story. Some authors have fun with skewing an audience’s awareness or showing a creative point of view through an unreliable narrator. Some narrators are obviously supposed to be unreliable, such as a drunk or mentally ill narrator. Others may think themselves reliable, but some of their comments should cause the audience to question their reliability. Some, such as Huck Finn, are generally reliable, but they have moments of naiveté, where their view is not reflective of “the truth” (such as when Huck thinks the ringmaster had been fooled by someone in the crowd who jumped on the horse and did tricks during the circus act, but the reader is supposed to realize Huck’s been fooled by the circus’s trick). Another example, from The Outsiders, is how Ponyboy thinks his older brother is cruel and doesn’t love him, but the audience can tell (from his actions, from other characters’ comments, and from understanding life) that Ponyboy is not “reliable” or accurate in his view of his older brother.Definition 2:Direct: She said, “I am sleepy.”Indirect: She said that she was sleepy.Definition 3:Also, we say you are entering the discourse on the subject of _______ (Jane Austen, for example) when you write a paper or speak at a conference. You are entering in the literary conversation or dialog and the established body of work on that subject (more true if you actually publish).Discourse1. Communication of thought by words; talk. A mode of expression. 2. Two types: direct and indirect. 3. A formal discussion of a subject.Note: Exact quotes in writing (whether fiction or non-fiction) often adds power. We get to hear the person’s word choice, passion, personality, etc. It also gets rid of the middle-man. When an essay only uses paraphrasing, we’re having to trust the speaker, but we don’t know if they are representing whoever they’re citing accurately. If an essay or novel is using a lot of paraphrasing, especially for crucial information, we may begin to wonder at the author/speaker’s reliability.Other Key Literary TermsPlan ahead: it wasn't raining when Noah built the ark. –Richard Cushing Don’t be intimidated by Dr. Evans. Even though he’s smart, it’s not like he walks on water.“May the force be with you,” Tom whispered to me as he walked out the door.AllusionAn indirect, usually brief, reference to something which is presumably common knowledge, such as an event, a book, a myth, a place, or a work of art. Can be historical, literary, religious, or mythological. It can refer to current events in the news. It is used to increase the meaning in a piece or strike a chord with the knowledgeable audience or even to add humor.It tries to tap into the reader’s existing knowledge and build upon it. For example, when Melville names his ship the Pequod in Moby-Dick, the reader knowing the Pequod tribe to be extinct, will suspect the vessel will not make it make to shore.In Huck Finn, Twain’s naming of the wrecked steamboat The Sir Walter Scott—especially in combination with Twain’s belittling of Romanticism through Tom’s character—shows Twain’s disdain for Romanticism. Or visually symbolizes that Twain believes Romanticism is sinking (or should die out). But it’s important that a reader know that Sir Walter Scott, the real-life person, is the author of romantic novels—such as Ivanhoe (a story of knights of the Round Table), Rob Roy, and The Lady of the Lake—in order to understand the allusion.ApostropheA sudden exclamatory piece of dialogue addressed to someone or something, especially absent. A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: England have need of thee.” An apostrophe often begins with “Oh” or “O.”See distortion/ for more examples.DistortionDistortion is a literary device that twists, exaggerates, changes, and makes something quite different from what it actually is. Writers can distort a thought, an idea, a situation, or an image. They may use?hyperbole, symbolism,?satire, and personification to present distortion. For example, in?Animal?Farm, George Orwell uses personification and symbolism to distort stereotypes and historical figures. Some writers distort time to tell their story. Another aspect of distortion in literature can be making something seem better or worse than it actually is. Distortion is literature is similar to caricature in art. Distortions can be used to show characters’ perspectives or to emphasize something important to the author. They can also criticize, make fun, and provide comic relief.?Did I request thee, Maker, from my clayTo mould me Man, did I solicit theeFrom darkness to promote me?Frankenstein’s epigraph (using a quote from Paradise Lost)Fahrenheit 451 begins with the epigraph “If they give you lined paper, write the other way.”My mythology disclosure begins with the epigraph, “The world is made of stories, not atoms.”?Epigraph A brief quotation at the beginning of a work (usually on the title page) that reflects the theme of the work. My Antonia, Fahrenheit 451, and Frankenstein each have an epigraph. . . . a quotation that is placed at the start of a work or section that expresses in some succinct way an aspect or theme of what is to follow . . . The epigraph may serve as a banner, to link the work to a wider literary canon, either to invite comparison or to enlist a conventional context. Some authors use fictional quotations that purport to be related to the fiction of the work itself . . . Some science fiction authors (e.g. Isaac Asimov's Foundation Trilogy) are fond of using quotations from an imagined future history of the period of their story. This can be seen as a way of claiming authenticity for a work of the imagination. Note: If you begin an essay with a “floating quote” (so your essay begins several spaces down, under the quote), that counts as an epigraph. It often adds a sophisticated feel or allows a writer to allude to a quote without having to include it directly in the essay itself. The quote can also be in direct opposition to the paper, creating humor/irony or highlighting an opposing argument’s context before responding to it. The use of 4 in Joy Luck Club; the use of reflections and mirrors in Baz Lurman’s Romeo & Juliet; the green light in The Great Gatsby; the carpe diem (sieze the day) motif in much poetry, particularly Romantic and cavalier poetryThe flute in Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman is a recurrent motif that conveys rural and idyllic notions. MotifThe repetition or variation of an image or idea in a work used to develop theme or character. (There can also be motifs that run through particular periods or an author’s body of works.) The motif can be an idea, an object, a place, or a statement. A motif differs from a theme in that a theme is an idea set forth by a text, where a motif is a recurring element which symbolizes that idea. In plays: A motif is a recurrent device, formula, or situation that often serves as a signal for the appearance of a character or event. For example, a bell might always ring or a storm might occur.The Great Gatsby’s theme could be:We cannot return to the past and trying to do so only brings tragedy.Huck Finn’s theme could be:Society is corrupt, and we must return to nature to find ourselves. ORIn order to be true to our own conscience, we sometimes must disregard society’s dictates.ThemeA broad idea in a story, or a message conveyed by a work. This message is usually about life, society or human nature. Themes are usually implied rather than explicitly stated.The dominant idea or concern of a work; the main idea or meaning; the didactic quality of a work (i.e., what is it teaching?).Sidelight: Although theme is often used interchangeably with motif, it is preferable to recognize the difference between the two terms. (A motif is a recurring pattern, such as reflections, the color red, disguises, civilization vs. nature, etc. The theme can often be figured out partially based on such a motif. For example, reflections might indicate a theme about the importance of knowing one’s self.)Important: When you phrase themes, (1) say them as claim sentences. Sometimes, people use words or phrases, but English teachers (and AP tests) prefer a full sentence. So instead of “the search for good” or “good vs. evil,” you might say, “As we search for the good in others, we can find it also in ourselves.” Or “We cannot always conquer evil in the world, but even small wins can bring us peace.”(2) Make sure an expressed theme sounds universal (applicable to us or to other texts) and not too specific to one plot or character. For example, a theme on Harry Potter that mentions Voldemort or magic wouldn’t be as universal as something involving faith, friendship, courage, teamwork, etc.Oedipus Rex, Othello, Hamlet, Macbeth, Medea, AgamemnonSome would call Death of a Salesman a tragedy; others would say Willy Loman was never a great enough protagonist to label it as a tragedy. In a sense, Arthur Miller, the playwright, was arguing that an everyman could be a worthy protagonist, and our modern society prevents us from experiencing true greatness.TragedyTragedy is the mirror image of comedy. For instead of depicting the rise in circumstances of a dejected underdog, tragedy shows us the downfall of a once prominent and powerful hero. Tragedy is a dramatic composition, dealing with a somber theme, typically that of a great person destined—through a flaw of character or conflict with some overpowering force, such as fate—to downfall or destruction. Often, it exemplifies “the tragic sense of life,” and suggests humans are “doomed through their own failures or errors or even the ironic action of their virtues, or through fate, destiny, or the human condition to suffer, fail, and die, and that the measure of a person’s life is to be taken by how he or she faces that inevitable failure.” A tragedy allows us to celebrate “courage and dignity in the face of defeat and attempts to portray the grandeur of the human spirit” (Harmon & Holman’s Handbook to Lit, 10th ed.). Note: usually tragic figures have to be of significance/worthy of respect, so the hero’s station and character sometimes reveals values of the time period (or author) from which it arose. Tragedy should produce suffering and insight on the part of the protagonist and arouse pity and fear on the part of the audience (i.e., Aristotle’s catharsis idea). ................
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