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This text is about the causes of societal collapse, archeologist’s studies and the prerequisites of a successful society. There are some words in this text that you won’t see very often when you are reading but are important for this text. These words are in bold in the text. Look at the questions below about these vocabulary items and try to answer them. You should use a dictionary if you are unsure of the answers.

A: Pre-reading Vocabulary

1. A prerequisite (n)

‘Scientists have highlighted "prerequisites for survival," needs that must be met in order for a society to continue.’

Is a prerequisite (a) something that is useless or (b) something that is necessary in order to be successful?

2. Irrigation (n)

‘If irrigation water is allowed to sit on the fields and evaporate, it leaves behind mineral salts; if attempts are made to drain off irrigation water and it flows through the soil too quickly, erosion becomes a problem..’

Is irrigation (a) the process of supplying water to farm land or (b) the process of building farm houses?

3. Toxic (adj)

‘Over time, the soil became toxic and would no longer support crops.’

If something is toxic, is it (a) healthy or (b) poisonous?

4. Scarce (adj)

‘Rains were seasonal in this area, which meant that the land flooded in the winter and spring and water was scarce at other times.’

Does scarce mean (a) there is a lot or (b) there is a very small amount?

5. Catch-22 (n)

‘Irrigation has a Catch-22: if irrigation water is allowed to sit on the fields and evaporate, it leaves behind mineral salts; if attempts are made to drain off irrigation water and it flows through the soil too quickly, erosion becomes a problem.’

Is a catch-22 situation (a) a situation in which no positive outcome is possible or (b) a situation in which a positive outcome is guaranteed?

6. Collapse (n) & to collapse (v)

‘Looking at the impressive remains of ancient Maya civilization, it's hard to imagine how such a society could collapse.’

If a society collapses, does it (a) fall apart completely or (b) does it grow strong?

7. To Wane (v)

‘As Mali's power waned, Songhai asserted its independence and rose to power in he area.’

Does wane mean (a) become weaker or (b) become stronger?

8. Speculative (adj)

‘Archaeologists may forget that these hypotheses are speculative, and they may come to be seen as established fact.’

Is speculative related to (a ) having a guess or (b) knowing for certain?

B: Introduction - Comprehension

How are you going to answer these questions?

Reading the introduction is a useful way of finding out if an academic text is going to be useful for you. A well-written introduction will tell you exactly what you can expect to find in the main part of the text. Use these questions to predict the content of this text.

✓ Look at the introduction only and answer the following questions.

1. How does the author start his introduction? (choose the correct answer)

With a definition of the title ________

With a quote from a famous person ________

With an example ________

2. Why does the author introduce the text in this way (give your opinion)?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Look at the second paragraph. From the information you find, which of the following will you expect to read about in this text? (tick the appropriate answer(s))

Gradual declines of civilizations ________

Rapid declines of civilizations ________

Causes of collapse within a society ________

Causes of collapse outside the control of society ________

The history of wars ________

4. What information (relating to these words) will we expect to find in the main body of the text? Use the information you find in the third paragraph of the introduction to define these words.

Civilizations ________________________________________________

Collapse ________________________________________________

Archeologists ________________________________________________

History ________________________________________________

Lessons ________________________________________________

Introduction

Hundreds of years ago in what is now modern Honduras, Copán was a thriving center of Maya life. Many thousands of people made their home in the Copán Valley. However, despite its importance, Copán went into decline. Across the vast territory of the ancient Maya, other important sites were sharing a similar fate. The Maya civilization was collapsing.

Why did this great civilization fall? The history of humankind has been marked by patterns of growth and decline. Some declines have been gradual, occurring over centuries. Others have been rapid, occurring over the course of a few years. War, drought, natural disaster, disease, overpopulation, economic disruption: any of these can bring about the collapse of a civilization. Internal[1] causes (such as political struggles or overfarming) can combine with external[2] causes (such as war or natural disaster) to bring about a collapse. What does this mean for modern civilizations? What can we learn from the past?

In this text we explore the collapse of three ancient civilizations. You'll learn what happens when a society collapses, how archaeologists find and interpret evidence, how history has repeated itself and the lessons that have been learnt about why societies collapse.

C: Previewing the Main Body

✓ Look at the main body headings only and answer the following questions.

1. Which three societal collapses will be discussed in the main body?

________________________________________________________________________

2. If you were doing some research about the history of Mesopotamia, would this text be useful for you? (circle yes or no)

Y N

D: The Maya – Scanning for Information

How are you going to answer these questions?

These are scanning questions – to answer these questions in the time available, you will have to look at the text very quickly. You only need to look at the Maya section! Remember; you are looking for small differences in names, dates or numbers.

✓ Underline the errors in these sentences. You have ninety (90) seconds.

Between the third and tenth centuries, Maya civilization produced amazing churches and pyramids, highly inaccurate calendars, mathematics and hieroglyphic writing, and a simple social and political order.

Copán was once a classic Maya political center, the smallest city in the southeastern part of the Maya area. Covering about 39 acres, it was built on the banks of the Copán River on an artificial terrace made of close to a million cubic feet of dirt.

1 The Maya

The ancient Maya once occupied a vast[3] geographic area in Central and South America. Their civilization extended to parts of what is now Mexico, Honduras, and El Salvador, and most of Guatemala and Belize. From the third to the ninth century, Maya civilization produced amazing temples and pyramids, highly accurate calendars, mathematics and hieroglyphic writing, and a complex social and political order. Looking at the impressive remains of ancient Maya civilization, it's hard to imagine how such a society could collapse.

Looking for clues at Copán

Clues to this collapse can be found at Copán, a Maya site in western Honduras. Copán was once a Classic Maya royal center, the largest city in the southeastern part of the Maya area. Covering about 29 acres[4], it was built on the banks of the Copán River on an artificial terrace [5]made of close to a million cubic feet of dirt. Over time, people spread out from the center and built homes in the surrounding areas that had formerly been used for crops. Copán's nobles[6] built smaller, rival complexes on sites that were increasingly further from the center.

In spite of its wealth, power, and size, Copán collapsed. No monuments seem to have been produced after A.D. 822. Does this mean that the collapse was sudden? Or is it possible that the society collapsed more gradually? However quickly the collapse took place, it shared the same end result as Mesopotamia.

E: The Maya - True / False Questions

✓ Look at the Maya section. These questions test your ability to analyze and understand the information that you have read.

✓ Circle true or false. If the sentence is false, you will write a correct sentence.

How are you going to answer these questions?

These questions ask you to decide if each statement is correct or incorrect. In this type of question, each statement is likely to be very similar to a part of the text, whether it is true or false. When you have found the related part of the text, read it carefully several times. If it is false, the difference may be very small!

1) If we look at what is left of the ancient Maya civilization, it's obvious to see how such a society could collapse. T F

2) As well as being the largest city in the southeastern part of the Maya area, Copán was also a classic Maya royal center. T F

3) The poorest people of Copán built smaller, rival developments on sites that were increasingly further from the center. T F

4) The fact that no monuments were built after A.D. 822 means that Copán could have collapsed quickly. T F

5) Mesopotamia didn’t suffer the same end result as the Maya. T F

F: Mesopotamia – Skimming for Gist

How are you going to answer this question?

This question asks you to decide statement is the closest in meaning to the first two paragraphs. In this type of question, you will need to read the whole of the paragraphs and try to understand their general meaning! Remember to look for the most important information.

✓ Read the first two paragraphs only. Choose which of these summaries is best.

1. The Mesopotamian civilization collapsed because people chose to live between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

2. The Mesopotamian civilization grew quickly because of its canals and collapsed when it started to rain.

3. The Mesopotamian civilization grew quickly through trade but cities such as Mashkan-shapir collapsed very quickly.

4. The Mesopotamian civilization grew quickly due to flooding but collapsed because trade was lucrative.

2 Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia was known as the land between two rivers, the Tigris to the north and the Euphrates to the south. Rains were seasonal in this area, which meant that the land flooded in the winter and spring and water was scarce at other times. Farming in the region depended on irrigation from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Many resources in Mesopotamia were scarce or absent, which stimulated trade in the region in ancient times. Supported by lucrative trade with its neighbors, Mesopotamia grew to become a powerful empire.

Mashkan-shapir was a typical Mesopotamian city, located about 20 miles from the Tigris River and connected to the river by a network of canals. Despite a flourishing civilization, Mashkan-shapir was abandoned within only 20 years of its settlement. What could have caused this rapid demise?

Poisoned fields: A contributor to collapse

Along with factors such as war and changes in the environment, scientists now believe irrigation techniques played an important role in Mashkan-shapir's collapse. The same process that allowed farming in this region also eventually made it impossible to farm. Irrigation has a Catch-22: if irrigation water is allowed to sit on the fields and evaporate, it leaves behind mineral salts; if attempts are made to drain off irrigation water and it flows through the soil too quickly, erosion becomes a problem. Scientists believe that Mashkan-shapir's collapse was caused in part by destruction of the fields by mineral salts. When mineral salts concentrate in the upper levels of the soil, it becomes poisonous for plants.

In Mesopotamia, irrigation was essential for crop production. The rivers were higher than the surrounding plain because of built-up silt in the river beds, so water for irrigation flowed into the fields by gravity. Once the water was on the fields, it could not readily drain away because the fields were lower than the river. As the water evaporated, it not only left its dissolved mineral salts behind, but also drew salts upward from lower levels of the soil. Over time, the soil became toxic and would no longer support crops. By about 2300 B.C., agricultural production in Mesopotamia was reduced to a tiny fraction of what it had been. Many fields were abandoned as essentially useless. Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets tell of crop damage due to salts.

Could this happen today?

In the United States, California's San Joaquin Valley faces irrigation problems that are similar to those faced by Mashkan-shapir. The irrigated soil is becoming increasingly salty, as is the water table. Without irrigation, abundant crop yields would have been impossible in this arid area. With irrigation, the land will very likely become impossible to farm.

Modern methods don't seem to be helping the San Joaquin Valley avoid this fate. Farmers have tried to cleanse the salts from the soil by flushing it with water and draining it into the sea. They have tried pouring the salty runoff from irrigation down drains dug deep into the ground. So far, these solutions have not worked, and the fields closest to the water table are becoming poisoned by salts. Right now, it looks as if the San Joaquin Valley is headed for the same fate as Mashkan-shapir.

G: Mesopotamia - Comprehension Questions

How are you going to answer these questions?

Most of these questions ask you to answer in your own words. You may find the answers in specific sentences in the text. Sometimes you may have to read a whole paragraph. Use the bold and italic key words to help you.

✓ Look at the Poisoned Fields and Could this Happen sections. These questions test your ability to analyze and understand the information that you have read. Answer in your own words.

1. What three factors played an important role in Mashkan-shapir’s collapse?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What example is given to define the phrase ‘catch 22’?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. You are going to show the chain of events that led to the abandonement of fields in Mashkan-shapir. Use the following sentences to fill in the gaps in the diagram. Examples are given.

A) The rivers were higher than the surrounding area.

B) Agricultural production was greatly reduced.

C) Many fields were abandoned.

D) The soil became toxic and wouldn’t support crops.

E) Irrigation water flowed because of gravity.

F) Salts were drawn upwards from lower soil.

G) The water couldn’t drain because the fields were too low.

H) Dissolved mineral salt remained.

4. What similarities exist between Mashkan-shapir and the San Joaquin valley?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

H: Mali & Songhai – Scanning for Information

✓ Answer the following questions. You have ninety (90) seconds.

1. The Mali empire date from the 13th Century to when? _____

2. Name one Songhai king. _____

3. Timbuktu is now part of which country? _____

4. What are African griots? _____

3 Mali and Songhai

Sometimes history seems to repeat itself. The rise and fall of two medieval[7] kingdoms of West Africa is an example of this. Mali and Songhai, as well as the smaller kingdom of Ghana before them, were once great trading kingdoms famous for their gold. However, despite their greatness, they each declined for similar reasons.

The rise and fall of Mali and Songhai

The empire of Mali, which dated from the early thirteenth century to the late fifteenth century, rose out of what was once the empire of Ghana. Mali had been a state inside of the Ghanaian empire. After Ghana fell because of invading forces and internal disputes, Mali rose to greatness under the leadership of a legendary king named Sundiata, the "Lion King." Later, another great leader named Mansa Musa extended the empire. After his death, however, his sons could not hold the empire together. The smaller states it had conquered broke off, and the empire crumbled.

As Mali's power waned, Songhai asserted its independence and rose to power in the area. Songhai had been an important trade center within Mali's empire, just as Mali had once been ruled by Ghana. Great Songhai kings such as Sunni Ali Ber and Askia Mohammed Toure extended the Songhai kingdom farther than Ghana or Mali had before it and brought an organized system of government to the area. It was the largest and most powerful kingdom in medieval West Africa. The riches of the gold and salt mines brought invaders, though, and in the late sixteenth century a Moroccan army attacked the capital. The Songhai empire, already weakened by internal political struggles, went into decline.

Timbuktu: A pattern of conquest

Looking at the city of Timbuktu, now part of the modern African country of Mali, brings this pattern of turmoil and conquest to light. In medieval times, Timbuktu was a central spot on the trade routes. During the height of ancient Mali, Timbuktu was one of its most important cities. When Mali declined, Timbuktu was taken over by the Songhai. After the decline of the Songhai empire, Timbuktu was briefly occupied by Moroccan forces, then taken over by the Fulani people and later by the French. Timbuktu's history mirrors the rise and decline of civilizations in the area.

How do we know what happened?

How do we know what happened in Mali and Songhai? Like most of what we know about history, the evidence has come from a variety of sources. Arab traders and scholars of the time wrote accounts of these great empires and their important cities, such as Timbuktu. African griots (storytellers) pass on legends of great kings and their battles. Archaeologists are finding evidence at sites such as Timbuktu and Jenne-Jono, another ancient city, that helps to explain how people lived and provide information about dates. All of these methods are helping scholars to understand how these once great African kingdoms rose to power — and why they collapsed.

I: Mali & Songhai – Repeated Effect

➢ Fill in the gaps in the paragraphs with words/phrases from the Mali & Songhai text.

History repeated itself in the Kingdoms of West Africa. The Ghanaian empire declined due to (1) ________________ and (2) ____________________. It was replaced by (3) __________________, which became powerful under (4) __________________ and then (5) _____________________. Its power waned because of the fact that (6) _________________________________. After this empire fell, it was replaced by (7) ___________________, which became very powerful and was able to bring (8) ___________________________________. It also declined in the late 1500s because (9) ____________________________, although it was already weak because of (10) _______________________.

J: Finding & Interpreting - Vocabulary

➢ Match words from column A to similar words in column B.

A: -Hypothesis -Giving -Incorrect -Battles -Digging up

B: -Warfare -Excavating -Idea -Providing -False

4 Finding and Interpreting the Evidence

Imagine that the entire contents of your office or classroom — clothes, papers, furniture, and so on — were thrown into a large pit[8]. Then the pit was filled in with dirt and left to weather for a few centuries. What would be left? How accurate do you think those remains would be in telling people about your life? Finding and interpreting evidence from the past can be a difficult task.

Hunting for clues

Much of our archeological evidence consists of pieces of pottery, bone fragments, lines and discolorations in the soil, and other small broken pieces of stuff that constitute the remains of a society that lived hundreds or thousands of years earlier. We rely on context to give meaning to this evidence. Space (where an artifact was found in the site and what was associated with it) and time (how old and how deep in the ground it was) are invaluable in providing a context.

In reality, very little evidence survives to be discovered by archaeologists. Erosion, decay, fire, weather, and natural disasters all play a role in erasing or altering the evidence. People may destroy sites by looting or warfare, or obscure an old site by building a new structure on top of it. Of the sites that have survived, only a fraction have been surveyed. Of those, only a fraction have also been fully excavated and examined.

Hazor, a site in modern-day Israel, is an example of how the size of a site can prevent its full excavation. With Hazor's upper city and lower city combined, the site is 205 acres in size. Israeli archaeologist Yigael Yadin, working from 1955 to 1958 with a crew of 30 archaeologists and more than 100 laborers, was still only able to clear 1/400 of the site. At that rate, it would take 800 years to completely excavate the site. Hazor may seem a gargantuan excavation task, but it is small in comparison to fabled Babylon (2,500 acres in size) and Nineveh (1,850 acres).

Interpreting the past

Archaeologists use many different techniques to help interpret evidence. Often, interpretation involves drawing on what you know (from history, human behavior, artifacts, or other sources) to explain what you don't know. A controlled imagination is helpful in coming up with hypotheses that will guide further research, but also has its dangers. Over time, archaeologists may forget that these hypotheses are speculative, and they may come to be seen as established fact.

For example, twenty years ago, we believed that the Maya were peaceful. Archaeologists had come to this conclusion based on their knowledge of modern Mayan society. They also assumed that any society that had writing and mathematics must be peaceful. Evidence of warfare in the land of the Maya was explained as being due to Toltec invaders. Today archaeologists know that this picture of peaceful Maya ruled by philosopher-kings was false. The Maya have told us so through their writing and their sites. Archaeologists have been forced by overwhelming evidence to re-evaluate their picture of the Maya.

K: Finding & Interpreting - Comprehension

What two factors are very useful in giving a context for archeological findings? (Give a three-word answer using the word ‘and’)

________________________________________________________________________

Why does little evidence survive for archeologists to discover? Give 3 reasons.

________________________________________________________________________

What relation does the factor of size have to the impossibility of digging up the whole Hazor site?

________________________________________________________________________

What is the danger of creating ideas based on controlled imagination?

________________________________________________________________________

What explanation was given to explain evidence of battles in ancient Maya?

________________________________________________________________________

How is it now known that this explanation is incorrect?

________________________________________________________________________

5 History Repeats Itself

Sometimes excavations not only throw light on the past, but also help illuminate the present. Consider the story of an archaeological discovery made in York, England.

Excavations in the city (1) uncovered a collection of purses from medieval times, emptied of money and other valuables. The spot where the medieval purses were found, clustered close together, was once part of the area of York called Swinegate. During the time of Chaucer, Swinegate was a maze of dark, badly lit alleys populated by thieves and prostitutes. The area (2) remains much the same today.

What did the cluster of empty purses mean? Archeologists found an answer in the behavior of modern-day thieves. Every Monday when they (3) returned to the excavation site after the weekend, the archeologists found more empty purses and wallets. These new wallets were not medieval artifacts, however; they were modern ones, apparently thrown into the alley by contemporary thieves. These purses and wallets had been stolen over the weekend, emptied of their contents, and discarded in the alley. This evidence left by modern-day criminals provided the analogy the archaeologists needed, showing how little this practice (4) had changed since medieval times.

L: History Repeats Itself - References

What do the words in bold refer to?

The city = ______________

The area = ______________

They = ______________

This practice = ______________

6 Understanding Collapse

The normal pattern of history shows one civilization succeeding another, either rapidly or gradually. When a large state-level society falls, the population size and density decrease dramatically. Society tends to become less politically centralized. Less investment is made in elements such as architecture, art, and literature. Trade and other economic activities are greatly diminished, and the flow of information among people slows. The ruling elites may change, but usually the working classes tend to remain and provide continuity (though in some cases, virtually no one remains).

Is it possible to prevent a collapse?

Scientists Thuman and Bennet have highlighted "prerequisites for survival," needs that must be met in order for a society to continue:

1) Every society must be able to answer the basic biological needs of its members: food, drink, shelter, and medical care.

2) Every society must provide for the production and distribution of goods and services (perhaps through a division of labor, rules concerning property and trade, or ideas about the role of work).

3) Every society must provide for the reproduction of new members and consider laws and issues related to reproduction (regulation, marriageable age, number of children, and so on).

4) Every society must provide for the training (education, apprenticeship, passing on of values) of an individual so that he or she can become a functioning adult in the society.

5) Every society must provide for the maintenance of internal and external order (laws, courts, police, wars, diplomacy).

6) Every society must provide meaning and motivation to its members.

This last prerequisite is more important than it may seem. No societal activity is possible unless people are motivated to participate. Why do we get up in the morning? How do we see ourselves in relation to other members of society? Why do we follow a society's rules? Without a sense of meaning and motivation, people will become apathetic. If this happens, a society may be threatened with decline.

Adapted from information found at the beautiful website exhibits/collapse/index.html

M: Understanding Collapse - Comprehension

Answer these questions in your own words.

1. What are the effects on the following things when a large state-level society falls?

a. Population. ______________________________________________

b. Politics. ______________________________________________

c. Investment. ______________________________________________

d. Trade. ______________________________________________

e. Information. ______________________________________________

2. What are prerequisites? How many prerequisites does the author mention?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. ‘Every society must provide meaning and motivation to its members.’ The author places emphasis on this point and offers a chain of events that lead to the effect of decline. Put the following statements into one of the boxes below to show the chain of events. An example is given.

A. Why do we get up in the morning?

B. A society may be threatened with decline.

C. Why do we follow a society's rules?

D. Lack of motivation.

E. People will become apathetic.

F. How do we see ourselves in relation to other members of society?

[pic]

ANSWERS

A: Pre-reading Vocabulary

1.b 2.a 3.b 4.b 5.a 6.a 7.a 8.a

B: Introduction - Comprehension

1. With an example

2. Possibly because this is a good way of demonstrating the concept of societal collapse.

3. Everything apart from the ‘History of Wars’.

4. Civilizations – exploring the collapse of civilizations, Collapse – what happens when a society collapses, Archeologists – How they find and interpret information, History – How history has repeated itself, Lessons – the lessons that have been learned.

C: Previewing the Main Body

1. Mali, Mesopotamia and Mali/Songhai.

2. Yes.

D: The Maya – Scanning for Information

1. tenth, churches, inaccurate, simple.

2. political, smallest, 39.

E: The Maya – True/False Questions

1. False – it isn’t obvious. 2. True. 3. False – it was the nobles, not the poorest people.

4. True. 5. False – it did suffer the same end result.

F: Mesopotamia – Skimming for Gist

3 is the best summary.

G: Mesopotamia – Comprehension Questions

1. War, changes in environment & irrigation techniques.

2. If irrigation water is allowed to sit, it leaves salts. If it is drained, it leaves the soil too quickly and causes erosion.

3. 1A (example), 2E, 3G, 4H, 5F, 6D, 7B, 8C (example).

4. San Joaquin faces the same irrigation pronblems as Mashkan-shapir. Righht now it appears to be heading towards the same fate.

H: Mali & Songhai – Scanning for Information

1. 15th century. 2. Sunni Ali Ber. 3. Mali. 4. Storytellers.

I: Mali & Songhai – Repeated Effect

1. invading forces. 2. internal disputes. 3. the Mali empire. 4. Sundiata. 5. Mansa Musa.

6. his sons couldn’t hold the empire together. 7. the Songhai empire.

8. an organised system of government. 9. a Moroccan army attacked.

10. internal political struggles

J: Finding & Interpreting - Vocabulary

Hypothesis – Idea, Giving – Providing, Incorrect – False, Battles – Warfare,

Digging up - Excavating

K: Finding & Interpreting - Comprehension

1. Space and time.

2. Erosion, decay, fire, weather or natural disasters.

3. Size can prevent full excavation. The Hazor example suggests that it would take 800 years for a team of more than 100 men to fully excavate the site.

4. Archeologists may forget that these ideas are speculative and they may start to be viewed as established fact.

5. It was thought to be due to Toltec invaders.

6. The Maya have told us through their writing and their sites.

L: History Repeats Itself - References

1.York. 2. Swinegate. 3. Archeologists. 4. Stealing purses and discarding them in an alley.

M: Understanding Collapse - Comprehension

1. Population – size and density decrease, Politics – society is less politically centralized, Investment – less investment in architecture, art, literature, Trade – greatly diminished, Information – flow of information slows.

2. Prerequisites are needs that must be met in order for a society to continue. The author mentions six.

3. D (example) – A, C, F – E – B.

-----------------------

[1] Internal = inner (causes within a society)

[2] External = outer (causes outside the control of a society)

[3] Vast is very, very big.

4 Complex relates to complicated and detailed.

[4] An acre is a unit of measurement, used for measuring land.

[5] A terrace is a man-made flat area of land.

[6] Nobles are important members of society.

[7] Medieval relates to a period of history about 700 years ago.

[8] A pit is a large hole in the ground.

-----------------------

Examples

1. _________

2. _________

3. _________

D. Lack of motivation

_________

_________

_________

_________

_________

_________

____ is the best summary of paragraphs one and two.

1. The rivers were higher than the surrounding area.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Many fields were abandoned

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