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Teaching English as a foreign language 5Techniques & principles in Language TeachingChapter 1IntroductionChapter 2Grammar-Translation MethodChapter 3Direct MethodChapter 4Audio-Lingual MethodChapter 6DesuggestopediaChapter 7Community Language LearningChapter 9Communicative Language TeachingChapter 10Content-based InstructionChapter 11Task-based Language TeachingChapter 12The Political Dimensions of Language Teaching andParticipatory ApproachChapter 15ConclusionHow to TeachChapter 4+ Definition of ‘’innovative methods’’ Chapter 5 and 8Tip for learning:Read the principles and techniques and write with every method +/- keywords which are the basics of the method. Learn those by hard! By doing this, you at least won’t mix up the methods.Chapter 1IntroductionAre called Games because they are rule-governed, ritualized processes, which are not real life. Doubting game: requires logic and evidence. It emphasizes a model of knowing as an act of discrimination: putting something on trial to see whether it is wanting or not. Believing game: emphasizes a model of knowing as an act of constructing, an act of investment, an act of involvement .It asks us to put on the eyeglasses of another person, to see the method as the originator sees it. Further, it requires a willingness to explore what is new.After we have identified the principles, we will consider the answers to 10 questions:What are the goals of teachers who use this method?What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the student?What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?How are the feelings of the students dealt with?How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?What is the role of the students’ native language?How is evaluation accomplished?How does the teacher respond to student language?The answers to these questions will add to our understanding of each method and allow us to see some salient differences among the methods presented here.Chapter 2Grammar-Translation MethodIs also known as the classic method. It was used for the purpose of helping students to read and appreciate foreign language literature. Also that the familiarity with the grammar structures would help them to speak and write their native language better. It also helps student to grow intellectually. Principles (by the 10 questions) What are the goals of teachers who use this method?To be able to read literature written in the target language. In addition, studying another language provides students with good mental exercises, which helps develop their minds.What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the student?The teacher is an authorityWhat are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?Translate from one language to another.What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?Most Interaction is from the teacher to the students. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?-How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?Literary language is superior to spoken language. Culture is viewed as consisting of literature and the fine arts.What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized. Reading and writing are the primary skills.What is the role of the students’ native language?The language that is used in class is mostly the students’ native language.How is evaluation accomplished?Written tests in which students are asked to translate are used. How does the teacher respond to student language?Having the students get the correct answer is very important.TechniquesTranslation of a literary passage: students translate a reading passage from the target language into their native languageReading comprehension questions: students answer questions in the target language based on their understanding of the reading passage.Antonyms/synonyms: students are given one set of words and are asked to find antonyms or synonyms in the reading passage. Cognates: students are taught to recognize cognates by learning the spelling or sound patterns that correspond between the languages.Deductive application of rules: grammar rules are presented with examples. Fill-in-the-blanks exercise: students are given a series of sentences with words missing.Memorization: students are given lists of target language vocabulary words and their native language equivalents and are asked to memorize them.Use words in sentences: in order to show that students understand the meaning and use of a new vocabulary item, they make up sentences in which they use the new position: the teacher gives the students a topic to write about in the target language. Possitive about GTM: Frame of reverenceHelps development the mindTeacher is in controlRead and write, that’s itCritical about GTM:Culture is more than just literatureLittle student interactionLot of native languageNo focus on pronunciationNo preparation for real worldChapter 3Direct MethodThe direct method has one very basic rule: no translation is allowed! In fact, the direct method receives its name from the fact that meaning is the be conveyed directly in the target language through the use of demonstration and visual aids, with no recourse to the students’ native language.It became popular since the grammar translation method was not very effective in preparing students to use the target language communicatively.Principles (by the 10 questions)What are the goals of teachers who use this method?They intend that students learn how to communicate in the target language. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the student?The teacher and student are more like partners in the teaching-learning processWhat are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?Students need to associate meaning with the target language directly. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?The interaction goes both ways. Students converse with one another as wellHow are the feelings of the students dealt with?-How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?Primarily spoken, therefor the students study speech. And also history, geography and information from daily live.What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. Oral communication is seen as basic.What is the role of the students’ native language?The students’ native language should not be used in the classroomHow is evaluation accomplished?Students are asked to use the language and not to demonstrate their knowledgeHow does the teacher respond to student language?The teacher tries to get students to self-correct whenever possible.TechniquesReading aloud: students take turns reading sections of a passage, play, or dialogue out loudQuestion and answer exercise: students are asked questions and answer in full sentences so that they practise new words and grammatical structures.Getting students to self-correct: the teacher has the students self-correct by asking them to make a choice between what they said and an alternative answer he supplied.Conversation practise: the teachers asks students a number of question in the target language, which they have to understand to be able to answer correctly.Fill-in-the-blanks exercise: the students would have induced the grammar rule they need to fill in the blanks from examples and practise with earlier parts of the lessonDictation: the teacher reads the passage three times. Map drawing: the students were gives a map with the geographical features unnamed. Then the teacher gave the students directions.Paragraph writing: the teacher asked the students to write a paragraph in their own words on (for example) the major geographical features of the US. Chapter 4Audio-Lingual MethodFocus on structures and language patterns: structural approachUses principles from behavioural psychology (skinner)Language acquisition: conditioning and positive reinforcement‘’rules are caught rather than taught’’ no grammar rulesStimilu can be a word, phrase, a picture and so on. Repition drill. Repeat what you see on the paperThe audio-lingual method is an oral-based approach. It drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. It has also a strong theoretical base in linguistics and psychology. Principles (by the 10 questions)What are the goals of teachers who use this method?Teachers want their students to be able to use the target language communicatively. They believe students need to overlearn the target language to learn to use it automatically without stopping to think. Their students achieve this by forming new habits in the target language and overcoming the old habits of their native language.What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the student?The teacher is directing and controlling the language behaviour of her students. She also have to provide them with a good model for imitation. The students just follow.What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?New vocab and structures are presented through dialogues. They are learned through imitation and repetition. Grammar is induced from the examples given. Explicit grammar rules are not presented. Reading and written work is based upon the oral work they did earlier.What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?Most of the interaction is between teacher-student and is initiated by the teacher. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?-How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?It has its own system, with different levels: phonological, morphological and syntactic. Everyday speech is emphasized in the Audio-Language method. Culture consists of the everyday behaviour and lifestyle of the target language speakers.What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?Vocabulary is kept to a minimum, while students are mastering the sound system and grammatical patterns. The natural order of skills presentation is adhered to: listening, speaking, reading and writing. The oral skills receive most of the attention. Pronunciation is taught from the beginning.What is the role of the students’ native language?The target language is used in the classroom. Student’s native language interferes with the progress.How is evaluation accomplished?Each question on the test would focus on only one point of the language at the time.How does the teacher respond to student language?Errors are avoided if at all possible, through the teacher’s awareness of where the students will have difficulty and restriction of what they are taught to say.TechniquesDialogue Memorization: Dialogues or short conversations between two people are often used to begin a new lesson. Students memorize the dialogue through mimicry.Backward Build-up Drill: Is used when a long line of a dialogue is giving students trouble. The teacher breaks down the line into several parts. The students repeat a part of the sentence. Then, the students expand what they are repeating part by part until they are able to repeat the entire line.Repetition Drill: Students are asked to repeat the teacher’s model as accurately and as quickly as possible.Chain Drill: One by one, ask and answer questions of each other. The teacher begins with chain by greeting him. That students responds, then turns to the students sitting next to him.Single-slot substitution Drill: The teacher says a line, usually from the dialogue. Next, the teacher says a word or a phrase. The students repeat the line in its proper place. Multiple-slot substitution Drill: Same as Single slot, but with phrases that fits in different slots.Transformation Drill: The teacher gives students a certain kind of sentence pattern. Students are asked to make this a negative sentence. Question-and-answer Drill: The students should answer the teacher’s questions very quickly. Use of Minimal Pairs: Teacher gives minimal pairs. Students are asked to perceive the difference between the words and later to be able to say the two words. Complete the Dialogue: Select words are erased from the dialogue students have learned. Students complete the dialogue by filling the blanks with the missing words.Grammar Game: Games like the Supermarket Alphabet Game. The games are designed to get students to practise a grammar point within a context.Possitive about ALM:PronunciationFluency (one area)SyntaxCorrectnessPupils get more convidentNegative about ALM:No focus on meaningNo student-student interactionTeacher is leaderNo critical mindsOut of context!What does Chomsky thinks about ALM? Possitive: accuracy. Negative:Authority of the teacherLanguage learning is innateCritical thinker, ‘’why is that?’’Language acquisition, think for themselvesChapter 9Communicative Language TeachingCommunicative Language teaching. Focus on communicative competence and meaning.Language is fundamentally socialSyllabus based on functions and notions, themes, structures and tasksFocus on content and meaning. Authentic materialTeacher role changes promoter, facilitator, needs analyst, process manager, counsellor/advisor.Use daily language. Input is from the students themselves. CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) aims broadly to make communicative competence the goal of language teaching. In 1960, language is a system of rules. Focus on mastering the structures.In 1970, language is a system for the expression of meaning. Focus on communication competence.Principles (by the 10 questions)What are the goals of teachers who use this method?To enable students to communicate in the target language. They need knowledge of the linguistic Forms, meanings and functions/many different forms of functions/choose the most appropriate form/manage the process of negotiating meaning with their interlocutors.What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the student?The teacher facilitates communication in the classroom, promoting communication. Students are communicators. They are engaged in negotiating meaning. They are responsible for their own learning because teacher is less dominant.What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?Everything is done with communicative intent. Another one is the use of authentic materials. The activities are carried out by the students in small groups. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?Teacher presents some part of the lesson (facilitator of the activities, co-communicator, established situations). Students interact a great deal with on another How are the feelings of the students dealt with?Students will be more motivated to study another language since they will feel they are learning to do something useful. They can express individuality.How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?Language is for communication. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?Language functions might be emphasized over forms. Typically, a functional syllabus is used. Students work with language at the discourse or suprasentential. They learn about cohension and coherence. Students work on all four skills from the beginning.What is the role of the students’ native language?It is Permitted. Whenever, the target language should be used not only during communicative activities, but also for explaining the activities to the students.How is evaluation accomplished?Teacher evaluates accuracy and fluency. How does the teacher respond to student language?They are tolerated during fluency-based activities and are seen as a natural outcome of the development of communication skills.TechniquesAuthentic materials: to overcome the typical problem that students cannot transfer what they learn in the classroom to the outside world, and to expose students to natural language in a variety of situations.Scrambled sentences: The students are given a passage in which the sentences are in a scrambled order. They are told to unscramble the sentences so that the sentences are restored to their original order. Language games: students find games enjoyable and if they are properly designed, they give students valuable communicative practice. Picture strip story: a strip story is given. 1 picture is shown and the other students have to guess what the second picture might be. Role-play: are important because they give students an opportunity to practice communicating in different social contexts and in different social rolesChapter 10Content-based InstructionCommunicative Approach contains 2 versions:Weak meaningful task. Teach to use English. Learn and then use (deductive) Strong language is acquired through communication. Use and therefore you learn (inductive)Content based instructionTask based language teachingCentral in this Method is that we teach with content. This means, that we always teach in English, no more Dutch! But this doesn’t only include the English Teachers, but also for other subjects. We have to combine English with Biology, Science, etc. Principles (by the 10 questions)What are the goals of teachers who use this method?The students have to master both language and content. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the student?Set clear learning objectives for both content and language. Student’s role is to engage actively with both content and language, using each to learn the other.What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?Teacher must help learners to understand authentic texts. Teacher design activities that address both content and language. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?Teacher guides student learning. Students often work collaboratively.How are the feelings of the students dealt with?It keeps learners interested en motivated. They understand the relevanceHow is language viewed? How is culture viewed?Language is meaningful and a mediumWhat areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?Vocab, grammar structures and also how the contribute to the discourse organization of texts. All 4 skills are integrated in authentic contexts.What is the role of the students’ native language?No native languageHow is evaluation accomplished?On their knowledge of content and their language abilityHow does the teacher respond to student language?Giving the correct form, or allowing students to self-correct. Whole languageTop down: understanding while text to smaller linguistic unitsBottom up: small to complex linguisticsTechniquesDictoglass: listening > make notes > recreate the story > discuss the best story with a classmateGraphic organizers: (e.g) give the students a map with capitals and villagesLanguage experience approach: experiences in life, write about itProcess writing: first version, drafting, editing, final versionDialogue journals: the students keep a journal with them. There is a particular focus on their writing, such as their expressions or wishes to communicate to the teacher.Benefits:General knowledgeAsking why (think on a higher level)Linking of subjectsDown sides:Not for everybodyDemotivation, feeling they are not good enoughChapter 11Task-based Language TeachingWilkins distinguished between 2 types of syllabi:Synthetic: grammar structures, vocab, functions, etc.Analytic: purposes for which people are learning language and the kind of language performance that are necessary to meet those purposes.The task based language teaching employs an analytic syllabus. Rather than learning language items one by one in a specific sequence, learners work on relevant content text and the language of the texts. Complete task, use the languageTask has clear outcomePre task task reflection/assessment/productFocus on content onlyTasks we give the students should be:RealisticProvide lot of opportunities for communicationShort/small or lengthyPrinciples (by the 10 questions)What are the goals of teachers who use this method?Engage students in a variety of tasks that have a clear outcomeWhat is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the student?Choose tasks, based on the student needs. Also monitors the students’ performance. Students have to communicate with each other to complete the task. What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?Pre-tasks. The tasks are meaningful and relevant. Students are actively engaged with the task, teacher monitors them. Post-tasks.What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?Teacher is input provider, he makes notes and provides feedback. Students work together to accomplish the task.How are the feelings of the students dealt with?Students are motivated to do the tasks that will prepare them for the real world.How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?Language is for communication and for ‘’doing’’. Not much culture What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?The meaning dimension of language is emphasizedWhat is the role of the students’ native language?No native languageHow is evaluation accomplished?Evaluates the students in light of task outcomes and the language they useHow does the teacher respond to student language?Focus is on form. Correction is done through recasts or modelling or by giving brief grammar explanations.TechniquesInformation-gap task: exchange information in order to complete the task. Opinion gap: exchange opinions, come up with arrangementsReasoning gap: problem solving taskUnfocused tasks: Tasks designed to provide learners with opportunities for communicating generally.Focused tasks: Tasks designed to provide opportunities for communicating using some specific linguistic item, typically a grammar structure.Input –providing Tasks: focus on listening/readingOutput-prompting Tasks: focus on writing/speakingBenefits:Easier to master languageSubconsciousClear outcomeChapter 12The Political Dimensions of Language Teaching and Participatory Approach‘’Learning a language is a political act.’’Why teaching is a political matter is because you can influence your students by what you’re telling them. For example, if you choose to teach them American English or British English. Also, knowing English gives you more power. Perhaps not in the Netherlands, but most certain in third world countries.But what is politics? The definition we need to know is: The art of influencing and manipulating relationships in a country that involves power and authority. Whose English are we teaching?Inner circle USA, UK, CanadaOuter circle India, Ghana, Singapore (other colonies) Expanding circle China, Holland, Denmark (Lingua Franca countries)Critical Discourse AnalysisYou study the language you teachYou look for hidden cultural messages (for example the hand-out we got about Pakistan and Isreal)Address educational inequality Marginalized members of the wider communityEmpower and marginalize make students equal. Identification. Talk about different backgrounds2 opinions about this analysis. This is part of pedagogical criticismJohn Dewey: The norm to be set by the students. Students life and their culture becomes the content of learning. For example, you talk about war, parents, friends.Paulo Freire: The knowledge you teach, should only be teached if it helps people liberate themselves from the social conditions that oppress them. Participatory ApproachThis is also called the Banking Method. The idea is, is that you put information in the child and that it production comes immediately. Kind of like a bank on which you put money on and you can get it back easily. In this approach, education is not value free. Subject matters:Learner’s concerns are given by textsConstruction and meaning togetherForm related to contentDialoguing and problem-posingChapter 15ConclusionAs a teacher, you have to choose between different ideologies:Relativism different content and different methodsPluralism some content used with different methodsPrincipled elitism construct your own theory. Set of principles by which you teachOthersKrashen’s theory5 interrelated hypothesisAcquisition-learning hypothesis: contrast between acquisition (exposure of the language) and learning (rules and form)Monitor hypothesis: checking outputs. Spontanous language useNatural order hypothesis: acquisition unfolds in predictable sequencesInput hypothesis: certain input +1 gives optimal acquisitionAffective filter: motivation is the key!Krashen’s hypothesis are part of what we call the Natural approach. This term means that we focus on communication and less on grammar. It aims to foster naturalistic language acquisition, not learning.Vygothsky’s zone of proximal developmentWith help of others children have more potential to learn moreSilent WayLet the students talk. Student-student interaction, mostly seen in the Direct Method. The teacher is an authority, he corrects the mistakes! But still he has to be quit. Teach test, and get out of the way. Visualize everything, use of colours and pictures. Activating the pupils, they have to give the answers. No formal test. Techniques:Sound-colour chartTeacher’s silencePeer correctionRodsSelf-correctionsWord chartFidel chartStructured feedbackTotal Physical ResponseThe Total Physical response is a method which has a lot in common with the Comprehension approach. The comprehension approach means that the student has to listen a lot. After understanding how the target language works, the focus will be put on speaking. The speaking won’t be perfect in the beginning, but with a lot of training this will get better. This is also how babies learn their native language. The total physical response is reasoned that the fastest, least stressful way to achieve understanding of any target language is to follow directions uttered by the instructor. An example is, when the teacher is pointing to the right, the students have to do the same. Students do most of the work, teacher guides them. Follows the natural way of learning. Babies start to speak when they want, don’t tell babies that they have to speak. Comprehensive mands to direct behaviourRole reversalAction sequenceDesuggestopediaSetting up a psychological barrier to learning. They fear that they will be unable to perform, that they will be limited in their ability, that they will fail. The theory says to break down those barriers, make the students believe that they can do it. Desuggestopedia has helped students eliminate the feeling that they cannot be successful and/or the negative association they may have toward the ways the students’ mental reserves are stimulated is through integration of the fine arts. A psychological approach!Techniques:Classroom set-upPeripheral learningPositive suggestionChoosing a new identityRole playFirst concertSecond concertPrimary activationCreative adoptionCommunity Language LearningOther terms you need to knowAcquisition vs. learning: exposure vs. rules Nature vs. nurture: from within vs. outsideComprehensible input: checking outputsMonitor: Acquisition only approach problems:Silent way: let the students speakGrammar translation: focus on translation and rulesAudio lingualism: Structural situational learning:Behaviouristic theories of learning:Innatism: Chomsky, born with certain talentMotherese/parentese: what language you use to childrenInput enhancement: when you have a text, underline the grammar structures and only focus on thoseInput flooding: learn all the grammar structures as input ................
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