The tragedy of the commons summary worksheet answer key

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The tragedy of the commons summary worksheet answer key

Summary: The Tragedy of the Commons is an economic theory that describes how people often use natural resources to their advantage without considering the good of a group or society as a whole. When a number of individuals consider only their own welfare in this manner, it leads to negative outcomes for everybody, as the natural resource becomes depleted. Originators: William Forster Lloyd (17941952), Garrett Hardin (1915-2003) Keywords: resources, natural resources, depletion, over-use, the commons, exploitation, pollution, over-fishing, deforestation, global warming, government regulation, taxation, public property, private property In 1833, William Forster Lloyd wrote a short pamphlet detailing the concepts behind the economic theory known as The Tragedy of the Commons. The contents of this pamphlet were mostly unknown until 1968, when Garrett Hardin wrote an article in Science magazine that brought Lloyd's work into the spotlight.[i] Understanding this economic theory requires a working definition of what is meant by "the commons." "The commons" includes any natural resources that are not owned by an individual or corporation. Rather, these resources are available for public use. This might include public pasture land, lumber, oil, the oceans, the atmosphere, wildlife and fish, and many other common resources. The Tragedy of the Commons describes how people often take advantage of resources that are freely available to them. Often, they don't consider the fact that if everyone over-uses the resource, this will lead to negative effects for everyone, including themselves. The famous example given by Hardin (1968) includes pastureland that people use to graze their cattle. Herdsmen who operate under The Tragedy of the Commons don't consider how excessive grazing or adding additional cattle to their herd will impact other herdsman or everyone as a whole in the long run. The more herdsman who only consider their own herd and profit, the more the pasture is run down and the more all of the herds suffer. As Hardin (1968) put it, "Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all." Current Examples The Tragedy of the Commons is relevant to many current issues. National Parks are often cited as a prime example.[ii] More and more people have visited the U. S. National Parks since WWII, leading to concerns about the exploitation of environmental resources. Overfishing is another relevant topic.[iii] Many bodies of water including oceans, lakes, and rivers, are open to the publish for fishing. This has led to many species of fish becoming endangered and many fisheries finding themselves in trouble. Increased regulations and privatization of certain bodies of water has led to improvements in this area. Pollution and climate change have also been cited as an example. [iv] The atmosphere can be seen as a global resource, and as people fail to limit the amount of pollution they produce, everyone is affected by the resulting climate change. Other problems that some people have connected to The Tragedy of the Commons are deforestation, overpopulation, depletion of gas and oil reservoirs, and harm to ground water. Several solutions have been proposed to offset negative outcomes related to The Tragedy of the Commons.[v] In general, solving this problem requires collaboration and cooperation as people come together to preserve resources for the good of all. Regulation and taxation by the government can limit the effects people have on certain resources. Informal or formal property rights can be given to individuals or groups to restrict peoples' over-use of other resources. [i] Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science, 162(3859), 1243-1248. [ii] Wozniak, S. & Buchs, A. (2013). U.S. national parks and "the tragedy of the commons". Journal of Alpine Research, 101(4). [iii] Benjamin, D. (2001). Fisheries are classic example of the "tragedy of the commons". PERC Report, 19(1). [iv] O'Gorman, M. (2010). Global warming: A tragedy of the commons. Comparative Research in Law and Political Economy, 6(7). [v] Libecap, G. D. (2008). The tragedy of the commons: Property rights and markets as solutions to resources and environmental problems. The Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 53(1), 129-144. Are you not a robot? Click on the button to continue: Have you ever been to Boston, Massachusetts? Did you visit the Boston Common? Today, the Boston Common is a public park in downtown Boston. It is used in the same ways as any other city park: for leisurely walks, for sports, and for community events. Figure 4.1: Boston Common, Boston, Massachusetts But the Common was not always used in this way. In the 1600s, long before Boston was a big city, the space was shared as a grazing pasture for cows. The cows were owned by families who lived in the area. The cow grazing caused a collective action problem. Each individual family wanted their cows to eat as much grass from the Common as they could because then the cows would grow more and be worth more to the family. However, the Common had a finite amount of grass that could be eaten at any one time. Soon the cows were eating the grass faster than it could regrow. At this point, the grazing became unsustainable, and it was only a matter of time before the Common ran out of grass, forcing families to cease grazing their cows. One could reasonably argue that if the families had collectively established rules for grazing and exercised moderation in their grazing practices, then the grass would not have been depleted, and the cows could have continued grazing indefinitely. However, the original idea behind the "tragedy of the commons" is that the depletion of a shared resource like the Boston Common is unavoidable due to individuals' selfish behavior. Defining the Tragedy of the Commons The term "tragedy of the commons" was coined by Garrett Hardin in his 1968 article published in the journal Science, titled "The Tragedy of the Commons". Hardin argued that in the absence of private property rights or strict government regulation, shared resources (i.e., the commons) would ultimately be depleted because individuals tend to act selfishly, rushing to harvest as many resources as they can from the commons. Often, but not always, certain kinds of limited natural resources are shared by communities because there are significant challenges to establishing and enforcing private property rights. These are called common-pool resources. Fish, forests, and water are good examples of common-pool resources and they are often managed by local communities with or without some government regulation. What happened in the Boston Common is one example of the tragedy of the commons. Another important example of the tragedy of the commons is overfishing. Fish can be found in lakes, oceans, rivers, and streams, which are typically not owned by any one person. Anyone can fish in these places, so the places are a "commons" and the fish are a common-pool resource. But there is never an infinite supply of fish. Each individual fisher may want to catch as many fish as he or she can, but if everyone does this, then the supply of fish will be depleted. The depletion is the "tragedy," and it is unsustainable. Eventually, there will be no more fish, and no one will be able to fish anymore. On the other hand, if everyone exercises restraint and doesn't remove too many fish, then the fish will be able to reproduce, the supply of fish will not become depleted, and fishing can persist indefinitely Overfishing is a major global issue. Many fish populations have become severely depleted due to overfishing. One example is the population of cod off the Atlantic coast of the United States and Canada. Between the mid-1970s and early 1990s, a series of poor management decisions and inadequate understanding of complex marine ecosystems led to the collapse of the cod fishery, devastation of livelihoods, a flux of environmental refugees, and long-term impacts on the northwest Atlantic ecosystem off the coast of the northern United States and Canada. The graph below shows the amount of cod captured and taken ashore (fish landings) between 1850 and 2000. The spike in landings beginning around 1960 was caused by innovations in detecting and capturing cod. How does that relate to the I=PAT equation? The smaller increase in landings beginning around 1978 follows the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO)'s new program to manage fisheries by adopting fish capture quotas and determined minimum mesh sizes. Notice how both attempts to increase landings were short-lived, and today landings are as low as they've ever been. Figure 4.3 Collapse of Atlantic cod stocks off the East Coast of Newfoundland in 1992 Click for a text description of Figure 4.3 The ollapse of Atlantic cod stocks off the East Coast of Newfoundland in 1992. Fish landings had been relatively steady from 1850-1960 (under 300,000 tons yearly), climbed rapidly and peaked at over 800,000 tons in about 1970; after a sharp decline followed by a very minimal rise (to well under 300,000) from 1970-1990, the cod stocks collapsed entirely in 1992. Individual action can help avoid overfishing. For example, you as a consumer can choose to not eat fish whose populations are threatened. The Monterey Bay Aquarium in Monterey, California maintains a Seafood Watch program which explains which fish populations are threatened and which are not. The program makes simple guides for each region of the country, available online. (Ask yourself this question: Why does the Seafood Watch program produce different guides for different regions of the country?) Overfishing can result in permanent collapses in fish supplies. If a population of fish gets completely wiped out, then it cannot reproduce and regrow its numbers, even if people stop fishing entirely. In other words, the collapse can be irreversible. Irreversible collapses can be found in other instances of the tragedy of the commons, including biodiversity loss and certain ecological disruptions. But not all instances of the tragedy of the commons are irreversible. For example, overgrazing in Boston Common causes only a temporary loss of grass, since people can always grow more grass there. Also importantly, Hardin's arguments about the tragedy of the commons have been thoroughly analyzed and critiqued. While there are several examples of the tragedy of the commons, there are also numerous counterexamples--cases in which common-pool resources are managed successfully by self-organizing communities of users, without private property rights or strict government intervention. Read on. A Second Look at The Tragedy of the Commons As with the neomalthusian IPAT argument, there are many critiques of Hardin's view of the inevitable depletion of the commons. The first question you should ask when considering a scenario involving the human use of a shared resource is: what is really driving resource depletion? Hardin argues that it is individual selfishness. But take a second look at the Atlantic cod example. It is true that the fishery was massively overfished, leading to a significant collapse of the cod population. But was the overfishing really driven by the individual actions of private fishers, or was it global market forces, large corporate interests, and lax environmental regulations? Remember, the fishers that were bringing in cod in the North Atlantic were not families fishing for subsistence like those keeping a few cattle on the Boston Common. Nor are they small-scale fishers. Commercial fishing like that of the North Atlantic cod is a highly capital-intensive enterprise that involves large boats, significant resources for the time at sea, and corporate contracts. So is this resource degradation a tragedy of the commons, or an inherent problem of capitalism? If you read Hardin's article in Science, you will notice that he favors, when possible, the enclosure of common resources in favor of private holdings, which is a hallmark of capitalist market economics. This is not to say that capitalism is evil, just that like any other economic system, it is not perfect. And looking past the individual fishers toward larger economic forces is a classic example of using scale in a geographic inquiry. Was it the fishers living and working in the North Atlantic that depleted the fishery, or was it economic processes operating over much larger scales? Or was it some of both? The second thing to keep in mind when considering the tragedy of the commons is that it has been shown more often than not to be the same sort of doomsaying that we encountered with the IPAT predictions of future human tragedy. It is true that groups of humans do sometimes overuse and exhaust natural resources that could be renewable. But at least as frequently, we see examples of effective institutions for resource governance and stewardship (which we will read more about in the next section). So when seeing something that looks like a tragedy of the commons - like global climate change - perhaps it is not just a problem of individual selfishness. Perhaps an equally significant problem is that the existing systems of governance are not matched to the scale of the problem and are therefore not able to effectively foster successful cooperation.

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