Volcanic eruption exercise - Ruaumoko



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International Civil Aviation Organization

WORKING PAPER |IAVWOPSG/4-WP/16

17/6/08

| | INTERNATIONAL AIRWAYS VOLCANO WATCH OPERATIONS GROUP (IAVWOPSG)

FOURTH MEETING

Paris, France, 15 to 19 September 2008

|Agenda Item |5: |Operation of the IAVWOPSG |

| |5.1: |Implementation of the IAVW, including the IAVW Management Report |

Volcanic Eruption Exercise - Ruaumoko

(Presented by New Zealand)

|SUMMARY |

|Over the summer of 2007/08 a very successful New Zealand Civil Defence and Emergency Management systems |

|exercise on volcanic eruption within an urban environment was conducted. This paper outlines the |

|participation of the aviation sector warning systems and associated infrastructure in the exercise. |

1. INTRODUCTION

In November 2005 the New Zealand Government directed that there be two national-level disaster preparedness exercises to test New Zealand’s all-of-nation arrangements for responding to a major disaster. The first of these, Exercise Capital Quake, took place in November 2006 and tested arrangements for responding to a major earthquake in Wellington.

The second of these national exercises, Exercise Ruaumoko[1] was based on a volcanic eruption in the city of Auckland. This exercise was conducted in two phases over four months from November 2007 to March 2008. The main exercise phase occurred in March 2008, culminating in two days of operational activity over 13-14 March 2008.

The exercise was played out in real time and involved local, regional and national levels, including Civil Defence an Emergency Management (CDEM), central and local government, utility services, health services, transport services etc. There was no compression of timelines or artificial times and dates for exercise purposes. The timeframe for the scenario was therefore as realistic as possible, according to the latest vulcanological research. The scenario was a volcanic eruption somewhere in the wider Auckland metropolitan area, New Zealand’s most populous place.

The exercise commenced with the identification of precursor seismic activity in the Auckland region in November 2007. The initial phase of the exercise involved meetings of relevant agencies to respond to the threat.

In early 2008 unusual and sustained seismicity (the exercise) in the Auckland region prompted further attention. As the source of seismic activity became shallower, it was clear that a volcanic eruption was possible.

The main operational phase of the exercise commenced in March 2008 in the lead-in to a volcanic eruption, and stopping shortly after the simulated eruption began. It was through this phase that the aviation community became most involved.

2. VOLCANIC ASH ADVISORY systems in NEW ZEALAND

New Zealand has operated its Volcanic Ash Advisory System (VAAS), as the local component of the ICAO International Airways Volcano Watch system (IAVW), for over a decade. Essentially the VAAS is a means whereby the main aviation infrastructure organisations co-operate to manage airspace and advise aircraft operators during a volcanic event in New Zealand airspace (refer Appendix A).

New Zealand operates the Wellington VAAC as part of the IAWV system overseen by ICAO. Its connection with Exercise Ruaumoko occurred at the end of the exercise once the eruption had started and with the desk-top notification of the VAAC by the meteorological watch office (MWO) and the issue of the requisite volcanic ash advisory (VAA).

3. EXERCISE RUAUMOKO OPERATIONS

Initial considerations:

a) ash may or may not have been a factor in the exercise. This was unknown initially as only the exercise organisers were aware of the planned chain of events.

b) there was no Volcanic Hazard Zone (VHZ) in place for the Auckland volcanic field – a VHZ for airspace management would need to be created by the Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand (CAA) once the location of an eruption or potential eruption was known.

c) the size and extent of any VHZ would need to be determined relative to any Scientific Alert Levels (SAL), issued by the Geological and Nuclear Sciences organisation.

d) VAA and SIGMET would only be issued once it was clear that an eruption was in progress or was clearly immanent.

e) it was possible that ash was likely to directly affect Auckland International Airport, its approaches, and surrounding airspace.

1. Chain of Events

The IAVWOPSG is invited to:

a) the first Scientific Alert Level (SAL) bulletins were issued in early March 2008 indicating seismic activity and raising the SAL to Level 1 for a band across south Auckland (Refer Appendices 1 and 2).

f) the CAA responded by implementing the first VHZ based on the approximate geographic centre of the seismic activity reported in the first SALs (refer Appendix C). The implementation of the VHZ limited operations to daytime VFR flights in the prescribed area and at this time did not cover Auckland International Airport.

g) over the next week the area of seismicity varied considerably across south and central Auckland and, for a period, the centre of the VHZ was shifted accordingly by the CAA and MetService.

h) in spending much effort in following these changes in activity, it became apparent to Airways Corporation of New Zealand (Airways), Meteorological Service of New Zealand (MetService) and the CAA that it was not operationally feasible to constantly “chase” the seismic activity and constantly shift the centre of the VHZ.

i) the final position of the VHZ was therefore set on 11 March 2008, near Mangere in south Auckland. The dimensions of the VHZ were also increased commensurate with the increase in SAL. (Refer Appendix C). At Level 2, with an 8NM radius from the assumed centre position, night-time operations at Auckland Airport were technically prohibited.

j) through the latter part of the period, especially when the SAL was at Level 3, the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences (GNS) issued ashfall projections based on information on measoscale wind flow predictions from MetService. This formed the basis of the CDEM evacuation process which saw over 250,000 people successfully evacuated from the most likely affected areas through the exercise – and with all the synthetic constraints and difficulties applied in moving so many people.

k) on 14 March 2008 the seismic activity increased markedly and an eruption was seen as immanent by GNS. The SAL was affirmed at Level 3. At this level the dimensions of the VHZ took in Auckland Airport, the central city, the Whenuapai RNZAF base and all of the main communication, electricity, rail and motorway lines.

l) just after 1400 local time on Friday 14 March 2008 (1300 UTC) an eruption was reported near to the centre of the last reported series of seismic events (refer Appendix D). The exact position was not available and it was not clear whether the eruption was steam or ash. However, given an eruption was reliably reported, MWO was action triggered.

m) at 1416 local time the Wellington MWO (MetService) issued a VA SIGMET (Refer Appendix E) for the FIR - NZZZC on the basis of all of the information that was available at the time.

n) the Wellington MWO and VAAC then prepared what they could for the issue of new VHZ dimensions and for the VAA message.

o) at 1430 a new SAL was received from the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences. This shifted the Scientific Alert Level to Level 4 – an eruption was in progress and the vent position was now firmly described (Refer Appendix B).

p) this triggered an immediate modification of the VHZ by NOTAM further expanding its dimensions– surface to FL480 and 27NM radius* (Refer Appendix C).

q) the co-located Wellington VAAC then focused on the issue of the IAVW Volcanic Ash Advisory (VAA) message and this was completed and sent immediately thereafter (Refer Appendix E).

r) rxercise Ruaumko concluded at about 1445 local time.

*MetService and the CAA briefly discussed the rationality in moving the centre of the VHZ to the know eruption location. Given the previously assumed most probable location was only 2 km from the actual eruption it was decided that there was no advantage in making such a small change.

4. ANALYSIS

As far as we know, Exercise Ruaumko was the first time an exercise has been based on real-time development of a wholly new volcano in the middle of an urban area. The exercise directly involved many thousands of people in central and local government, and the private sector. It was conducted in as near to real conditions as possible.

Through the latter part of the period, especially when the volcano Scientific Alert Level (SAL) was at Level 3, the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences (GNS) issued ashfall projections based on information on measoscale wind flow predictions from Meteorological Service of New Zealand (MetService). This formed the basis of the CDEM evacuation process which saw over 250,000 people successfully evacuated from the most likely affected areas through the exercise – and with all the synthetic constraints and difficulties applied in moving so many people.

The VA SIGMET was issued by the Wellington MWO (MetService) within just a few minutes’ notice of the very first part of the eruption. This was possible because the MWO was in full communication with all of the CDEM agencies involved with the exercise, most particularly GNS. In the event it was a video clip from a participating television station that caught the first part of the eruption (Refer Appendix A) and this was relayed very quickly to the MWO.

The VAA was issued by the co-located Wellington VAAC (MetService) once the eruption was confirmed, but some 15 minutes after the VA SIGMET. In the circumstances with the co-location of the MWO and the VAAC in Wellington, it is reasonable that the VA SIGMET was issued first given the FIR responsibilities of the Wellington MetService office.

Management of the central point of the Volcanic Hazard Zone (VHZ), an airspace regulating component of the VAAS, proved difficult over the period because the area of seismic activity shifted often over the period leading up to the eruption. This situation could be expected for this kind of lead up to an eruption from a new vent in the Auckland volcanic field or any other volcanic field. Nevertheless, the final centre position of the VHZ was accurate enough even for a real event. In hindsight, it would have been better to take a more conservative approach to the management of the VHZ position because the overall scale of the final VHZ was ultimately all encompassing of the entire city.

The operations of the Wellington VAAC and MWO, run by MetService, fully met procedural expectations. The associated IAVW and supporting VAAS systems were well tested during Exercise Ruaumoko and were found to be robust.

The interaction of the CAA, MetService, Airways Corporation, the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences and the CDEM participants was collegial, communicative and pragmatic. It was not unusual for participants to ensure information was passed to the correct authorities using many communications means, and to openly discuss issues seeking the best solution.

The success of Exercise Ruaumoko clearly underscored the need to ensure that all appropriate government agencies and private organisations are in close liaison and follow clearly prescribed processes and communications. Notwithstanding this it was also clearly apparent that cross-sector interest and follow-up also contributed to the success of the Exercise.

5. ACTION BY THE MEETING

The meeting is invited to:

a) note the information in this paper; and

s) exchange views on the various matters discussed.

— — — — — — — —

|IAVWOPSG/4-WP/16 |

|Appendix A |

APPENDIX A

The New Zealand Volcanic Ash Advisory System (VAAS) and VAAC

Coverage

1. New Zealand Volcanic Ash Advisory System (VAAS)

[pic]

2. Volcanic Hazard Zone Dimensions for New Vents

|Volcano |For NEW Volcanic Hazard Zones in New Zealand VOLCANO |

|Alert Level |Radius from Vent (nm) |Upper Limit |

|1 |3 |3000 ft above top of vent |

|2 |8 |FL 150 |

|3 |16 |FL 330 |

|4 |27 |FL 480 |

|5 |>50 |unlimited |

|[pic] |

3. New Zealand Scientific Alert Level Table

1

|FREQUENTLY ACTIVE CONE VOLCANOES |Scientific ALERT|REAWAKENING VOLCANOES |

| |LEVEL | |

|White Island, Tongariro -Ngauruhoe, Ruapehu | |Kermadecs, Northland, Auckland, Mayor Island, Rotorua, |

| | |Okataina, Taupo, Egmont |

|Volcano Status |Indicative | |Indicative Phenomena |Volcano Status |

| |Phenomena | | | |

|Usual dormant or |Typical background surface |0 |Typical background surface |Usual dormant or quiescent |

|quiescent state. |activity; seismicity, | |activity; seismicity, deformation |state. |

| |deformation and heat flow at | |and heat flow at low levels. | |

| |low levels. | | | |

|Signs of volcano unrest.|Departure from typical |1 |Apparent seismic, geodetic, |Initial signs of possible |

| |background surface activity. | |thermal or other unrest indicators|volcano unrest. No eruption|

| | | | |threat. |

|Minor eruptive activity.|Onset of eruptive activity , |2 |Increase in number or intensity of|Confirmation of volcano |

| |accompanied by changes to | |unrest indicators (seismicity, |unrest. Eruption threat. |

| |monitored indicators. | |deformation, heat flow etc.). | |

|Significant local |Increased vigour of ongoing |3 |Minor eruptions. High increasing |Minor eruptions commenced. |

|eruption in progress. |activity and monitored | |trends of unrest indicators, |Real possibility of |

| |indicators. | |significant effects on volcano and|hazardous eruptions. |

| | | |possibly beyond. | |

|Hazardous local eruption|Significant change to ongoing |4 |Eruption of new magma. Sustained |Hazardous local eruption in|

|in progress. |activity and monitoring | |high levels of unrest indicators, |progress. Large scale |

| |indicators. Effects beyond | |significant effects beyond |eruption now possible. |

| |volcano. | |volcano. | |

|Large hazardous eruption|Destruction with major damage |5 |Destruction with major damage |Large hazardous volcanic |

|in progress. |beyond volcano. Significant | |beyond active volcano. Significant|eruption in progress. |

| |risk over wider areas. | |risk over wider areas. | |

4. VAAC Regions – Auckland, New Zealand Location

|IAVWOPSG/4-WP/16 |

|Appendix B |

APPENDIX B

SCIENTIFIC ALERT BULLETINS

Bulletin #3

EXERCISE ONLY

SCIENCE ALERT BULLETIN: AK-08/03

4:00 pm Monday, 05 March 2008

Auckland Volcanic Field – update

The renewed seismic activity over the weekend beneath the Auckland Volcanic Field, has continued during the last 24 hours. There is no change in the temporal clustering of the events, or magnitudes. However, there is some shallowing of the earthquake locations. The Alert Level remains at Level 1.

Since yesterdays update, a further twenty-five earthquakes have been recorded and located. They occur in a zone between Mt. Mangere and Mt. Wellington. Provisional locations suggest the recent earthquakes are occurring at 28 – 38 km depth and range in magnitude from 1.8 to 2.2. Detailed analysis of the earthquakes confirms that the locations have become shallower over the past 2 days. None have been reported as felt events.

The earthquakes are deep long-period type events, commonly observed in volcanic environments and during periods of unrest. Earthquakes deeper than 15- 20 km are unusual in the Auckland Region.

A GNS team has deployed 5 temporary seismographs to complement an existing network of 5 permanent seismographs. Further information will be released as it comes to hand.

See for past alert bulletins.

In summary seismic activity beneath the Auckland Volcanic Field continues and has become shallower in the past two days. The Alert Level for Auckland Volcanic Field remains at Alert Level 1 (apparent unrest-no eruption threat at this time).

Arthur Jolly

Ruaumoko Exercise Duty Volcanologist

GNS Science, Wairakei Research Centre, Taupo

Earthquakes for the period 1-4 March 2008 occur within the larger shaded area while 5 March 2008 events occur in the smaller shaded area to the southwest.

Bulletin #17

EXERCISE ONLY

SCIENCE ALERT BULLETIN: AK-08/17

03:30 pm Thursday, 13 March 2008

Auckland Volcanic Field – likely eruption vent zone confirmed.

Alert Level remains at 3

New earthquake and ground deformation data confirm the likely eruption zone (see map below) but do not allow an exact location to be predicted. The probability of an eruption within the next 24 hours occurring within the zone of earthquake and ground uplift is at least 90%.

[pic]

Map of likely eruption vent zone (red ellipse). Red dots are latest earthquake epicentres. Orange dots are epicentres of all earthquakes in 24 hours to 12 noon 13/3/08

Since 1200h today, there have been fewer earthquakes than were recorded in the preceding 18 hours. However, the recent quakes were all located within the zone of epicentres during the last 24 hours. The earthquake depths extend from 7 km to 1 km below surface. Some of the recent events were lower frequency (peak frequency of ~2.5 Hz) than previous events and indicate movement of fluid or gas associated with the magma.

GPS field survey data have now been processed and confirms maximum ground inflation (up to 4 cm) between Ambury Farm and Mangere Bridge, south of the Port of Onehunga. Ground deformation data matches our model of a single body of magma, currently at 3 km to 5 km depth below Mangere.

Based on past behaviour of Auckland’s volcanoes the new eruption is anticipated to start explosively and may progress within days to weeks, to less explosive activity that would last for a few weeks to a few months. The duration of the eruption will depend on the volume of magma rising to the surface, which is unknown at this stage.

See for past alert bulletins.

The Alert Level for Auckland Volcanic Field remains at Level 3.

Michael Rosenberg

Ruaumoko Exercise Duty Volcanologist

GNS Science, Wairakei Research Centre, Taupo

Bulletin #23

EXERCISE ONLY

SCIENCE ALERT BULLETIN: AK-08/23

14:30 pm Friday, 14 March 2008

Auckland Volcanic Field –

Steam and ash eruption in Mangere Inlet

Alert Level increased to 4

A volcanic eruption has started in Mangere Inlet. A steam plume was observed at about 13:00 this afternoon offshore from Kiwi Esplanade (see attached map for estimated location) and this was followed by eruption of ash and water from the same location at 13:50.

Seismic data showed a sudden step up associated with the steam eruption; it then dropped before peaking again when the ash eruption occurred. Seismic energy remains high.

Ground deformation in the Ambury Park – Mangere Bridge area reversed shortly before the steam eruption, and this is consistent with magma being close to the surface nearby.

We will provide updates as soon as further monitoring information comes to hand.

See for past alert bulletins.

The Alert Level for Auckland Volcanic Field has been increased to 4 – hazardous local eruption in progress.

Michael Rosenberg

Ruaumoko Exercise Duty Volcanologist

GNS Science, Wairakei Research Centre, Taupo

[pic]

|IAVWOPSG/4-WP/16 |

|Appendix C |

APPENDIX C

Volcanic Hazard Zone (VHZ) NOTAM

03 March 2008 – Initial Establishment of the VHZ

(IFIS0000/08 NOTAMN

A) NZZC B) 0803030115 C) 0806030115

E) REQ CY TO

EXERCISE ONLY NOT FOR DISSEMINATION BY AFTN

TEMPO VOLCANIC HAZARD ZONE NZV 101 (ELLERSLIE, AUCKLAND) IS

PRESCRIBED AS FLW:

ALL THAT AIRSPACE BOUNDED BY A CIRCLE, RADIUS 3 NM CENTRED ON S 36 53

43.0, E 174 49 21.0.

UPPER LIMIT: 3500FT AMSL.

LOWER LIMIT: SFC

PRESCRIBED PURSUANT TO PART 71 OF THE CIVIL AVIATION RULES, UNDER A

DELEGATED AUTHORITY ISSUED BY THE DIRECTOR OF CIVIL AVIATION.

F) SFC G) 3500FT AMSL

R) AERODROME/ORGANISATION: CAA

NOTAM ISSUE NOTIFICATION METHOD: EMAIL WICKSL@T.NZ

AUTHORISED BY: LEN WICKS

CONTACT PERSON: LEN WICKS

CONTACT TELEPHONE: 04 5609454 )

10 March 2008

(B9002/08 NOTAMR B9001/08

Q) NZZC/QWWLW/IV/NBO/W/000/150/3654S17447E008

A) NZZC B) 0803100112 C) 0804080015 EST

E) TEMPO VOLCANIC HAZARD ZONE NZV101 (ORANGA, AUCKLAND) IS REDEFINED AS FLW DUE TO INCREASED VOLCANIC ACT, ALL THAT AIRSPACE BOUNDED BY A CIRCLE OF RADIUS 8NM CENTRED ON S365430.0 E1744730.0 PILOTS ARE REQ TO REP LOC OF VA AND ANY VOLCANIC ACT OBS.

PRESCRIBED PURSUANT TO CIVIL AVIATION RULE PART 71 UNDER A DELEGATED AUTHORITY ISSUED BY THE DIRECTOR OF CIVIL AVIATION

F) SFC G) FL150

11 March 2008

(B9003/08 NOTAMR B9002/08

Q) NZZC/QWWLW/IV/NBO/W/000/150/3657S17447E008

A) NZZC B) 0803112040 C) 0804080015 EST

E) TEMPO VOLCANIC HAZARD ZONE NZV101 (MANGERE, AUCKLAND) IS

REDEFINED AS FLW DUE TO INCREASED VOLCANIC ACT,

ALL THAT AIRSPACE BOUNDED BY A CIRCLE OF RADIUS 8NM CENTRED ON

S365640.0 E1744712.0

PILOTS ARE REQ TO REP LOC OF VA AND ANY VOLCANIC ACT OBS.

PRESCRIBED PURSUANT TO CIVIL AVIATION RULE PART 71 UNDER A DELEGATED

AUTHORITY ISSUED BY THE DIRECTOR OF CIVIL AVIATION

F) SFC G) FL150

12 March 2008

(B9004/08 NOTAMR B9003/08

Q) NZZC/QWWLW/IV/NBO/W/000/330/3657S17447E016

A) NZZC B) 0803120130 C) 0804080015 EST

E) TEMPO VOLCANIC HAZARD ZONE NZV101 (MANGERE, AUCKLAND) IS REDEFINED AS FLW DUE TO INCREASED VOLCANIC ACT, ALL THAT AIRSPACE BOUNDED BY A CIRCLE OF RADIUS 16NM CENTRED ON S365640.0 E1744712.0 PILOTS ARE REQ TO REP LOC OF VA AND ANY VOLCANIC ACT OBS.

PRESCRIBED PURSUANT TO CIVIL AVIATION RULE PART 71 UNDER A DELEGATED AUTHORITY ISSUED BY THE DIRECTOR OF CIVIL AVIATION

F) SFC G) FL330

14 March 2008 – Final VHZ NOTAM

(B9005/08 NOTAMR B9004/08

Q) NZZC/QWWLW/IV/NBO/W/000/480/3657S17447E027

A) NZZC B) 0803140130 C) 0804080015 EST

E) TEMPO VOLCANIC HAZARD ZONE NZV101 (MANGERE, AUCKLAND) IS REDEFINED AS FLW DUE TO INCREASED VOLCANIC ACT, ALL THAT AIRSPACE BOUNDED BY A CIRCLE OF RADIUS 27NM CENTRED ON S365640.0 E1744712.0 PILOTS ARE REQ TO REP LOC OF VA AND ANY VOLCANIC ACT OBS.

PRESCRIBED PURSUANT TO CIVIL AVIATION RULE PART 71 UNDER A DELEGATED AUTHORITY ISSUED BY THE DIRECTOR OF CIVIL AVIATION

F) SFC G) FL480

|IAVWOPSG/4-WP/16 |

|Appendix D |

APPENDIX D

Eruption Images from Television Company

|[pic] |[pic] |

|1301 z |1352 z |

|[pic] | |

|1415 z | |

|IAVWOPSG/4-WP/16 |

|Appendix E |

APPENDIX E

Volcanic Ash Advisory and SIGMET

Volcanic Ash (VA) SIGMET issued by the Wellington MWO at 0116UTC

EXERCISE RUAUMOKO MESSAGE

14 MARCH 2008

NZZC SIGMET 1 VALID 140100/140700 NZKL-

NZZC NEW ZEALAND FIR VA ERUPTION MANGERE AUCKLAND LOC S3656 E 17446 ERUPTED AT 140053Z

VA CLD OBS AT 140110Z SFC TO 6500FT

MOV WNW ABOUT 10KT

WINDS SFC TO FL100 ESE 10KT

FCST 0700Z VA CLD APRX S3656 E17446 - S3718 E17400 - S3700 E17300 - S3600 E17300 - S3542 E17400 - S3618 E17448 - S3656 E17446

Volcanic Ash Advisory (VAA) issued by the Wellington VAAC issued at 0130UTC

VA ADVISORY

DTG: 20080314/0130Z

VAAC: WELLINGTON

VOLCANO: UNNAMED BUT NEAR MANGERE AUCKLAND NEW ZEALAND (NEWLY FORMING)

PSN: S3656 E17446

AREA: NEW ZEALAND

SUMMIT ELEV: SEA LEVEL

ADVISORY NR: 2008/1

INFO SOURCE: GND OBS, GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES

ERUPTION DETAILS: NEW VOLCANO FORMING. INITIAL ERUPTION REPORTED TO 6500FT

OBS VA DTG: 14/0110Z.

OBS VA CLD: SFC/6500FT MOV WNW 10KT.

FCST VA CLD +6HR: 14/0700Z SFC/10000FT S3656 E17446 - S3718 E17400 - S3700 E17300 - S3600 E17300 - S3542 E17400 - S3618 E17448 - S3656 E17446

FCST VA CLD +12HR: 14/1300Z SFC/10000FT S3656 E17446 - S3724 E17400 - S3718 E17200 - S3630 E17112 - S3430 E17230 - S3500 E17300 - S3600 E17300 - S3656 E17446

FCST VA CLD +18HR: 14/1900Z SFC/10000FT S3656 E17446 - S3724 E17400 - S3724 E17100 - S3600 E17000 - S3500 E17000 - S3400 E17100 - S3500 E17130 - S3600 E17300 - S3656 E17446

RMK: FIRST ERUPTED 140110UTC. NEW VOLCANO FORMING IN AUCKLAND VOLCANIC ZONE. SOUTHEASTERLY WIND FLOW SFC TO FL150 NEXT TWO DAYS.

NXT ADVISORY: NO LATER THAN 20080314/0730Z

— END —

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[1] In Maori mythology, Ruaumoko is the guardian of earthquakes and volcanoes. He is the youngest child of Ranginui the sky and Papatuanuku the Earth. When his parents were separated he was buried beneath his mother, with fires placed below them to keep them warm. This is the source of Ruaumoko’s fire.

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