CHAPTER 13



CHAPTER 14

Making Foreign and Military Policy

Chapter focus

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to foreign policy formulation, types of foreign policy, the role of the president and Congress in foreign policy, as well as factors in determining America’s military policy. Major topics include, but are not limited to, the debate over the president’s sending of troops overseas without a congressional declaration of war, a discussion on the doctrine of preemption, and the restructuring of the U.S. military. After reading and reviewing the material in this chapter, you should be able to do each of the following:

1. Distinguish between the types of foreign policy.

2. Describe the constitutional framework that the president and Congress work within when it comes to America’s use of the military.

3. Discuss the significance of September 11, 2001 in relation to America’s national security and the fight against terrorism.

4. Discuss America’s efforts in nation building with a special focus on the use of the military.

5. Discuss the challenges America faces in redesigning the military.

6. Discuss the politics of both foreign and military policy.

Chapter outline

I. Introduction

A. Foreign policy formulation is extremely difficult

B. Democracy may make it more difficult

C. There are advantages and disadvantages to policy making in a democracy

II. Kinds of Foreign Policy

A. Majoritarian policies such as military spending

B. Interest group policies such as free trade

C. Client centered policies such as tax breaks for business

D. President more dominant when policy is majoritarian; Congress more dominant when it is interest group oriented

III. The Constitutional Framework

A. President is commander in chief of the armed forces

B. Congress has final approval of the budget

C. Congress had the ability to “declare war”

D. U.S. has often gone to war without formal declaration

1. Only five or six of our fourteen major wars have had a declaration

2. War Powers Act of 1973—curbing president’s power

E. Presidential support agencies

1. National Security Council

2. State Department

3. Defense Department

4. Others: CIA, FBI, DEA, etc.

IV. Our New International World

A. Significance of September 11, 2001

1. Pushed Bush administration focus to foreign policy

2. Structure of military not conducive to fighting terrorism

3. Role of special forces

B. Three new problems to face

1. Can we help rebuild nations?

2. Can we develop a clear foreign policy for how and when we should use force?

3. Can we reorganize the military in order to better combat terrorism?

V. Rebuilding Nations

A. Historical successes and failures

1. Germany and Japan—successes

2. Somalia and Haiti—failures

B. Inter-agency rivalries

VI. Foreign Policy and Terrorism

A. Role of president and National Security Advisor

B. “Rally around the flag”—public support

C. Presidential popularity (time of crisis) and Congressional support

D. Shift from bipolar world to unipolar world

E. Bush’s proactive policy on terrorism: preemption

F. Impact of party differences and political ideologies

G. Seeking U.N. support

VII. Changing the Military

A. Rumsfeld’s redesign of the military

1. Special forces

2. Technology

B. Structure of the Army—ten large divisions

C. Structure of the Marines—three large expeditionary forces

D. Each military force is headed by a chief of staff

E. These leaders form the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS)

F. Role of the JCS—advisory group for president

VIII. The Politics of Foreign and Military Policy

A. Majoritarian politics

1. Cost/benefit ratio of going to war

2. Support/opposition of Americans to military action

3. Views of foreign policy elites

B. Interest group politics

1. Free trade issues such as NAFTA

2. American opinion on free trade is skeptical

3. President Bush knew this going into 2004 campaign

C. Client politics

1. Example: military bases

2. Commission on Base Realignment and Closure

3. Politics of closing bases

D. Entrepreneurial politics

1. Military modernization

2. Kennedy’s push for creation of Special Forces

3. In 2004, debate on these issues is ongoing

Key terms match

Match the following terms and descriptions.

|1. _____ French writer who wrote about American democracy early |a. “regime change” |

|in the nineteenth century. |b. NAFTA |

|2. _____ Regime in Afghanistan supported in part by Osama Bin |c. client politics |

|Laden’s Al Qaeda network. |d. “rally around the Flag” |

|3. _____ Describes how the American people tend to support the |e. interest group politics |

|president’s sending of troops abroad. |f. unipolar world |

|4. _____ Describes how during the Cold War there were only two |g. Commission on Base Realignment and Closure |

|super-powers in the world. |h. Taliban |

|5. _____ Describes a commitment to getting rid of a hostile |i. Donald Rumsfeld |

|government. |j. bipolar world |

|6. _____ Describes how we now live in a world with the United |k. majoritarian policies |

|States as the sole super-power. |l. War Powers Act of 1973 |

|7. _____ The doctrine of attacking a determined enemy before it |m. Alexis de Tocqueville |

|can launch an attack against the United States or an ally. |n. isolationist |

|8. _____ A treaty that created free trade among Canada, Mexico, |o. national security council |

|and the United States. |p. pre-emption |

|9. _____ Created to consider base-closing recommendations from | |

|the secretary of defense. | |

|10. _____ Confers both benefits and costs on almost everybody. | |

|11. _____ An attempt by Congress to curb the president’s | |

|war-making powers. | |

|12. _____ Describes an opinion in American history that our | |

|military forces and our money should stay at home. | |

| | |

| | |

|13. _____ Composed of the president, vice-president, secretaries | |

|of state and defense, and whose purpose is to assist the | |

|president in developing foreign policy principles. | |

|14. _____ Secretary of Defense who has been an ardent advocate of| |

|redesigning the military so that it can move more quickly. | |

|15. _____ A type of politics in which there are narrowly | |

|concentrated benefits and narrowly concentrated costs. | |

|16. _____ A type of politics in which there are narrowly | |

|concentrated benefits and widely distributed costs. | |

did you think that . . . ?

A number of misconceptions are listed below. You should be able to refute each statement in the space provided, referring to information or argumentation contained in this chapter. Sample answers appear at the end of this chapter.

1. “Only the president has the constitutional authority to declare war.”

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2. “Today, a vast majority of Americans adhere to an isolationist philosophy.”

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3. “America has always been successful at rebuilding nations.”

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4. “America has never really experienced being directly attacked on American soil.”

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True/false questions

Read each statement carefully. Mark true statements T. If any part of the statement is false, mark it F, and write in the space provided a concise explanation of why the statement is false.

1. T F Some scholars believe that foreign policy is especially easy in a democracy.

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2. T F The War Powers Act of 1973 was an attempt by Congress to curb presidential war-making power.

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3. T F September 11, 2001 was a date that changed only America’s foreign policy.

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4. T F The State Department usually sees eye to eye with the Defense Department.

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5. T F Congress technically has the sole power to declare war.

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6. T F President Clinton always asked for congressional support for military action in other areas of the world.

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7. T F Congress must vote for the military budget and all of the major weapons the armed forces require.

______________________________________________________________________

8. T F Foreign policy elites tend to have different views on many issues than the public at large.

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9. T F Free trade does not expand exports.

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10. T F Americans tend to be overwhelmingly supportive of free trade.

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11. T F American steel companies have found it very difficult to compete with imported steel.

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12. T F Even anti-war doves in Congress will fight to keep bases open in their home districts.

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13. T F President John F. Kennedy argued against the creation of Special Forces in the military.

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14. T F America has also sought and won U.N. approval in using force against other nations.

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15. T F According to the public, the protection of U.S. jobs should be a major goal of foreign policy.

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Multiple choice questions

Circle the letter of the response that best answers the question or completes the statement.

1. The Constitution makes the president _____ of the armed forces.

a. president pro tempore

b. congressional ambassador

c. general

d. the symbolic leader

e. commander in chief

2. The following is an example of a major agency that helps the president discharge presidential authority in the area of foreign policy:

a. National Security Council.

b. State Department.

c. Defense Department.

d. all of the above.

e. none of the above.

3. Since World War II, Americans have become more positively interested in:

a. isolationism.

b. the larger world.

c. expanding free trade.

d. sending more money into foreign aid.

e. expanding illegal immigration into this country.

4. Which of the following is not a successful lesson that the United States has learned about rebuilding nations?

a. Do not leave the country quickly.

b. Organize your own agencies so that they can operate together.

c. Make certain civilian and military operations are coordinated.

d. Withdraw troops as soon as possible.

e. none of the above.

5. A president’s popularity tends to rise dramatically during a:

a. time of peace.

b. showdown with the Congress.

c. military crisis.

d. partisan election.

e. constitutional issue with the federal courts.

6. The organization that assists the president in enunciating principles that can govern his foreign policy decisions is the:

a. National Security Council.

b. Council of Economic Advisors.

c. Federal Reserve.

d. Office of Management and Budget.

e. Congressional Budget Office.

7. Supporters of the policy of preemption hail it as a positive step because it:

a. gives Congress more authority in war.

b. allows America to be less proactive in fighting terrorism.

c. gives the president the ability to declare martial law.

d. circumvents the United Nations.

e. can defeat terrorists before they attack us.

8. Fundamentally, the U.S. Army is still organized around:

a. three big expeditionary forces.

b. the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

c. the National Security Council.

d. Special Forces.

e. ten large divisions.

9. Each military force is headed by a(n):

a. chief of staff.

b. presidential commission.

c. congressional committee.

d. division head.

e. elected official.

10. Current Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld an ardent advocate of:

a. larger military units.

b. looser cooperation among the armed services.

c. less reliance on Special Forces.

d. redesigning the military.

e. less reliance on technology.

11. The typical military officer will hold his or her particular assignment for no more than:

a. five years.

b. eighteen months.

c. six months.

d. one year.

e. three years.

12. Big foreign policy decisions about going to war or not going to war are examples of:

a. majoritarian politics.

b. client politics.

c. interest group politics.

d. entrepreneurial politics.

e. partisan politics.

13. The gender gap between men and women has disappeared on war issues since:

a. World War II.

b. the Korean conflict.

c. Vietnam.

d. September 11, 2001.

e. the Gulf War.

14. Elites can be defined as people:

a. actively involved in fundraising only.

b. actively involved in debating policy only.

c. who work solely for government agencies.

d. with the most money in America.

e. actively involved in debating foreign policy issues because of their positions in government agencies, private organizations, etc.

15. Most aspects of foreign affairs are shaped by:

a. interest group politics.

b. democrats.

c. republicans.

d. popular presidents.

e. key senators.

16. One important part of our military policy reflects:

a. allowing gays in the military.

b. the current chain of command.

c. surplus spending.

d. client politics.

e. technological cutbacks.

17. Military modernization often reflects:

a. majoritarian politics.

b. client politics.

c. entrepreneurial politics.

d. interest group politics.

e. liberal politics.

18. John F. Kennedy argued strongly for the creation of _____ in the military.

a. more commissaries

b. key civilian leader positions

c. a cold war environment

d. a free press

e. special forces

19. A poll taken prior to 9/11 suggests that ordinary citizens are less likely than _____ to favor giving aid to foreign countries.

a. elites

b. the working poor

c. the military

d. social security recipients

e. none of the above

20. The following is an example of when the U.S. has sought and obtained United Nations support before using military force against another country:

a. North Vietnam

b. Haiti

c. Bosnia

d. Kosovo

e. Korea

Essay questions

Practice writing extended answers to the following questions. These test your ability to integrate and express the ideas that you have been studying in this chapter.

1. Should America always seek the approval of the United Nations prior to intervening in another country’s affairs? Why or why not?

2. Should the U.S. military be used to rebuild nations? Does this conflict with the military’s primary role of fighting and winning wars?

3. Since only five or six of the fourteen major wars that this country has engaged in have followed a declaration of war, should Congress reassert itself in this area? If Congress fails to “declare war,” is this a technical violation of the Constitution?

4. Do you agree or disagree with a restructuring of the U.S. military? What are your suggestions in regard to such a restructure? Should we prioritize bolstering conventional forces, special forces, and the closure of some military bases? Why or why not?

research and resources

Suggested Readings

Harper, John. American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton and the Origins of U.S. Foreign Policy. Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Kissinger, Henry. Crisis: The Anatomy of Two Major Foreign Policy Crises. Simon and Schuster, 2003.

Lunev, Stanislav. Through the Eyes of the Enemy. Washington DC: Regnery Publishing, Inc., 1998.

Resources on the World Wide Web

Foreign Policy:

Military Policy:

Department of Defense:

Department of Homeland Security:

answers

Key Terms Match

1. m

2. h

3. d

4. j

5. f

6. a

7. p

8. b

9. g

10. k

11. l

12. n

13. o

14. i

15. e

16. c

Did You Think That . . . ?

1. Constitutionally only the Congress can declare war.

2. Beginning with World War II, Americans have tended to move away from isolationist views and have become more interested in the larger world.

3. Actually, America has experienced both successes and failures in rebuilding nations.

4. December 7, 1941 and September 11, 2001 are examples of direct attacks on America.

True/False Questions

1. F. They actually believe it may be more difficult.

2. T

3. F. It also changed military policy.

4. F. They sometimes work as rivals.

5. T

6. F. He never did so.

7. T

8. T

9. F. It does expand exports.

10. F. They tend to be very skeptical.

11. T

12. T

13. F. He argued for their creation.

14. F. The recent use of force in Iraq is a prime example.

15. T

Multiple Choice Questions

1. e

2. d

3. b

4. d

5. c

6. a

7. e

8. e

9. a

10. d

11. b

12. a

13. d

14. e

15. a

16. d

17. c

18. e

19. a

20. e

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