AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK
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|AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK |
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|Liberia Water Supply and Sanitation Rehabilitation Programme |
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|Environmental and Social Management Plan |
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|AUGUST 2007 |
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|Prepared by Kolleh A. Bangura |
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|Contributors: Mr S. Wassel (Ag. Manager, OWAS 1 - AfDB Tunis) |
|Mr M. S. Kanu (M & E Officer MoHS – Sierra Leone) |
|Mr C. Momoh (LWSC) Monrovia |
|Mr W. Warner (LWSC) Monrovia |
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List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
|AfDB |African Development Bank (Fund) |
|AWQMS |Automatic Water Quality Monitoring System |
|CTBT |Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty |
|CTU |Cholera Treatment Unit |
|CU |Colour Unit |
|CWSDF |Comprehensive Water Sector Development Framework |
|DFID |Department of Foreign and International Development |
|DLTW |Diarrhoea in the Last Three Weeks |
|EC |European Commission |
|EPA |Environmental Protection Agency |
|ESMP |Environmental and Social Management Plan |
|ESP |Environmental and Social Procedure |
|EU |European Union |
|GDP |Gross Domestic Product |
|HGV |Heavy Goods Vehicles |
|IEC |Information Education Communication |
|IPRS |Interim Poverty Reduction Strategies |
|IQ |Intelligence Quoscence |
|LD |Liberia Dollar |
|LISGIS |Liberian Institute of Statistics and Geo-information Services |
|LWSC |Liberian Water and Sewer Coporation |
|MCC |Monrovia City Corporation |
|MGD |Million Gallons a Day |
|MHSW |Ministry of Health and Social Welfare |
|MLME |Ministry of Lands, Mines and Energy |
|MOF |Ministry of Finance |
|MPEA |Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs |
|MPW |Ministry of Public Works |
|MRD |Ministry of Rural Development |
|MSF |Medicines Sans Frontiers |
|MWSSIRP |Monrovia Water Supply and Sanitation Immediate Rehabilitation Programme |
|NGO |Non Governmental Organisation |
|NW |North West |
|OWAS |Office of Water and Sanitation |
|PT |Project Team |
|RDA |Rural Development Authority |
|SE |North East |
|TA |Technical Assistant |
|STD |Sexually Transmitted Diseases |
|TNTC |Too Numerous To Count |
|UA |Unit of Account |
|UNFCCC |United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |
|UNICEF |United Nations Children's Fund |
|USAID |United States Aid and International Development |
|USD |United States Dollar |
|WASH |Water Sanitation and Hygiene |
|WB |The World Bank |
|WHO |World Health Organisation |
|WPWTP |White Plains Water Treatment Plant |
Table of Contents
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE OF FIGURES
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.0 Introduction
1.1 The purpose and scope of the ESMP
1.2 Methodology and strategies
2.0 Brief description of the program and key environmental and social components
2.1 Component 1: Waterworks rehabilitation
2.2 Component 2: Sanitation Facilities
2.3 Component 3: Capacity Building
2.4 Socioeconomic Conditions
2.5 Gender Roles
2.6 Human Environment
2.61 Climate
2.62 Ecology
2.63 Geology
2.64 Hydrology
2.65 Soil and Vegetation
2.66 The Saint Paul Watershed
2.67 Water resources
2.68 Water sources of Monrovia
2.69 The Water quality
2.70 Groundwater reserve and the geological structure
2.71 Water using sectors in Monrovia
2.72 Sanitation Resources
2.73 Water Quality and Hydrology
2.74 City planning
3.0 Major environmental and social impacts
3.1 The immediate social impacts/benefits
3.2 Impacts Associated with the Programme Location, Planning and Design
3.3 Impacts associated with the rehabilitation of water supply facilities
3.4 Impacts Associated with the Rehabilitation of the Sanitation system
3.5 Impacts associated with the operation of the water supply system
3.6 Impacts of the Operation of the Sanitation System
4.0 Enhancement and mitigation
4.1 Enhancement of Monrovia living environment
4.2 Mitigation of impacts arising from the rehabilitation and operation of water supply system
4.3 Rehabilitation and operation of the sanitation system
5.0 Environmental and Social Monitoring of the program and complementary initiatives
5.1 Environmental Monitoring
5.2 Environmental Management and Institutional Requirements
5.4 Legal Requirement of the Government
5.5 Public Participation during Project Preparation
5.6 Future Public Participation Plans
5.7 Estimated costs
6.0 Institutional arrangements and capacity building requirements
6.1 Government Agencies
6.2 Draft Environmental Policies and Laws
6.3 International Environment Agreements Signed By Liberia
6.4 Gaps in Water Management
6.5 Sector Reform
5.6 Training plan
7.0 Public consultations and disclosure requirements
8.0 Implementation schedule and reporting
ANNEX 1: ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT PLAN SUMMARY
ANNEX 2: EPA Environmental Assessment Form
ANNEX 3: Implementation schedule
ANNEX 4. Abbreviated Compensation plan: Monrovia Water Supply and Sanitation programme
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Analysis of male/female employees at LWSC 16
Table 2: Common fish species captured at the White Plains Reach of the St Paul River 27
Table 4: Objectives and Service Delivery Areas - Water and Sanitation Rehabilitation Phase 63
Table 5: Objectives and Service Delivery Areas - Project Operational Phase 69
Table 6: Functional Training Plan 78
Table 7: Consultation plan 80
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Map of Liberia showing its 15 counties 7
Figure 2: Most prevalent diseases in Montserrado (Source WHO 2003) 13
Figure 3: Water vendors in Central Monrovia (Photograph Kolleh Bangura) 14
Figure 4: Climate Parameters of Monrovia 18
Figure 5: Satellite image of Western Liberia showing its current vegetation cover 20
Figure 6: Accelerated Soil Erosion in Paynesville highway (Photograph Kolleh Bangura) 20
Figure 7: Sandstone outcrop exposed at Paynesville; (Photograph Kolleh Bangura) 22
Figure 8: Limestone outcrop in North Paynesville (Photograph Kolleh Bangura) 22
Figure 9: Map of the Elevation and Hydrology of Liberia 24
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Monrovia is the capital city of Liberia, located on the West Coast of Africa. The city is almost surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean and the Montserrado River. It was a prosperous economic zone in the sub region until it was destroyed by a civil war. The economy of Monrovia is currently crippled as a consequence of the long civil war. The Monrovia water supply and sewerage system is one of the most critical infrastructure items that were devastated during the war. At present, the sewage pumping stations, the treatment plant, transmission mains, distribution lines and sewerage network are substantially inoperable, yielding minimal capacity to supply consumption requirements. According to the African Development Bank Office of Water and Sanitation (OWAS) February 2007 Liberia water and sanitation sector appraisal report, the municipal water supply coverage in Monrovia is estimated at 11% and sanitation facilities are available to roughly only 7% of the population. As a result of the unsanitary conditions, over 30% of a family’s resources are spent on treatment of sick family members who suffer from water-borne and sanitation related diseases. The development of urban infrastructure following the end of the war has not kept pace with the urban population growth, resulting in deterioration of the available water supply sources and urban environment to a point where economic development and the quality of life are at risk. Some ongoing restoration works to the water supply system by the Economic Community (EC) of the European Union (EU) and World Bank (WB) is responsible for limited treated water supplied to the population. Other water sector aid agencies assisted in the construction and ongoing maintenance of 5000 shallow wells which are supplemented by other sources including water vendors, rainwater collection and some polluted open sources. With the congested living conditions, the water supply shortage has become a serious difficulty for the city. The existing self supplied water is inadequate and unacceptable.
Meanwhile, through several donors the African Development Bank (AfDB) approved a loan of UA 16.83 million (USD 24.83 million) for: (i) rehabilitation of Monrovia water supply from its current 11% coverage to 50% pre-war coverage (ii) rehabilitation of the sanitation system to expand its service from the current 7% to 17% and (iii) a functional and training capacity building component to strengthen LWSC ability to deliver the programme. The contributing donors are: The United Kingdom’s Department of Foreign and International Development (DFID) UA 3.99 million, EC UA 5.72 millions, WB UA 7.09 million. The Liberian Government is contributing UA 0.03 million. The AfDB/DFID activities are envisaged to take about 28 months commencing October 2007 with a target completion date of February 2010. The first three months will be used for the setting up, equipment and staffing the PT and recruiting and mobilizing the Technical Assistant experts and engineering consultants. Thereafter, the activities will be followed by the engineering consultants to review the scope of the rehabilitation works and preparation of designs and tender documents. These activities are expected to take seven months, resulting in various contract packages, the first of which will be ready for tendering within in two months after mobilisation of the engineering consultants. Bidding process for procurement of works and goods will then take three months. The physical implementation is expected to commence after one month of contracts award and last for 18 months thereafter. The schedule for implementation is attached in Annex 3
The main focus of the AfDB/DFID contribution to the project will be in financing the rehabilitation of the water distribution system with substantial contribution in upgrading the sanitation facilities. AfDB/DFID will also play the leading role in capacity building and management requirements of the programme. The WB will take the responsibility for the rehabilitation works of water treatment plant with considerable contribution in sanitation facilities. The EC will mainly contribute towards the rehabilitation of the transmission pipelines. The AfDB/DFID activities are envisaged to take about 28 months commencing November 2007 with a target completion date of February 2010.
With the project, groundwater extraction will be diminished to sustainable yields and shallow wells as water sources will be placed on standby status to meet maximum-daily and emergency non drinkable water requirements. The project activities will support the AfDB-funded Liberia project, providing safe drinking water and sanitation facilities in the city of Monrovia and its surroundings areas, thus (i) minimizing the incidence and prevalence of water borne diseases, raise the standard of living of the people of Monrovia and increase their economic output; and (ii) improving the local environment and institutional capacity for LWSC, and overall capacity for water and sanitation provision for the city. The project will make a significant contribution towards the improvement of the socio economic well being, quality of life and health standards of the population of Metropolitan Monrovia through provision of sustainable water and sanitation services.
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Figure 1: Map of Liberia showing its 15 counties
Introduction
The ESMP outlines the Monrovia Water Supply and Sanitation Rehabilitation Programme components by which the environmental and social aspects are managed by the contractors working in the rehabilitation of the water and sanitation facilities and LWSC who will be operating the rehabilitated facilities. The ESMP has been prepared with the following features:
• Environmental and social management are integrated into the project
• The management system is multilevel and interagency and takes cognisance of the way the Programme components and activities are organised
• The management system is dynamic and accommodate change and movement
• The environment and social management components i.e. risk/impact and mitigation take advantage of elements which are common in public health and safety, project compliance, security of infrastructure and staff and government and public affairs where appropriate and
• Consultation with the stakeholders
A summary of the key components of the ESMP is presented in Annex 1
1.1 The purpose and scope of the ESMP
The purpose of developing the ESMP is for the Programme is to ensure compliance with the AfDB project environment and social objectives during the rehabilitation and operational phases of the water supply and sanitation facilities. The ESMP is part of the overall management framework. It has been prepared in consideration of a management system configured by AfDB and donor partners. In order to provide a framework in mitigating and monitoring of Environmental and social aspects and impacts within the rehabilitation and operational phases of the water and sanitation systems of Monrovia the scope of the ESMP covers all rehabilitation activities for the associated water and sanitation facilities within the project i.e.
Water supply rehabilitation
• Rehabilitation of the White Plains Treatment Plant
• Rehabilitation of Transmission Mains Pumping stations and Reservoirs
• Rehabilitation of Distribution Networks
Sanitation rehabilitation
• Rehabilitation of sewerage network
• Purchase of a vacuum truck
• Construction of Public pit latrines
• Rehabilitation of public pit latrines
• Jetting Equipment
• Rehabilitation of stabilization pond
• The environment of Monrovia
• Sensitization campaign
Capacity building
• functional training and consumer enumeration update
• Logistics and software
As well as addressing the operational activities for which and over which LWSC has direct control the ESMP considers those with the institutions (both political and non political institutions) can exert significant influence including the management and social performance of the rehabilitation activities of contractors.
1.2 Methodology and strategies
The procedures of Social and Environmental assessments are necessary to help ensure that the Monrovia Water and Sanitation Rehabilitation Programme will accomplish its development goals (for example, poverty reduction; enhancement of the role of women in development; human resources development, including planning; and avoiding or mitigating negative effects on vulnerable groups, and protecting these groups). By addressing specific development goals in the preparation of the ESMP, the Government of Liberia, African Development Bank and donors can help ensure that the project’s benefits are realized and negative social and environmental impacts are minimized. The ESMP aims to bring the programme into compliance with applicable Liberian national environmental and social legal requirements and the African Development Bank’s environmental and social policies. Another objective of the ESMP is to outline the mitigating, monitoring, consultative and institutional measures required to prevent, minimize, mitigate or compensate for adverse environmental and social impacts, or to enhance the project beneficial impacts. It also addresses capacity building requirements to strengthen the borrower’s environmental and social capacities. Some aspects of the social, economic and environmental interests of the ESMP were obtained using a triangulation methodology i.e. by consulting with several sources: the programmes beneficiaries, implementers and donors, and cross checking and putting together all these interests. This was achieved through various consultations, household surveys, focus group interviews, review of government, donor and other relevant water and sanitation sector reports, policies and documents.
2.0 Brief description of the program and key environmental and social components
The programme creates an enabling environment for Liberia Water and Sewer Coporation (LWSC) to restore some of the city’s water and sanitation services. The water and sanitation facilities of Monrovia were severely damaged during Liberia’s long civil war. The resulting lack of adequate water supply and sanitation provision has resulted to the people of Monrovia consuming water from contaminated sources which increases the incidence and prevalence of water borne diseases, lowered the standard of living and decreased economic output. The programme will improve the local environment and overall capacity for water and sanitation provision for the city. The programme will rebuild LWSC’s capacity and provide resources for the rehabilitation of the water and sanitation infrastructure to enable the agency to supply water to 750,000 people by early 2010 and provide sewage services to 300,000 people at the same time. The Programme is classified in the environmental category 2 in accordance with AfDB Environmental and Social Procedures (ESP). The proposed African Development Bank intervention constitutes the first phase of the bank’s intended engagement in Liberia’s near-term water and sanitation rehabilitation efforts. The outputs of the rehabilitation efforts will result in restoring at least 50% of pre-war water production and sanitation facility access, which will equate to an ambitious 9.0 M gallons a day. There are three main components within the envisioned intervention - (1) water works rehabilitation (2) sewerage systems rehabilitation, and (3) capacity building
The programme has the following components:
2.1 Component 1: Waterworks rehabilitation
This component involves the rehabilitation of the White Plains Treatment Plant; rehabilitation of transmission mains pumping stations and reservoirs; rehabilitation of distribution networks and the provision of spare parts and consumables. The White Plains water treatment plant will increase its production from 7,500 m3/day (2million gallon/day) to 30,283 m3/day (8 million gallon/day). The rehabilitation works will include civil works and electro-mechanical equipment for various units of the plant; including raw water intake, dosing unit, flocculation/mixing basin, settling tanks, sand filters, and high lift pumps as well as for buildings (World Bank will take the lead in the WT rehabilitation).
The rehabilitation of the transmission pipelines will involve 75 km pipelines with various diameters ranging from 12 inch to 36 inch together with pipe accessories and valve champers. The rehabilitation works will include three reservoirs, one pumping station and one booster station as well as rehabilitation of the access road on the Paynesville line. The rehabilitation of the distribution network will cover more than 200 km secondary and tertiary pipes in the following areas: (i) Paynesville Community, (ii) Congo Town/Old Road Communities, (iii) Sinkor /Airfield Communities, (iv) Bushrod Island Community, (v) Central Monrovia Community. The DFID component will cover part of the different rehabilitation works
Rehabilitation of the treatment plant to 50% or more of functional capacity by August 31, 2009, 75 Km of mainlines and over 200 Km of secondary and tertiary distribution lines are to be rehabilitated by the end of August 31, 2009. Rehabilitation of distribution network in 5 districts of Central Monrovia, is proposed to be completed by August 31, 2009. This component will also include provision of spare parts and fittings for pipe and equipment for the first two years to ensure technical sustainability of the services.
2.2 Component 2: Sanitation Facilities
This component will comprise major cleaning and repair works of the waste stabilization pond (with an area of 26,000 m2) and the sewer network. Activities will include brushing of weeds, desludging of all facilities and necessary remedies that will facilitate sludge reception from public/private toilets for treatment. The sanitation facilities to be provided include construction of 110 public toilet blocks to be placed at vantage locations in the city and in markets, schools and hospitals. A provision is made to supply maintenance equipment including a vacuum truck, a sewer rodding machine, along with the necessary tools.
2.3 Component 3: Capacity Building
The capacity building subcomponent will comprise immediate capacity enhancement needs in the form skills upgrading and training as well as conducting focused studies as part of system development activities. The studies will cover: (i) Functional Training and consumer enumeration update (ii) Logistics and software including provision of office equipment and facilities namely: 2 pick-up vehicles, 6 computers, a photocopier, a blue print machine, training tools, water quality test kit and communication instruments.
A budgetary provision has been made to undertake environmental sensitization campaigns. The campaigns aim at emphasizing the linkage between improved health and water, as well as at improving the environmental sanitation situation in the project areas through the promotion of individual latrines, personal hygiene, and proper maintenance of public toilets.
MWSSRP is aiming at: 1) Carrying out significant contribution towards the improvement of the socio economic well being, quality of life and health standards of the population of Metropolitan Monrovia through provision of sustainable water and sanitation services and improvement of the capacity of LWSC to operate and maintain water and sewerage systems on sustainable basis.
The Program is classified in the environmental category 2 in accordance with AfDB Environmental and Social Procedures. The program activities are aiming at rehabilitating water supply (mainly point sources and simple piped schemes) and sanitation facilities that are well demarcated and will not affect significantly, taken individually, any sensitive environmental areas or social issues.
2.4 Socioeconomic Conditions
The project area is within the administration zone of the Monrovia Municipal Government, which consists of five urban districts namely Paynesville community, Sinkor, central Monrovia, Bushrod Island and Congo Town. At the end of 2006, the total permanent population for the whole municipality of Monrovia was approximately 1.7 million people.
The economy of Liberia operates at about one-third of the pre-war level, with a GDP of less than US$500 million compared to over US$1,000 million in 1988. The economic performance of the manufacturing industry is 4.4%. Total debt recorded during the second quarter of 2005 was US$3,600 million, total domestic debt of US$377.2 million (MOF 2005). This equates to USD114.3 per capita.
The economy of Liberia is weak. GDP per capita was US$166.5 in 1998, US$169 in 1999, US$199 in 2000 and US$163 in 2001. On top of that, Liberia has a per capita debt burden of more than US$1,000. This economic situation is affecting the lives of many people. In 1999, Liberia ranked 174 out of 175 countries on the UNDP Human Development Index. It is estimated that over 76 per cent of the population lives below the poverty line. GDP per capita (US$ and PPP$) ---158.06 External debt (US$) as percent of GDP ---707.8%
With less than 50 industrial enterprises, Monrovia is an impoverished city. Its major industrial services include hotel businesses, petty trading, and the rubber processing industry, the Liberian Brewery, construction materials, drinks industry and service industries.
The water supply for Monrovia comes mainly from approximately 5000 shallow wells and two deep wells. One municipal water treatment plant serve only 17% of urban Monrovia. With the congested living conditions, the water supply shortage has become a serious difficulty for the city. There is a shortage of public water supply. The existing self supplied water is inadequate and unacceptable. Water supply and sanitation sources are distant, difficult to access and contaminated. Water from most of the shallow wells is undrinkable because of bad taste and salt water intrusion.
Many diseases are associated with inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene. At anyone time, close to half of urban Monrovia were suffering from one or more of the main diseases associated with inadequate water and sanitation provision. UNICEF has plotted 8 diarrhoea hotspots in the city.
The Cholera Treatment Unit (CTU) at John F. Kennedy Medical Centre treats diarrhoeal cases suspected to be cholera. The centre has treated 72 cases between August 1 and August 27, 2007. West Point has the highest number of cases. Out of the 72 cases 26 needed admission and 46 were treated on out-patient basis.
The majority (70%) of people admitted in the CTU obtain water from shallow wells. Some of the households of West Point use septic tanks which are suspected to be the main sources of water contamination within the locality. West Point is also low-lying and floods very frequently, which is another source of shallow wells water contamination. However, this does not suggest that water is the only source of diarrhoeal infections. The route of transmission is complex but in most cases the first case is a victim of foul water consumption.
The following are the water sources of the areas with high incidents of waterish diarrhoea: rainwater, pipe borne, hand pump wells and open wells. CTU now disinfect households that report waterish diarrhoeal illnesses with chlorine. They also do health education on hygiene promotion. Prior to the current high incidents of waterish diarrhoea, MSF was supporting the CTU. Since MSF pulled out the centre no longer has adequate support. Only few IV infusions were available at the time of visit by the mission. Disinfection of the unit is very inadequate, and the workers have no protective clothing.
The reasons for the persistence of these diseases are: some (83%) due to poor water quality; others associated with inadequate quantity of water available to households; with inadequate hygiene or hygienic food preparation practices and inadequate provision for excreta disposal or wastewater disposal.
Sewerage lines in central Monrovia have burst and sewage spills directly in the streets. The flow of raw sewage along residential areas contributes to food and water contamination brings the risk of oral-faecal contamination in central Monrovia to very high. Streets like Mechlin Street, Water Street, Randall and Centre streets suffer from the stench of sewage leaking into the streets.
Diarrhoeal diseases are the most common and account for a high proportion of infant, child and adult illness- and for most water-related infant and child deaths especially among children less than five years of age.
Because water supplies and provision for sanitation are inadequate for much of a city’s population, faecal- oral disease are among the most serious health problems for the whole city Over-crowding and inadequate food hygiene exacerbates the risks from contaminated water and poor sanitation; it is common for there to be three people per room in tenement in Monrovia, cheap zinc-body houses and informal settlements where most low-income urban settlers dwell.
In slumps around Central Monrovia people have illegally built settlements near sewage outfalls or what used to be overflow outlets to relieve sewage lift pumps but are now sewage outlets. Water washed diseases associated with a lack of water supplies for washing, and includes various skin and eye infections such as scabies and trachoma.
Observation walks during the ESMP study observed children and adults bathing and swimming in the sewage outfalls of PHP/BTC community through Center Street.
The sewage is discharging directly into this part of the Monrovia coastline due to sewage system/network failure. Most water-borne diseases are also water-washed, as their incidence is associated with inadequate water supplies as well as contaminated water. Inadequate drainage pose particular problems for children who tend to play wherever there is open land or interesting opportunity for exploration and who may be drawn to play in standing water and in drainage ditches.
Malaria, often considered a rural disease, is now among the main causes of illness and death among children and adults in Monrovia (14% incidence rate) as shown in Figure 2 below.
Some infrastructure works in Monrovia also contribute substantially to mosquito breeding. The cellars of buildings whose construction remain unfinished because of war or destroyed during the war have become extensive breeding places during the rainy season.
Viral diseases including yellow fever are related to poor drainage or to solid waste and also small domestic water collectors. The latter is the result of inadequate water supplies, which force people to keep drinking water containers in their homes.
Many other disease vectors such as vermin thrive due to poor drainage and inadequate provision for rubbish collection, sanitation and piped water-including house flies, fleas, lice and cockroaches.
The health burden linked to inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene is, not surprisingly, heavily concentrated in Monrovia. Infectious diarrhoea, according to the CTU is probably the largest contributor to the disease burden from water, sanitation and hygiene- although it is also transmitted through food and air.
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Figure 2: Most prevalent diseases in Montserrado (Source WHO 2003)
Many households in Monrovia use water vendors as a source of their drinking water. The water vendors line-up on water queues to fetch water. Inhabitants of Central Monrovia have to buy water from water vendors. Some people with tap water also sell water to people without in order to pay for their water bills LWSC.
The average price of water in Central Monrovia per USA gallon is LD 5 (USD 0.08). On average households in Central Monrovia buy 12-15 gallons per day (LD 60 – LD 75) i.e. (USD 1.00 – USD 1.25). This amount of water is not adequate for sanitation and other domestic uses therefore toilets are left un-flushed for most of the day. Because majority of people cannot afford to buy water they resort to drinking contaminated water.
Water vendors play a key role to the supply of water in Monrovia, especially to those who cannot afford to walk long distances very early in the morning to fetch water. However, water supplied by vendors is prone to contamination due to handling and storage as well as mode of transportation. Figure 3, a photograph of water vendors taken during the mission illustrates this fact very well. Water is stored in containers that are not regularly disinfected or cleaned and these containers pass through several hands, homes and streets. Some areas where the water containers are exchanged or kept have sewage spillage problems.
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Figure 3: Water vendors in Central Monrovia (Photograph Kolleh Bangura)
Meanwhile, currently the city of Monrovia and indeed the economy of Liberia survive largely on humanitarian aid and a vibrant informal sector. Unemployment stands at 85 per cent, with 1.4 million people living in abject poverty (US$0.50 per person per day). Total debt recorded during the second quarter of 2005 was US$3,600 million, total domestic debt of US$377.2 million (MOF 2005). Therefore the direct cost of water adds on to the burden of poverty amongst the unemployed and the low income families.
There are large costs relating to the time and money lost to oral-faecal and other water related diseases. The medical cost and lost wages from water related diseases are a high part of the household income for the poor.
Children bear much the greatest burden of ill health and premature death from diseases related to inadequate water. Many children in Monrovia die every day from preventable diseases related to the inadequate provision of water. Many more live with repeated bouts of diarrhoea, warm infestations, skin infections, malnutrition and chronically challenged immune systems as a result of unsanitary living environment. The effects are long term and will include most physical and mental stunting. This violates the rights of children – to survival and health, development and to a decent standard of living.
Long term impact for children is not restricted to physical health: research in poor urban settlements elsewhere by WHO has related diarrhoea disease in children to impaired cognitive functioning several years later. This is due to the exacerbated impact of malnutrition promoted by repeated occurrences of diarrhoea.
Absenteeism from school is very common as a result of repeated bouts of diarrhoeal diseases associated with inadequate water supply, poor sanitation and hygiene. This has a direct impact on school performance and achievements. Frequently boys and girls are kept out of school to make sure that water is obtained for the homes.
2.5 Gender Roles
Like most of Africa, a disproportionate share of the labour and the health burden of household water supply and sanitation inadequacies in Monrovia fall on women. It is typically women and children who collect water from the shallow wells and public stand pipes (where there is a public water service). They queue for long periods in the process and often have to get up very early or go late at night to fetch water.
It is women who have to make do with the inadequate water supplies to clean the home, prepare the food, wash the utensils, wash the children and do the laundering. It is also women who typically care for the children (including bathing them), both when they are well and when they are sick. There is no compelling local statistics in Monrovia comparing to the health statistics, documenting the labour burdens of the inadequate water and sanitation provisions in the city.
Women have to stand up to the confrontation and humiliation in neighbourhood yards where they are often taunted and declined the chance to get water. They have to be thick skinned to get water. Women interviewed claimed that sometimes they are verbally abused and referred to as dirty people and beggars when they are trying to fetch water from neighbourhood compounds. Sometimes women need to go at nigh to other settlements to get water because the inhabitants would not like them using their wells/taps. “People in rich neighbourhoods think we would contaminate their water because we live in slumps.”
There is tremendous pressure placed on those at the public pump operated wells and stand pipes not to take too much, or too long, by those waiting in the queue behind them. If someone has a lot of water containers, which are often needed in large households, they would not allow other people to fetch water. This is how a lot of fights get started. Cheating on the queue is also another source of fights. “Nothing could be done without fights. Until you fought and heard swear words you will not get water”.
In Paynesville and Sinkor communities there are limits on how much water that can be taken in many yards, but this means that it is difficult to draw enough water for all household tasks. Of course this problem is much exacerbated in the dry season and the current low coverage of LWSC water supply.
“We have very few toilets. People from different yards use one toilet, for men and women. Sometimes you have to stand in a queue for half an hour. That is why men and children all go for open defecation in the open sewers. Even now insects climb up our legs. The toilets are not cleaned properly. If you go to see the toilet, it is so dirty that a person cannot put a foot in it, but we have no choice and we have to go there. The children squat in the road to the extent that you cannot walk along the road. Though we have a toilet it does not have water and it is not clean. Often people defecate on the side of the drain just outside your sitting area. This is very un-sighting and often we have to clean it for our own sake”
Yet women remain under represented in an institutional level. An analysis of LWSC’s employees shows that out of 153 employees only 30 are female (Table 1). The majority (22) of the female staff in the organisation operate at support staff level. No female staffs work in public relations, transmission and distribution, water treatment and supply and sewer. It is therefore evident that women have less influence than men in the running of LWSC. Activities relating to sewerage conveyance and water distribution are labour intensive but with good screening and training women can partake in these activities. Therefore the capacity of women needs to be strengthened.
Liberia Water and Sewer Coporation Employees
Table 1: Analysis of male/female employees at LWSC
| | | | | |
| |DEPARTMENT/OFFICE |NO. OF STAFF |FEMALE |MALE |
|NO | | | | |
| | | |NO |% |NO |% |
|1 |Managing Directors Office |4 |2 |50 |2 |50 |
|2 |Internal Audits |2 |1 |50 |1 |50 |
|3 |DMD/Admin. & Finance Office |5 |2 |40 |3 |60 |
|4 |Manpower Department |7 |4 |57 |3 |43 |
|5 |Accounts |15 |9 |60 |6 |40 |
|6 |Commercial |30 |3 |10 |27 |90 |
|7 |Public Relations |2 |0 |0 |2 |100 |
|8 |General Services |10 |3 |30 |7 |70 |
|9 |DMD/Tech. Services’ Office |6 |3 |50 |3 |50 |
|10 |Planning & Development (Tec. Ser) |22 |3 |14 |19 |86 |
|11 |Transmission & Distribution |23 |0 |0 |23 |100 |
|12 |Treatment & Supply |18 |0 |0 |18 |100 |
|13 |Sewer |10 |0 |0 |10 |100 |
| |TOTALS |153 |30 | |123 | |
| | | | | | | |
ANALYSIS OF FEMALE EMPLOYEES
1. Number of LWSC staff : 153
2. Number female staff : 30
3. Number female staff in Management : 6
4. Number female staff in Technical Jobs : 2
5. Number of staff as support staff : 22
2.6 Human Environment
One of the biggest problems facing Monrovia is that of poor waste management and sanitation. Only 7% have access to flush toilets and 25% access to latrines. The majority use the bushes and water bodies to dispose of their wastes. Poor waste management contributes to environmental conditions that may threaten human health and well-being especially the pollution of drinking water sources. This issue represents a heavy burden for the authorities and communities of Monrovia. Although waste collection and disposal systems used to exist in some municipalities, these are currently not functioning. The most common solid waste disposal method in Monrovia is open dumping at disposal sites generally located at various sites around communities, most of which are not suitably located. Other problems include inadequate legislation, weak enforcement, lack of substantial financial and human resources, lack of appropriate technologies and effective mechanisms to coordinate stakeholders.
2.61 Climate
Liberia is known for its sustained heat and heavy rainfall. Because the republic lies south of the Tropic of Cancer and only a few degrees north of the equator, the days vary very little in length. The tropical solar radiation is intense and the radiation is uniform across the country. The annual variations of rainfall, temperature, humidity, and hours of sun shine are shown in Figure 4.
Temperatures remain warm throughout the country, and there is little change in temperature between seasons. The mean annual temperatures in Fahrenheit range from the 70s to the 80s. Temperatures inland are warmer than along the coast, but the diurnal range is also greater inland. More rain falls in Liberia than in other areas of West Africa.
The relative humidity is high throughout the county, and averages from 70 to 90 per cent, especially along the coast. The continental and maritime masses of air alternate their movements back and forth, and from north to south. This brings some seasonal differences in rainfall intensity. The coastal region has the heaviest rainfall, from between 155 to 175 inches annually in the west, and with nearly 100 inches of rain annually in the south-eastern part of the country. Monrovia receives almost 180 inches of rain annually.
Rainfall decreases going north and inland. But the rainfall increases again in the highlands and the northernmost part of the republic. The driest part of the country is along a strip of the eastward flowing Cavalla River, but even there, the land receives over 70 inches of rain a year. In Liberia, the rainy season begins in late April or early May, and reaches a peak in July through September, and tapers off again in October. Monrovia and Buchanan, on the coastal plains, receive a heavy rain earlier in the season, then they experience a period of reduced rainfall called the “middle dries” before heavy rains return in August. In the south-eastern part of the country, the rainy season begins in April and lasts for two or three months, and then is followed by a drier period of two or three months. Then a second rainy season begins in September and lasts until November. The “middle dries” are not dry enough to be called a true dry season. Surface water is abundant, and groundwater reserves are ample and regularly replenished by the country's heavy rainfall.
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Figure 4: Climate Parameters of Monrovia
2.62 Ecology
In West Africa, the forest zone refers to the southern part of the region once largely covered by tropical rainforest. The forest zone of West Africa, in the strict sense, covers all of Liberia and Sierra Leone, most of Guinea, the southern halves of Côte d'Ivoire and Nigeria, and parts of Ghana, Togo and Guinea-Bissau.
Forestry has devastated much of the natural rainforest in Liberia. Farmers without land have been pushed onto land with marginal soil for agriculture by population growth and poverty, which, despite the past warfare, continues to be among the highest in the world. The rapid destruction of Liberia’s forest resources has also been caused by over-harvesting and uncontrolled logging, accelerated by civil war and then rapid growth of urban and peri-urban settlements. The current landscape of the Monrovia’s coastline is illustrated in by the satellite image of Western Liberia (Figure 5). The satellite image, taken on August 8, 2007 by the European Weather satellite at a resolution of 1Km shows Western Liberia as a highly perturbed forest environment. Shifting cultivators have accessed logged forests using the many logging roads built since the early 1960s. There has been widespread shifting cultivation, mainly for growing upland rice. Between 1990 and 2000, Liberia lost about 760,000 hectares of forest, a deforestation rate of about 2% annually. As noted above, about 2.3 million hectares of the forest estate is affected by agriculture, including 1 million hectares that has been greatly fragmented.
The Green patches of the satellite image represent the remaining, forests (now mainly secondary forests). Areas within urban areas experience the fastest rate of vegetation removal. The nation lacked regulatory agencies to supervise the preservation of the environment and is just now trying to build the capacity of the Environment Protection Agency (EPA). As the 1980s began, Liberia was one of the last West African countries with significant primary forest reserves, but recent estimates suggest that some 42,000 ha (104,000 acres) of primary forest are converted annually to degraded forest or transformed into bush land by shifting cultivation. Commercial logging, firewood cutting, and a government land-clearing program also threaten primary forestland. Between 1983 and 1993, Liberia lost 13.2% of its forest and woodland area. Forests currently account for less than 40% of Liberia's land. By the mid-1980s, the country had lost over 70% of its mangrove swamps. Hunting and loss of habitat have decimated wildlife along the coastal plain, and there are no longer any large herds of big game in the interior.
The water supply is limited to open sources such as streams, swamps, and shallow, uncovered wells; the result, especially during the rainy season, is the frequent breakout of diarrhoeal diseases. The result is also that insects and parasites thrive, creating a major health hazard. Liberia cities produce about 2 million tons of solid waste per year. The Mano and St. John rivers were becoming increasingly polluted from the dumping of iron ore tailings, and the coastal waters from oil residue and the dumping of untreated sewage and waste water. Eleven of the nation's mammal species and 13 of its bird species are endangered. One of its plant species is threatened with extinction. The Jentink's duiker and Liberian mongoose are endangered species in Liberia.
Deforestation of this scale has future implications on the water resources of Liberia. Removal of vegetation cover exposes the surface of the soils. This is demonstrated in Figure 6, a the picture of the landscape along the Paynesville Highway taken during the mission. Exposure of the soil in this way also increases the silt loads of runoff which contributes to the blocking of drainages and sewerages. Soil erosion has a negative impact on the capacity of the soils to hold water or recharge the water table by infiltration because most of the rainwater will be carried into streams and rivers via the erosion tunnels. Surface waters become more vulnerable to pollution under decreased vegetation cover and increased surface runoff. Complete deforestation will also lead to changes in the local climate. The temperatures will rise and the levels of rainfall will reduce. The water demand for farming, domestic use and industry will increase but the water resources will be more reduced. With the threats of the effects of global climate change and the current rates of sea level rise coastal water resources will be vulnerable to sea water intrusion.
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Figure 5: Satellite image of Western Liberia showing its current vegetation cover
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Figure 6: Accelerated Soil Erosion in Paynesville highway (Photograph Kolleh Bangura)
2.63 Geology
There are three distinct belts lying parallel to the coast of Liberia. The low coastal belt is about 40 km (25 miles) wide, with tidal creeks, shallow lagoons, and mangrove marshes. The land then rises to rolling hills, with elevations of 60–150 m (200–500 ft). The third belt, comprising the bulk of Liberia, is marked by abrupt changes of elevation in a series of low mountains and plateaux, less densely forested than the hilly region. The Nimba Mountains are near the Guinea frontier. The Wologizi Mountains reach a maximum of about 1,380 m (4,528 ft) with Mt. Wutuvi, the nation's highest point. Of the six principal rivers, all of which are at right angles to the coast and flow into the Atlantic Ocean, only the Farmington is of much commercial importance. Sandbars obstruct the mouths of all rivers, making entrance hazardous, and upstream there are rocky rapids. In Monrovia, sandbars increase the resident time of sewage dumped directly into the estuary.
Liberia is perched on the West African Shield, a rock formation from 2.7 to 3.4 billion years old. The West African Shield that is made of granite, schist, and gneiss. In Liberia this shield has been intensely folded and faulted and is interspersed with iron-bearing formations known as itabirites. Along the coast lie beds of sandstone with occasional crystalline-rock outcrops. Monrovia stands on such an outcropping, a ridge of diabase, a dark red-coloured, fine-grained rock. In Paynesville, the sandstone is covered by a layer of limestone (Figure 7).
The soil cover above the limestone has been greatly eroded due to removal of vegetation cover so that the underlying limestone and sandstone rocks are easily exposed on the surface. In North Paynesville the depth of limestone exceeds 5m (Figure 8). This limestone layer is late deposit consisting of numerous calcified fossils of sea creatures. The limestone deposit on top of the sandstone contributes to the hardness of well water around Monrovia. It also gives well water its clayey appearance. In Bushrod, Cape Masurado and Central Monrovia, Sinkor and Airfield Highway the topsoil is a layer of sand. Sand is a very efficient water filter and its infiltration capacity is very high. Sandstones form a large proportion of sedimentary rocks along the coast of Monrovia. They occur within elevations of 0-50m. They are formed by the cementing together of grains. Sandstones can vary enormously in colour, texture and composition depending on the nature of the original source material and the environment of deposition. Because the rock formations of Monrovia are primarily sandstone they allow percolation of water and are porous enough to store large quantities, making them valuable aquifers. Fine-grained aquifers, such as sandstones, are more apt to filter out pollutants from the surface than are rocks with cracks. Lime stone is not an excellent filter for pollutants.
LWSC abstract groundwater from three deep wells in the Triassic/Precambrian Sandstone. Triassic sandstone has large water storage capacity within the structure of the strata and it does not tend to react rapidly to periods of low rainfall. Therefore, it gives a relatively reliable and stable supply of water. A predominant additional colorant in the Monrovian and in deed the Liberian coastline is iron oxide, which imparts reddish tints ranging from pink to dark red (terra cotta), with additional manganese and aluminium imparting a purplish hue. Under water logged conditions iron in sandstone is in the reduced form and is in solution (Fe2+). This gives the rock surface a greenish-grey colour. When the rock is exposed in air e.g. during well digging the Fe2+ becomes oxidized to Fe3+ and is precipitated out of the water to become reddish-brown in colour. These reddish-brown sandstone fragments cover a lot of the landscape of Monrovia. Excessive iron in soils is not good in agriculture because iron binds with important nutrients like phosphorus and makes them unavailable to plants. Excessive iron from water pumped from the 2 deep wells in Paynesville is removed by precipitation methods using chlorine by Coca Cola in their Factory before it is used.
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Figure 7: Sandstone outcrop exposed at Paynesville; (Photograph Kolleh Bangura)
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Figure 8: Limestone outcrop in North Paynesville (Photograph Kolleh Bangura)
Most of the crystalline rocks are of Precambrian age. The western half of country is typically of Archean age. In the eastern half of the country, lenses of Proterozoic greenstone belts occur surrounded by rocks of probable Archean age. Rocks of Pan African age extend north-westerly along most of the Liberian coastline from the Cestos shear zone. Along the Atlantic Ocean, the coastline is characterized by lagoons, mangrove swamps, and river-deposited sandbars. Inland, the grassy plateau supports limited agriculture. The rock out crops in Figures 5 and 6 were taken in North Paynesville, where the Paynesville and Edina Sandstones are outcropping.
Considering existing data, there is a large sandstone potential aquifer located between two borders of diabase. This structure is oriented North-South, and turn to the east due to a major fault and diabase outcropping at the north of the shore. This fault and diabase are oriented NW/SE
It is suppose that a diabase (dikes and sills), at the borders of the sandstone aquifer, have a low or very low permeability. On the other hand, the peripheries of the diabase might be fractured and create an interesting potential aquifer. The associated river basin is large enough to support a good water feeding. This hydraulic system is in equilibrium and fully saturated.
As a consequence, any volume of infiltration water entering must leave this hydraulic system through discharge to the ocean. This hypothesis is yet to be confirmed and is beyond the scope of this mission.
2.64 Hydrology
Figure 9 is the hydrological map of Liberia. The major rivers of Liberia are the Cavalla, the Cestos, the Lofa, the Mano, the Morro, the Saint John and the Saint Paul. The Mano and Morro rivers in the northwest and the Cavalla River in the southeast are boundary lines for part of the country. The St Paul is Monrovia source of water supply. The White Plain treatment plant takes its water from a freshwater reach 47 Km upstream.
Most of the rivers of Liberia flow from the mountains inland in the northeast to the coast in the southeast, and parallel each other. Among the low mountains and hills, the river beds are steep and irregular, with frequent falls or rapids. Many rocks, waterfalls, rapids and sandbanks reduce navigation of these rivers very far inland. Closer to the coast, the river grade becomes less, and tidal current prevent the rivers from removing sand bars and accumulations. However, most streams overflow their banks regularly, and during the rainy seasons there is often severe flooding along the coastal plains. Many rivers flow along the coast for miles before they enter the Atlantic Ocean. The Cavalla River runs between the Ivory Coast and Liberia.
The rivers were harnessed to generate hydroelectric power. This source of electricity served Liberia very well before the warfare began. The Farmington River was one source of hydroelectric power. These facilities are yet to be rehabilitated as they were completely destroyed during the long civil war. The Mount Coffee hydroelectric station outside Monrovia on the St. Paul River was the country's largest hydroelectric installation. Electrical production in Liberia from all sources was 509.4 million kWh in 2003. The shutdown of Monrovia’s power sources during the war has a very high impact on the cost of water production in the city. Pumps are now to be run on generators which consume a lot of fuel. Under this project White Plain Treatment plant and the 4 sewage lift pumps are now going to be powered by petroleum powered engines.
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Figure 9: Map of the Elevation and Hydrology of Liberia
2.65 Soil and Vegetation
Central Monrovia and its immediate surroundings is devoid of vegetation largely as a result of urbanization. Human interference, by way of establishing housing, and other urban activities have replaced the forest. However, un-mature grass and tweedy areas still exist in Paynesville, Airfield Road, and the Northern edge of Bushrod Island.
The soil in Monrovia state is derived from drift and deposited materials which vary in textural characteristics, but mainly are sand and oxisols (Oxides of iron and aluminium). The profile of the soils is poorly developed, and it has a low water retention capacity. Vegetable cover is very sparse.
2.66 The Saint Paul Watershed
The land drained by St. Paul River lies between Lofa River Catchment on the West , the St John River Catchment on the East and the Nimba Mountain range in Guinea on the North. A short distance downstream from White Plains to the Atlantic Ocean the river is tidal. Because of the embankment in White Plains the river is swollen from that point to Garu Town and is fresh. There is high risk of salt water intrusion into the water source at high tides during dry season. There are frequent salt water intrusions in White Plains. LWSC constructed a salt water defence wall behind the raw water pumping station to stop further saltwater intrusion and also to gather water for the intake pumps during low flows. With the threat of sea level rise the prevention of saltwater intrusion into the drinking water sources is a very big challenge for the LWSC operations. The management of the St Paul watershed is crucial to the long term water management for Monrovia city. The meeting of St Paul’s downstream needs need to be considered when making St Paul’s upstream decisions such as land clearing, industrial activities, farming activities and so on, which all result to deforestation and failure to conserve water. Unfortunately some of these decisions are international since the river originates from Guinea.
2.67 Water resources
As described earlier Liberia’s climate is tropical hot-humid and winters are dry with hot days and cool to cold nights, while summers are wet and cloudy with frequent heavy showers. The rainy season is from April to November and average annual rainfall is estimated at 2,391 mm, with a volume variation from 2,000 to 5,000 mm. Although this is much higher than the quantity of water required for crop growth, an acute water deficit is experienced during a 3 to 5 month period, particularly in the uplands. Liberia is one of the African countries with the highest amount of renewable water resources reaching 60 Cubic Km per capita. The surface water is typical of good quality. However, there is a challenge of pollution of water courses from oil residue and raw sewage.
Liberia has two river systems. The major river system which drains 97% of the territory is in a general northeast-southwest direction. Of this major river system, six trans-boundary water basins namely: (i) The Mano and Mugowi Rivers with Sierra Leone, (ii) The Makone, Lofa, Via, Nianda and Mani Rivers with Guinea, (iii) The Cavalla River with Côte d’Ivoire. The secondary river system is short coastal watercourses, which drain about 3 percent of the country. Liberia has Internal Renewable Water Resources (IRWR) of about 200 Cubic Km of surface water in addition to 32 Cubic Km flows from neighbouring countries.
Liberia has great potential in groundwater resources, where both precipitation rates and water table are sufficiently high to allow for easy exploitation of Groundwater resources. It is estimated that the ground water recharge is estimated at 60 Cubic Km. Total water withdrawal in the year 2000 was estimated at 106.8 million m3. In a recent study of 770 wells, the average depth ranged between 7m to 13m, with an average water table between 4m to 7m. However, because of lack of coherent sector policies based on equity considerations, there are large disparities in the spatial distribution of groundwater services across the country. The shallow aquifer is normally of good water quality as most of the problems are site specific and resulted from local contamination.
2.68 Water sources of Monrovia
Two main sources of water will be used by the programme for the water supply of Monrovia. All the pipe borne water supply for Programme will be abstracted from the White Plains section, 47 km upstream of the St. Paul’s River. White Plains is the uppermost limit of the St Paul’s estuary. From White Plains upstream of the river is fresh water. The water at White Plains is clear and has uniform consistency throughout the year and is not industrially polluted. However, it has high coliform count and there is a current threat of saltwater intrusion into the area of the water source. Several episodes of saltwater intrusion during dry periods were reported by LWSC. Groundwater is found in aquifers, which are water-bearing formations with hydraulic characteristics that allow water to be extracted in significant amounts through the use of boreholes and dug wells. Results of boreholes drilled and wells dug show the abundance of groundwater throughout the country. Water infiltrates downward until it reaches a depth where it fills all of the openings in the soil and cracks in rocks. Ground water development in Liberia dates as far back as the 1800’s when individuals in rural and urban areas developed wells for domestic use. However, groundwater in Liberia though of relatively high quality, has not been fully developed. In the early 70s USAID, in conjunction with the then Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Urban Reconstruction (now Ministry of Internal Affairs) began the Rural Water Program. International NGOs and other organizations have since joined this effort providing rural populations with water wells. Prior to 1990, there were 11 water supply systems developed for urban centres in Liberia. Four of these were based on groundwater sources. The destruction of most of these facilities means that today over 90 per cent of the population has to rely on groundwater for water supply. Liberia has not had adequate hydro-geological programmes. At the height of its operation, LHS had only three hydro-geological monitoring stations in Liberia. Aquifers have not been adequately mapped to determine their extent and water quantity. To date no work has been done to map the number of aquifers that exist throughout the country. Studies have been undertaken on an ad-hoc basis.
LWSC operates two deep wells in Paynesville Town (each about 150ft deep). A third is used as a reserve. Each of the wells yields about 2.5 litres of water/second throughout the year. The pumps of the two operational wells are linked to each other by intake pipes to maintain high water production. The deep wells supplies 100,000 gallons of water a day through trucking services. The wells are bored in sandstone rock. Their water quality is good. Water from the wells is pumped directly to overhead reservoirs without any treatment and is distributed to the consumers by water tankers. One of the three deep wells is reserved for supplying Coca Cola Drinks Company. Coca Cola does its own testing and reports any concerns to LWSC.
The potential for groundwater development in the country is high as groundwater is readily available everywhere, but the implementation of a successful groundwater development Program would be dependent on detailed investigation at the national level. One of two sedimentary basins south of Monrovia in Paynesville, which has been identified as showing promise for groundwater development, already has three drilled boreholes. This basin is now a major source of drinking water in Monrovia and its environs. The water shortage in the city is augmented by a system of nearly 5000 shallow wells located in many parts of the city. These wells are difficult to maintain due to frequent disjoining of the shaft, salt water intrusion, pollution and frequent theft of hand pumps.
2.69 The Water quality
Drinking water, considered the highest beneficial use, must be free of hazards, that is, pathogens, toxins and carcinogens. Aesthetic factors, such as temperature, colour, clarity, taste and chemical balance are also important and should be monitored. Some physical, chemical and biological (coliform count) water quality parameters show that White Plains source meets the WHO drinking water source quality standards for these parameters. LWSC does not have the resources and capacity to carryout full chemical constituents’ analysis. However, consistent constituents’ monitoring will be quickly restarted, as a safeguard against system failures as well as against stochastic natural or anthropogenic events of pollution. Chemical monitoring of both raw and treated water will be carried out using automatic water quality monitoring systems (AWQMS). This method is cheap and does not need human presence all the time. The following parameters will be consistently monitored by the water treatment plant lab: pH, Temperature, TDS, Conductivity, DO, BOD, Hardness, coliform number, Cl-, SO42-,Na 9.6, K11.2, PO4-P, NO3-N, Pb, Zn, Fe, Mn, CU ................
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