Context



ContextGeneralEarly in the year 1692, in the small Massachusetts village of Salem, a collection of girls fell ill, falling victim to hallucinations and seizures. In extremely religious Puritan New England, frightening or surprising occurrences were often attributed to the devil or his cohorts. The unfathomable sickness spurred fears of witchcraft, and it was not long before the girls, and then many other residents of Salem, began to accuse other villagers of consorting with devils and casting spells. Old grudges and jealousies spilled out into the open, fueling the atmosphere of hysteria. The Massachusetts government and judicial system, heavily influenced by religion, rolled into action. Within a few weeks, dozens of people were in jail on charges of witchcraft. By the time the fever had run its course, in late August 1692, nineteen people (and two dogs) had been convicted and hanged for witchcraft.More than two centuries later, Arthur Miller was born in New York City on October 17, 1915. His career as a playwright began while he was a student at the University of Michigan. Several of his early works won prizes, and during his senior year, the Federal Theatre Project in Detroit performed one of his works. He produced his first great success,?All My Sons,?in 1947. Two years later, in 1949, Miller wrote?Death of a Salesman,?which won the Pulitzer Prize and transformed Miller into a national sensation. Many critics described?Death of a Salesman?as the first great American tragedy, and Miller gained an associated eminence as a man who understood the deep essence of the United States.Drawing on research on the witch trials he had conducted while an undergraduate, Miller composed?The Crucible?in the early 1950s. Miller wrote the play during the brief ascendancy of Senator Joseph McCarthy, a demagogue whose vitriolic anti-Communism proved the spark needed to propel the United States into a dramatic and fractious anti-Communist fervor during these first tense years of the Cold War with the Soviet Union. Led by McCarthy, special congressional committees conducted highly controversial investigations intended to root out Communist sympathizers in the United States. As with the alleged witches of Salem, suspected Communists were encouraged to confess and to identify other Red sympathizers as means of escaping punishment. The policy resulted in a whirlwind of accusations. As people began to realize that they might be condemned as Communists regardless of their innocence, many “cooperated,” attempting to save themselves through false confessions, creating the image that the United States was overrun with Communists and perpetuating the hysteria. The liberal entertainment industry, in which Miller worked, was one of the chief targets of these “witch hunts,” as their opponents termed them. Some cooperated; others, like Miller, refused to give in to questioning. Those who were revealed, falsely or legitimately, as Communists, and those who refused to incriminate their friends, saw their careers suffer, as they were blacklisted from potential jobs for many years afterward.At the time of its first performance, in January of?1953, critics and cast alike perceived?The Crucible?as a direct attack on McCarthyism (the policy of sniffing out Communists). Its comparatively short run, compared with those of Miller’s other works, was blamed on anti-Communist fervor. When Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were accused of spying for the Soviets and executed, the cast and audience of Miller’s play observed a moment of silence. Still, there are difficulties with interpreting?The Crucible?as a strict allegorical treatment of 1950s McCarthyism. For one thing, there were, as far as one can tell, no actual witches or devil-worshipers in Salem. However, there were certainly Communists in 1950s America, and many of those who were lionized as victims of McCarthyism at the time, such as the Rosenbergs and Alger Hiss (a former State Department official), were later found to have been in the pay of the Soviet Union. Miller’s Communist friends, then, were often less innocent than the victims of the Salem witch trials, like the stalwart Rebecca Nurse or the tragic John Proctor.If Miller took unknowing liberties with the facts of his own era, he also played fast and loose with the historical record. The general outline of events in?The Crucible?corresponds to what happened in Salem of 1692, but Miller’s characters are often composites. Furthermore, his central plot device—the affair between Abigail Williams and John Proctor—has no grounding in fact (Proctor was over sixty at the time of the trials, while Abigail was only eleven). Thus, Miller’s decision to set sexual jealousy at the root of the hysteria constitutes a dramatic contrivance.In an odd way, then,?The Crucible?is best read outside its historical context—not as a perfect allegory for anti-Communism, or as a faithful account of the Salem trials, but as a powerful and timeless depiction of how intolerance and hysteria can intersect and tear a community apart. In John Proctor, Miller gives the reader a marvelous tragic hero for any time—a flawed figure who finds his moral center just as everything is falling to pieces around him.Salem and PuritanismThe government of Salem in 1692 was a Puritan theocracy. In other words, the town was under the unbending authority of the church. The leaders of the church, and especially the minister of the church, were very powerful figures, comparable to our elected officials. A person who was not a member in good standing of the church was not allowed to live in the community. All citizens were expected to conform to the teachings of the church at all times and to know its catechism, which contained the written statements of the church’s beliefs.Puritan theology was largely based on the teachings of John Calvin. Calvin was one of a group of theologians who protested against the Roman Catholic church’s departure from the Bible as the ultimate authority. Based on their reading of Saint Paul in the New Testament, they particularly disagreed with the Roman Catholic emphasis on earning your salvation through good deeds on earth. These protesters, or Protestants, believed that salvation could not be earned. The only way to get to heaven was to be chosen by God and to have faith that He would save you from eternal damnation. Some people were predestined, or chosen to be saved, while others were not. While good works would not earn your salvation if you had not been chosen, believers desired to do good works on earth and thus follow the example set by Jesus Christ. Good works were visible signs of your commitment to God.At the time of the?Reformation?most of Europe was ruled by a theocracy of its own; that of the Roman Catholic church. The Protestants were compelled by their beliefs to disregard many of the practices of the Catholic church, including buying indulgences and approaching God only through a priest. The church was not pleased with this rebellion against its authority, and the Protestants were greatly persecuted. Many of them left Europe and settled in America to escape this persecution and practice their religion in peace. This was the case with the colony at Salem.Miller himself has asserted that the community created by such a system was crucial to the survival of the colony against great odds. The settlers of Salem had to deal with attacks from Indians, harsh winters, unyielding soil, and many other hardships. Similar colonies that were not bound by common ideology eventually failed; the Virginia Colony is a good example. In contrast, the people of Salem were united in the strong bonds of a persecuted minority. Their religion required them to act honorably towards their fellow men and to help each other. They were expected to meet regularly at the Meeting House. A strong work ethic was also part of their theology. All of these things contributed to their survival.Despite the advantages of such a system, however,?The Crucible?vividly shows it can lead to the loss of any sense of proportion. The Puritans had taken Calvinist theology several steps beyond what Calvin had in mind. While a man’s good deeds could not earn him salvation, they were often used in Salem to determine the quality of his religious life and thus his standings in the community. While Calvin asserted that each man was responsible for his own salvation, the Puritans often took it upon themselves to determine the state of another man’s soul. There was a great emphasis on avoiding damnation, and public confession and “coming back to God” after sin was actively encouraged. Given the importance of good deeds and hard work, as well as the harsh conditions of life in early America, there was little time for pleasure. Many of the pleasures we take for granted, such as dancing, were deemed frivolous and were not permitted. Every facet of life was touched by the rigid teachings of the church, which were strictly enforced. Failure to conform met with harsh penalties, the most severe of which was death by hanging.Just as the Catholic church had persecuted the Protestants for failing to conform to their rules, so the Protestants persecuted those who did not conform to theirs. There was no room in Salem for free speech.?The Bible?was the only authority that was recognized, and any teaching not found there was considered not only false, but dangerous. Espousing views not taught by the Bible could lead others away from God, and thus imperil many souls, not just one. Witchcraft was especially dangerous, as its goal was to draw people away from God and into conspiracy with the devil. It was not, however, the only sin punishable by death in Salem. Evidence shows that many who confessed to be Quakers were also hanged. The Puritans would not tolerate even the discussion of an idea contrary to their belief system. It was this atmosphere of repression and fear of punishment that ultimately led to the mass hysteria of the Salem Witch Trials. In short, the system became so important as to completely overrule reason.Historical Context that Influenced the PlayMiller warns in the preface to?The Crucible?that "this play is not history," but it is certainly dependent on historical events for its story. It will be necessary in this section to deal with two periods of history: first, the time of the Salem witch trials; second, the time of McCarthyism in the 1950s when Miller was writing.Marion Starkey's 1949 book,?The Witch Trials in Massachusetts?first generated interest in the events that took place in Salem, Massachusetts, in the seventeenth century. Those accused of witchcraft were hounded by representatives of their community (and the larger pressure of majority opinion) until they admitted their involvement, naming others involved in suspicious practices—although the majority of those accused and named were guilty of nothing more than behavior that did not conform to the societal norms of the time.Despite what might be obvious to contemporary readers as free expression or eccentricity, these people were nevertheless prosecuted in Salem. Spearheaded by the crusade of the real-life Reverend Parris, twenty people were killed based on the suspicion that they had involvement with witchcraft. A good number of these people were killed for refusing to cooperate with the proceedings, having never confessed to any crimes. The Salem Witch Trials stand as an example of religious hysteria and mob mentality in American history.Miller carefully uses this historical information as the basis for his play. The language of contemporary seventeenth century religious practice, which he frequently employs, demonstrates the thoroughness of his historical research into the customs of this period. For example, Parris points out at one point that "we are not Quakers." The Puritans disapproved of the Quakers because they believed that God could speak to individuals and inspire them to communicate on his behalf. Consequently, the Quakers avoided hierarchical forms of church government. The Puritans, in contrast, believed that God would only speak through his ordained ministers and accordingly placed great importance on their work. Further references include Abigail's comment about "these Christian women and their covenanted men" which reminds the audience that Puritans had to swear a solemn promise to accept the rules of the Church before they could become full members, and Proctor's criticism of Parris's fondness for highly decorated churches—"This man dreams cathedrals, not clapboard meetin' houses"; Puritans were not supposed to value this kind of decoration which was traditionally associated with other Christian denominations, particularly Roman Catholicism.?The Crucible?is steeped in the language and customs of seventeenth century east coast America.Running parallel to these early events are those that took place in Miller's own time, on which the playwright symbolically comments through the story of the witch trials. Miller was interested in political issues, including communism, which had developed after the Second World War when Russia's communist government became a significant world power. In the early 1950s, hearings at Senator Joseph McCarthy's House Un-American Activities Committee had decided that the American Communist Party, a legal political party, was compromising the security of the nation by encouraging connections with Russia. Those who were sympathetic to the communist cause, or those who had connections with Russia, could be summoned before the committee to explain their involvement, recant their beliefs, and name their former friends and associates in the communist cause.Of particular interest to the committee were those practicing communists in the artistic community. Reasoning that the most nefarious methods for converting Americans to communist beliefs would be through the films, music, and art that they enjoyed, McCarthy and his cohorts prosecuted a great many playwrights, screenwriters, and other artists. In a number of cases they were successful in "blacklisting" these artists—which meant that no one would purchase their services for fear of being linked to communism. This event had its highest profile in the Hollywood of the 1950s, when such screenwriters as Dalton Trumbo (Spartacus) and Ben Hecht (Notorious) were denied employment by major studios (although a great number of blacklisted talents continued to write using "fronts"— legitimate writers who would put their name on the blacklisted author's work). A number of Miller's contemporaries lost their livelihood due to these hearings, and the playwright himself was brought before the proceedings.These themes are explored in?The Crucible?through the subject of witchcraft and social hysteria. In the town's hysteria at the beginning of the play lies a parallel to the frenzy that communist "witch-hunting" caused in America in the 1950s. And in John Proctor's trial, confession, recantation, and refusal to name his associates, are incidents which regularly occurred in front of the House Un-American Activities Committee. However, because of its broad sweep of moral themes, the play has also had a life beyond the immediate and specific historical circumstances for which it was written. For example, its themes have been applied to such diverse subjects as religious fanaticism in the late-twentieth century, child abuse accusations in the U.S. and in Europe, and political freedom in Eastern Europe and China. While McCarthyism had been Miller's inspiration, the play's themes address many different circumstances in which mob mentality overrides personal integrity and placing blame on scapegoats proves easier than confronting (and correcting) deep-rooted societal inadequacies. As long as such practices ensue, the play's historical context will continue to be revised and reapplied.McCarthyism"Are you now, or have you ever been, a member of the Communist party?"In the 1950s, thousands of Americans who toiled in the government, served in the army, worked in the movie industry, or came from various walks of life had to answer that question before a congressional panel.SENATOR JOSEPH MCCARTHY?rose to national prominence by initiating a probe to ferret out communists holding prominent positions. During his investigations, safeguards promised by the Constitution were trampled.Why were so many held in thrall to the Wisconsin lawmaker? Why was an environment that some likened to the?SALEM WITCH TRIALS?tolerated?Fears that children would be corrupted by the "communist" practices depicted in?Robin Hood?led many schools and libraries to ban the classic tale about taking from the rich to give to the poor.The Atomic EraIn 1947, President Truman had ordered background checks of every civilian in service to the government. When Alger Hiss, a high-ranking State Department official was convicted on espionage charges, fear of communists intensified.McCarthy capitalized on national paranoia by proclaiming that?COMMUNIST SPIES?were omnipresent and that he was America's only salvation.An atmosphere of fear of world domination by communists hung over America in the postwar years. There were fears of a nuclear holocaust based on the knowledge that the Soviet Union exploded its first A-bomb in 1949. That same year, China, the world's most populous nation, became communist. Half of Europe was under Joseph Stalin's influence, and every time Americans read their newspapers there seemed to be a new atomic threat.Senator Joseph McCarthy sent this telegram to President Truman two days after claiming that he had identified "205 card-carrying" members of the Communist party working in the U.S. State Department.At a speech in?WHEELING, WEST VIRGINIA, on February 9, 1950, McCarthy launched his first salvo. He proclaimed that he was aware of 205 card-carrying members of the Communist Party who worked for the United States Department of State. A few days later, he repeated the charges at a speech in Salt Lake City. McCarthy soon began to attract headlines, and the Senate asked him to make his case.On February 20, 1950, McCarthy addressed the Senate and made a list of dubious claims against suspected communists. He cited 81 cases that day. He skipped several numbers, and for some cases repeated the same flimsy information. He proved nothing, but the Senate called for a full investigation. McCarthy was in the national spotlight.Staying in the headlines was a full-time job. After accusing low-level officials, McCarthy went for the big guns, even questioning the loyalty of?DEAN ACHESONand George Marshall. Some Republicans in the Senate were aghast and disavowed McCarthy.Others such as?ROBERT TAFT?and Richard Nixon, saw him as an asset. The public rewarded the witch-hunters by sending red-baiters (communist accusers) before the Senate and the House in 1950."Tail Gunner Joe" Shot DownWhen Dwight Eisenhower became president, he had no love for McCarthy. Ike was reluctant to condemn McCarthy for fear of splitting the Republican Party. McCarthy's accusations went on into 1954, when the Wisconsin senator focused on the United States Army. For eight weeks, in televised hearings, McCarthy interrogated army officials, including many decorated war heroes.But this was his tragic mistake. Television illustrated the mean-spiritedness of McCarthy's campaign. The army then went on the attack, questioning McCarthy's methods and credibility. In one memorable fusillade, the Council for the Army simply asked McCarthy, "At long last, have you no sense of decency left?"Poll after poll showed the American people thought McCarthy unscrupulous in his attack of the army.Fed up, McCarthy's colleagues censured him for dishonoring the Senate, and the hearings came to a close. Plagued with poor health and alcoholism, McCarthy himself died three years later.BlacklistingMcCarthy was not the only individual to seek out potential communists.The?HOUSE COMMITTEE ON UN-AMERICAN ACTIVITIES?(HUAC) targeted the Hollywood film industry. Actors, writers, and producers alike were summoned to appear before the committee and provide names of colleagues who may have been members of the Communist Party.Those who repented and named names of suspected communists were allowed to return to business as usual. Those who refused to address the committee were cited for contempt. Uncooperative artists were blacklisted from jobs in the entertainment industry. Years passed until many had their reputations restored.Sir, I detest, I abhor their [communists'] philosophy, but I detest more than that their tactics, which are those of the fifth column, and are dishonest, but at the same time I never as a citizen want to see our country become urged, by either fear or resentment of this group, that we ever compromise with any of our democratic principles through that fear or resentment. I still think that democracy can do it.– Ronald Reagan, testifying in front of the HUAC as president of the Screen Actors Guild (1947)Were there in fact communists in America?The answer is undoubtedly yes. But many of the accused had attended party rallies 15 or more years before the hearings — it had been fashionable to do so in the 1930s.Although the Soviet spy ring did penetrate the highest levels of the American government, the vast majority of the accused were innocent victims. All across America, state legislatures and school boards mimicked McCarthy and HUAC. Thousands of people lost their jobs and had their reputations tarnished.Other Witch-Hunt VictimsUnions were special target of communist hunters. Sensing an unfavorable environment, the AFL (AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR) and the CIO (CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS) merged in 1955 to close ranks. Books were pulled from library shelves, including?Robin Hood,?which was deemed communist-like for suggesting stealing from the rich to give to the poor.No politician could consider opening trade with China or withdrawing from Southeast Asia without being branded a communist. Although McCarthyism was dead by the mid-1950s, its effects lasted for decades.Above all, several messages became crystal clear to the average American: Don't criticize the United States. Don't be different. Just conform.Arthur Miller, Elia Kazan and the Blacklist: None Without Sin – McCarthyismThroughout the 1940s and 1950s America was overwhelmed with concerns about the threat of communism growing in Eastern Europe and China. Capitalizing on those concerns, a young Senator named Joseph McCarthy made a public accusation that more than two hundred “card-carrying” communists had infiltrated the United States government. Though eventually his accusations were proven to be untrue, and he was censured by the Senate for unbecoming conduct, his zealous campaigning ushered in one of the most repressive times in 20th-century American politics.While the House Un-American Activities Committee had been formed in 1938 as an anti-Communist organ, McCarthy’s accusations heightened the political tensions of the times. Known as McCarthyism, the paranoid hunt for infiltrators was notoriously difficult on writers and entertainers, many of whom were labeled communist sympathizers and were unable to continue working. Some had their passports taken away, while others were jailed for refusing to give the names of other communists. The trials, which were well publicized, could often destroy a career with a single unsubstantiated accusation. Among those well-known artists accused of communist sympathies or called before the committee wereDashiell Hammett,?Waldo Salt,?Lillian Hellman,?Lena Horne,?Paul Robeson,?Elia Kazan,?Arthur Miller,?Aaron Copland,Leonard Bernstein,?Charlie Chaplin?and?Group Theatre?members Clifford Odets,?Elia Kazan, and?Stella Adler. In all, three hundred and twenty artists were blacklisted, and for many of them this meant the end of exceptional and promising careers.During this time there were few in the press willing to stand up against McCarthy and the anti-Communist machine. Among those few were comedian?Mort Sahl, and journalist?Edward R. Murrow, whose strong criticisms of McCarthy are often cited as playing an important role in his eventual removal from power. By 1954, the fervor had died down and many actors and writers were able to return to work. Though relatively short, these proceedings remain one of the most shameful moments in modern U.S. history.Miller Recounts McCarthy Era, Origins of "The Crucible"By?KEVIN E. MEYERS, May 12, 1999Arthur Miller, the world-renowned playwright widely regarded as a pioneer of American drama, recounted his experiences with the anti-Communist hysteria of the 1940s and 1950s and the creation of "The Crucible" in a lecture Monday afternoon.Miller's lecture, titled "History Around the Crucible" and delivered to a standing-room-only audience in the Science Center, focused on Congress's investigation of his personal life and his sense that he was living in "a perverse work of art.""In one sense," he said, "'The Crucible' was an attempt to make life real again.""The Crucible," a dramatization of the 1692 Salem witch trials, was written as an allegory for the "witch-hunt" atmosphere that pervaded America when Joseph McCarthy, a Republican representative from Wisconsin, led the nation on a search for communists in the American government. Miller said the search "paralyzed the nation.""Suffice it to say, it was a time of great--no doubt unprecedented--fear," he said.Miller, who also wrote the Pulitzer Prize-winning "Death of a Salesman," called McCarthy and the anti-communist forces "silly."His experience with the so-called McCarthy era began, Miller said, when Columbia Pictures was preparing to release the film version of "Death of a Salesman." Because many executives considered the play anti-capitalist, Columbia asked Miller to sign an anti-communist declaration. He refused."The air of terror was heavy," he said. "I was sure the whole thing would soon go away."But it didn't, and as anti-communist "paranoia" swept the nation, Miller said he grew increasingly enraged by the rising hysteria.The military banned performances of his plays on army bases, and his request for a passport renewal was denied--forcing him to miss the European premiere of "The Crucible.""Rather than physical fear, there was a sense of impotence," he said.In 1956, McCarthy's House Committee on Un-American Activities subpoenaed him to testify. But Miller said the subpoena was only because of his impending marriage to movie star Marilyn Monroe--and that House prosecutors were only seeking publicity in the waning years of the McCarthy era.When he refused to identify writers that he had met at a conference organized by socialists, Miller was cited for contempt of Congress."I began to despair of my own silence," he said. "I longed to respond to this climate of fear.""The Crucible," he said, was his response.When he realized that the witch trials bore a direct connection to McCarthy's communist hunt, Miller spent three days in Salem's library reviewing court transcripts. He said he was most struck by the preponderance of "spectral" and circumstantial evidence in the proceedings."You could be at home asleep in bed, but your spirit could be out at your neighbor's home, feeling up his wife," Miller said.Because of the connection he made to Salem, Miller said he more clearly understood the actions of the government in the 1950s."Salem...had taught me...that a kind of built-in pestilence has nestled in the human mind," he said.In his introduction to Miller's speech, Director of the Loeb Drama Center Robert S. Brustein called Miller "our theater's elder statesman.""For 50 years now, ever since 'Death of a Salesman,' the name of Arthur Miller has been synonymous with, indeed inseparable from, American drama," he said.Miller's lecture was the opening of the William E. Massey Sr. Lectures in the History of American Civilization. Past lecturers in the series include Toni Morrison, Eudora Welty and Gore Vidal.Miller, at the age of 83, received an honorary degree from Harvard at the 1997 Commencement exercises. ................
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