APES
APES
100 THINGS YOU SHOULD KNOW…
GENERAL
1. Sustainability: the ability to meet humanities current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs
2. The Tragedy of the Commons: Global commons such as atmosphere & oceans are used by all and owned by none – this leads to misuse
3. Positive feedback: when a change in some condition triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition (EX: warmer Earth - snow melts - less sunlight is reflected & more is absorbed, therefore warmer earth)
4. Negative feedback: when a changing in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed condition (EX: warmer earth - more ocean evaporation - more stratus clouds - less sunlight reaches the ground - therefore cooler Earth)
5. High Quality Energy: organized & concentrated, can perform useful work (fossil fuel & nuclear)
6. Low Quality Energy: disorganized, dispersed (heat in ocean or air wind, solar)
7. First Law of Thermodynamics: energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another
8. Second Law of Thermodynamics: when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy (usually heat)
9. LD50: the amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test population
10. Anthropogenic: human centered; human caused
ECOSYSTEMS / ENERGY FLOW
11. Photosynthesis: plants convert atmospheric C (CO2) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6)
12. Aerobic respiration: oxygen consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds & convert C back into CO2
13. Biotic/abiotic: living & nonliving components of an ecosystem
14. Producer / Autotroph: photosynthetic life that gets their food from the sun
15. Consumer / Heterotroph: organisms that get their food by eating other organisms
16. Trophic levels / energy flow in food webs: only 10% of the usable energy is transferred to the next level because energy lost as heat (2nd law), not all biomass is digested & absorbed, and predators expend energy to catch prey
17. Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): the rate at which producers use photosynthesis to convert solar energy into biomass
18. Net Primary Productivity (NPP): the rate at which producers use photosynthesis to convert solar energy into biomass minus the rate they use energy for aerobic respiration
19. Primary succession: development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life; it has no soil
20. Secondary succession: life progresses where soil remains (clear cut forest, fire)
21. Mutualism: symbiotic relationship where both partners benefit
22. Commensalism: symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits & the other is unaffected
23. Parasitism: relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the host
24. Biome: large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants & animals
25. R strategist: many small offspring; little or no parental care or protection; early reproductive age; most offspring die; small adults; high population growth rate; population size fluctuates wildly; generalist niche
26. K strategist: fewer, larger offspring; high parental care; later reproductive age; most offspring survive; larger adults; lower population growth rate; population fairly stable; specialist niche
27. Natural selection: organisms that possess favorable adaptations pass them onto the next generation
28. Keystone species: species whose role in an ecosystem are more important than others
29. Indicator species: species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged
30. Endangered species: so few in number that the species could soon become extinct over all or part of its natural range. Ex.: North spotted Owl (loss of old growth forest), Bald Eagle (thinning of eggs caused by DDT)
31. Exotic species: species living in a nonnative area. Ex.: gypsy moth, Asian Long Horned Beetle
32. Most endangered species: have a small range, require large territory or live on an island
33. 5 major causes of species decline and extinction: (HIPPO) habitat destruction and degradation, invasive species, pollution, human population growth, and overexploitation
SOIL
34. Leaching: removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards
35. Loam: perfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt, clay
36. Major soil layers: the surface litter layer or O horizon is brown/black and composed of leaves, twigs, and other organic material; the topsoil layer or A horizon of decomposed organic matter called humus; the B horizon (subsoil) – sand, silt, clay, and gravel; and the C-horizon (parent material) or bedrock
37. Salinazation of soil: caused by irrigation in arid regions; water evaporates leaving salts behind
38. Conservation: allows the use of resources in a responsible manner
39. Preservation: setting aside areas & protecting them from human activities
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
40. Parts of the hydrologic cycle: evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation
41. Nitrogen fixing: because atmospheric N cannot be used directly by plants it must first be converted into ammonia by bacteria (rhizobium)
42. Nitrification: ammonia is converted to nitrate ions (NO-3)
43. Denitrification: bacteria convert ammonia back into N
44. Phosphorus does not circulate as easily: it does not exist as a gas, but is released by weathering of phosphate rocks
POPULATION
45. Carrying capacity: the number of individuals that can be sustained in an area
46. Population increases through births and immigration and decreases through deaths and emigration. [Population change = (Births + Immigration) – (Deaths + Emigration)]
47. Doubling time: rule of 70… 70% divided by the growth rate: r%
48. Pop growth rate: (crude birth – crude death) / 100 = r %
49. Replacement level fertility: the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (2.1 developed, 2.7 developing)
50. Infant mortality rate: is the number of babies out of every 1,000 who die before their first birthday
51. World Population is: 6 1/2 billion US Population: 300 million
52. Demographic transition: as countries become industrialized, first their death rates and then their birth rates decline in four stages: Preindustrial stage: birth & death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high; Transitional stage: death rate lower, population grows fast; Industrial stage: decline in birth rate, population growth slows; Postindustrial stage: low birth & death rates
53. Age structure diagrams: (broad base, rapid growth)(narrow base, negative growth)(uniform shape, zero growth)
54. 1st & 2nd most populated countries: China & India
55. Ways to decrease birth rate: family planning, contraception, economic rewards & penalties
LAND USE / FOOD PRODUCTION
56. Methods of tree harvest: clear cutting, selective cutting, strip cutting
57. Forest fires: surface fires, ground fires, crown fires
58. Soil conservation techniques: minimum tillage, no-tillage, terracing, contour farming, strip cropping, wind breaks
59. Pesticide pros / cons: pros: saves lives from insect transmitted disease, increases food supply, increases profits for farmers cons: genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, biological magnification
60. Natural pest control: better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies, natural pesticides, sex attractants
61. Aquaculture: the process of raising fish/shellfish for food, rather than harvesting them in the seas
MINERAL RESOURCES
62. Volcanoes and Earthquakes occur: at plate boundaries (divergent, spreading, mid-ocean ridges) (convergent, trenches) (transform, sliding, San Andreas)
63. Ore: a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine
64. High grade ore: found in a higher concentration and is therefore cheaper to extract Low grade ore: found in lower concentration so it is expensive and hard to extract
65. Surface mining (open pit, strip mining, contour mining): cheaper & can remove more mineral, less hazardous to workers, more damaging to the environment
66. Underground mining: less damage to the environment, but more dangerous and expensive
67. Reclamation: restore mined land back to its original state, or at least a useful one
ENERGY
68. Electricity is generated by: using steam (from water boiled by fossils fuels or nuclear) or falling water to turn a generator
69. Petroleum: pros: cheap, easily transported, high quality energy; cons: reserves depleted soon, pollution during drilling, transport and refining, burning makes CO2
70. Two most serious nuclear accidents: (Chernobyl,Ukraine) (Three Mile Island, PA)
71. Nuclear Fission: nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons
72. Nuclear Fusion: 2 isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus. Expensive, break even point not reached yet
73. Best solution to energy shortage: conservation and increase efficiency
74. Alternate energy sources: wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells
AIR / AIR POLLUTION
75. Primary air pollutants: produced by humans & nature (CO,CO2,SO2,NO,hydrocarbons, particulates)
76. Particulate matter: (source,effect,reduction): (burning fossil fuels & diesel exhaust) (reduces visibility & respiratory irritation) (filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy)
77. Nitrogen Oxides: (Source: auto exhaust) (Effects: acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to smog & ozone) ( Equation for acid formation: NO + O2 = NO2 + H2O = HNO3) (Reduction: catalytic converter to reduce emissions)
78. Sulfur oxides: (Source: coal burning) (Effects: acid deposition, respiratory irritation, damages plants) (Equation for acid formation: SO2 + O2 = SO3 + H2O = H2SO4) (Reduction: scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel)
79. Carbon oxides: (Source: auto exhaust, incomplete combustion) (Effects: CO binds to hemoglobin reducing bloods ability to carry O, CO2 contributes to global warming) (Reduction: catalytic converter, emission testing, oxygenated fuel, mass transit)
80. Ozone: (Formation: secondary pollutant, NO2+UV=NO+O O+O2=O3, with VOC’s) (Effects: respiratory irritant, plant damage) (Reduction: reduce NO emissions & VOCs)
81. Radon: radioactive gas, formed from the decay of Uranium, causes lung cancer
82. Photochemical smog: formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC, O)
83. Acid deposition: caused by sulfuric and nitric acids resulting in lowered pH of surface waters
84. Greenhouse gases: (Examples: H2O, CO2, O3, methane (CH4), CFC’s) (EFFECT: they trap outgoing infrared (heat) energy causing earth to warm
85. Effects of global warming: rising sealevel (thermal expansion), extreme weather, droughts (famine), extinctions
86. Ozone depletion caused by: CFC’s, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, halon, methyl bromide all of which attack stratospheric ozone
87. Effects of ozone depletion: increased UV, skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growth
WATER / WATER POLLUTION
88. Percent water on earth by type: 97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwater
89. Ways to conserve water: (agriculture, drip/trickle irrigation) (industry,recyling) (home, use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures)
90. Point vs. Non point sources: (Point, from specific location such as pipe)(Non-point, from over an area such as runoff)
91. Aquifer: any water bearing layer in the ground
92. Cone of depression: lowering of the water table around a pumping well
93. Salt water intrusion: near the coast, overpumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the acquifer from the ocean
94. Eutrophication: rapid algal growth caused by an excess of N & P
95. Hypoxia: when aquatic plants die, the BOD rises as aerobic decomposers break down the plants, the DO drops & the water cannot support life
96. Sewage treatment: Primary sewage treatment – physical process that removes floating objects and suspended solids; Secondary sewage treatment – biological process where aerobic bacteria remove oxygen-demanding organic wastes; Tertiary sewage treatment – combination of chemical and physical processes remove specific pollutants left in the water
SOLID / TOXIC WASTE
97. Love Canal, NY: chemicals buried in old canal and school & homes built over it causing birth defects & cancer
98. Municpal solid waste is mostly: paper and most is landfilled
99. Sanitary landfill problems and solutions: (leachate, liner with collection system) (methane gas, collect gas and burn) (volume of garbage, compact & reduce)
100. Incineration: advantages: volume of waste reduced by 90% and heat can be used to make electricity; disadvantages: toxic emissions, scrubbers & electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal (contains heavy metals)
…AND MANY MORE!!
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