Australian Society of Zoo Keeping - Professional ...
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HUSBANDRY MANUAL
SERVAL Leptailurus serval
Arliah Hayward
Mammals Keeper, Carnivores
Adelaide Zoo, Adelaide, Australia
+61 (0)8 8230 1239
ahayward@.au
COMMON NAME- Serval
SCIENTIFIC NAME- Leptailurus serval
AUTHOR- Arliah Hayward, Carnivore Keeper Adelaide Zoo, Adelaide, Australia
DATE OF PREPARATION- September 2012
STATUS- IUCN- LC least concern
SPECIES COORDINATOR- Amy Robbins, Auckland Zoo, New Zealand
Tineke Joustra (acting coordinator), Auckland Zoo, New Zealand
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS 3
1. TAXONOMY 6
1.1. NOMENCLATURE 6
1.2 SYNONYMS 6
2. NATURAL HISTORY 7
2.1 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION 7
2.2 MORPHOMETRICS 7
2.3 DISTRIBUTION 7
2.4 HABITAT 8
2.5 WILD POPULATION STATUS 8
2.6 WILD DIET 9
2.7 FEEDING BEHAVIOUR 9
2.8 BEHAVIOUR 9
2.9 REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY 10
2.10 LONGEVITY 10
2.11 FUTURE RESEARCH 10
3 HOUSING REQUIREMENTS 11
3.1 EXHIBIT DESIGN 11
3.2 OFF DISPLAY DESIGN 11
3.3 POSITION 12
3.4 SUBSTRATE 13
3.5 HOUSING CONDITIONS 13
3.6 FURINISHING 14
3.7 SPATIAL REQUIREMENTS 15
4 GENERAL HUSBANDRY 16
4.1 CLEANING REGIME 16
4.2 ENCLOSURE MAINTENANCE 16
4.3 RECORD KEEPING 17
4.4 IDENTIFICATION 17
5 CAPTURE, RESTRAINT & TRANSPORT 18
5.1 CAPTURE EQUIPMENT, TIMING AND METHODOLOGY 18
5.2 HANDLING AND RESTRAINT OF ANIMAL 18
5.3 PRECAUTIONS 19
5.4 HEALTH CHECKS, WEIGHING AND MEASURING 19
5.5 RELEASE 20
5.6 TRANSPORT REQUIREMENTS 20
6 HEALTH REQUIREMENTS 22
6.1 ROUTINE TREATMENTS 22
6.2 ROUTINE VACCINATIONS 22
6.3 KNOWN HEALTH PROBLEMS 22
6.4 QUARANTINE PERIODS AND TREATMENTS 23
6.5 VETERINARY PROCEDURES 23
6.6 CONTRACEPTIVE TECHNIQUES 23
7 BEHAVIOUR 24
7.1 ACTIVITY 24
7.2 SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR 24
7.3 REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR 24
7.4 COMMON BEHAVIOURAL PROBLEMS 25
7.5 MIXED SPECIES COMPATIBILITIES 25
7.6 BEHAVIOURAL ENRICHMENT 25
7.7 ANIMAL INTRODUCTION 26
8 FEEDING REQUIREMENTS 27
8.1 CAPTIVE DIET 27
8.2 SUPPLEMENTS 30
9 BREEDING 32
9.1 ENCLOSURE MODIFICATIONS 32
9.2 BREEDING PROFILE 32
9.3 BREEDING SITES 33
9.4 ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION, SURROGACY 33
9.5 DIET CHANGES 33
9.6 GESTATION 34
9.7 ANIMAL CHECKS 34
9.8 LITTER SIZE 34
9.9 DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG 34
9.10 USE OF FOSTER SPECIES 35
10 ARTIFICIAL REARING 36
10.1 HOUSING 36
10.2 HEAT SOURCES AND TEMPERATURES 36
10.3 DIET 36
10.4 HYGIENE 37
10.5 SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS 37
10.6 SPECIES SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS 38
10.7 IDENTIFICATIONS METHODS 38
10.8 GROWTH RATES AND DEVELOPMENTS 39
10.9 BEHAVIOURAL CONSIDERATIONS 39
10.10 WEANING 40
10.11 REHABILITATION PROCEDURES 40
11 APPENDICES 41
APPENDIX 1. IATA transport box requirements 42
APPENDIX 2. Adelaide Zoo Behavioural Enrichment List 45
APPENDIX 3. Nutritional breakdown of Wombaroo Big Carnivore Supplement 48
12. REFERENCES 49
13. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 52
TAXONOMY
1. NOMENCLATURE
CLASS- Mammalia
ORDER- Carnivora
FAMILY- Felidae
GENUS- Leptailurus. Has also been listed under the genus Felis
SPECIES- Leptailurus serval
SUBSPECIES- There is no definitive number of subspecies. ITIS (Integrated Taxonomic Information System) lists 18 subspecies where as the IUCN Cat Specialist Group lists 13 (Breitbeil, 2002) and Robbins (2011) states there is 14. Captive populations of Serval are managed as Leptailurus serval (Robbins, 2011).
2. SYNONYMS
Caracal serval (Schreber, 1776) & Felis serval
1.3 OTHER COMMON NAMES
French: Chat tigre (French)
Local Names
Afrikaans: Tierboskat
chiShona: Nzudzi
ciVenda: Didingwe, Didinngwe, Dagaladzhie
Damara: !Garu !garo |hôab
kiSwahili: Mondo
Lozi: Nwela
isiNdebele: Indlozi, inhlosi, inhlozi
isiZulu: Ihlosi, inhlosi, ingwenkala, indlozi
isiXhosa: indlozi
sePedi: Ledotse, tetekgwe, lelotswe
seSotho: Phaha, tloli, tholi, qwako, tlodi
seTswana: Tadi, ledôtse
siSwati: Indloti, lindloti
xiTsongand: Loti
Yei: Unqosile, Nama
If you want to add local names check this link:
NATURAL HISTORY
1. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION
Servals are medium size African cats. They are long and slender with distinctive ears and legs (Markula et al., 2009). They have the longest legs and biggest ears in relation to body size for any cat species (Livingston, 2009). The backs of their ears are black with noticeable central white bars. Their coat colour is a yellowish tan with black spots, bands and stripes, which are unique to each individual. They have short tails that have black spots and rings (Markula et al., 2009). Servals with black coats have been reported, as well as rare sightings of white Servals (IUCN, 1996).
2. MORPHOMETRICS
Height: 54-62cm at the shoulder
Body Length: 67-100cm
Tail Length: 24-35cm
Weight: Males 9-18kg, Females 8.7-13kg (Breitbeil, 2002)
Sexual Dimorphism: Males slightly bigger than females (San Diego Zoo, 2010)
3. DISTRIBUTION
Servals are found in sub-Saharan Africa, distributed from Senegal and Guinea in the west to Ethiopia and southern Somalia in the east and south to Angola, Zimbabwe and Mozambique (Breitbeil, 2002) (See Figure 1). There is the possibility have been reports that Servals are also found north of the Sahara in Morocco and possibly northern Algeria. (Breitenmoser-Wursten et al., 2008).Servals were also once found in Tunisia but went extinct however a population has been reintroduced into Feijda National Park
(Breitenmoser-Wursten et al., 2008).
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Figure 1. Distribution of Leptailurus serval (Breitenmoser-Wursten et al., 2008).
4. HABITAT
Servals inhabit well-watered long grass savannahs in the lower altitudes of their range, especially areas with reed beds and other riparian vegetation (IUCN, 1996). They also extend to altitudes of 3,200m in Ethiopia and 3,800m in Kenya and can be found in grassy bamboo and forest habitats (Breitbeil, 2002). In their range they are not found in the rainforests of Central Africa and desert environments (Breitenmoser-Wursten et al., 2008).
5. WILD POPULATION STATUS
The IUCN red list lists Servals as “Least Concern” as they are relatively abundant and widespread in their range and have a stable population trend (Breitenmoser-Wursten et al., 2008). It is estimated that there are at least 50,000 individuals in the wild (WAZA, 2012). However the isolated population north of the Sahara in Morocco is classified Critically Endangered for that region. It is estimated that there are fewer than 250 mature individuals in that population (Breitenmoser-Wursten et al., 2008).
The Serval is protected under CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) Appendix II, however national legislation does not provide protection over most of its range. The Serval is under Appendix II on CITES because this species “is not necessarily now threatened with extinction but that may become so unless trade is closely controlled.” An export permit or re-export permit is required for international trade of this species (UNEP-WCMC, 2012).
Hunting is prohibited in Algeria, Botswana, Congo, Kenya, Liberia, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa (Cape Province only). Hunting is regulated in Angola, Burkina Faso, Cental African Republic, Ghana, Malawi, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Tanzania, Togo, Zaire and Zambia. There is no legal protection in Benin, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritania, Morocco, Namibia, Niger, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tunisia, Uganda and Zimbabwe (IUCN, 1996).
A key threat to the Serval is the degradation and loss of the wetland habitat. Their main food source, rodents, is in high densities in wetland habitats in comparison to other habitats. Also burning of grassland habitats can reduce Serval prey as well (IUCN, 1996). Other threats include capture for their pelts and use of body parts in traditional medicines (Breitenmoser-Wursten et al., 2008).
6. WILD DIET
As with most felids, Servals are strict carnivores (Mellen & Wildt, 1998), however there have been various accounts of them consuming vegetation in the wild (Breitbeil, 2002). They are specialized rodent hunters, rats being the dominant rodent they catch followed by mice (IUCN, 1996). They are also excellent jumpers, extending their prey capture to birds and insects (Livingston, 2009). In addition to rodents, birds and insects they will also eat reptiles and amphibians (IUCN, 1996). A scat analysis of a wild population showed they have a diet consisting of 60% rat, 15% mice, 5.6% birds and small amount of insects and reptiles (Markula et al., 2009). They are capable of hunting and capturing larger prey such as small antelope, rabbits (Markula et al., 2009) and flamingos (Livingston, 2009).
7. FEEDING BEHAVIOUR
The Serval is an opportunistic predator and being that most of their prey is small in size they hunt frequently. It has been estimated that an adult Serval will spend 6 hours hunting and travelling in a 24 hour period, making several kills in that time (Markula et al., 2009). They have a high prey catch success rate of 48%, one of the highest of Felidae species (Livingston, 2009).
Depending on the area they are from and their type of prey Servals have been found to be nocturnal, crepuscular and diurnal. For example Serengeti Servals are active during the day as that is when Nile Rats are most active and Servals in Tanzania are crepuscular as that is when they are more likely to catch frogs and African Vlei Rats (Markula et al., 2009).
Their long legs and big ears provide various hunting techniques. Servals can be patient hunters using their excellent hearing to pinpoint the exact location of their prey, whether it’s moving through long grass or underground. Their long legs not only provide an advantage on land but also in water and getting up into the air. They are known to hunt in shallow waters for frogs, fish and water birds (Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002). On land they can dig, use their long arms down animal burrows, zigzag bound through grass and pounce on prey. They use the force of their forearms to strike their prey when pouncing on it. Their legs also propel them into the air, being able to leap horizontally 1-4m and vertically 3.5m, allowing them to catch insects and birds mid-flight (Markula et al., 2009). They have been seen clawing at the prey in flight or slapping them between their front paws (Livingston, 2009).
8. BEHAVIOUR
Servals are solitary animals, only coming together when the female is in oestrus (Breitbeil, 2002). Male and female have their own territories, with the male territory being bigger and overlapping into several female territories (Markula et al., 2009,, San Diego Zoo, 2010). Territories are marked with urine sprays and faeces, (San Diego Zoo, 2010), with males marking at least twice as much as females (Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002). It has been estimated that the density of Servals in an area is one to every 2.4 kilometres. Females show strong site fidelity, occupying the same territory for many years (Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002).
Servals are mostly crepuscular and nocturnal but are also known to be active during the day (Breitbeil, 2002), which one may attribute to human presence and larger predators’ times of activity (San Diego Zoo, 2010). Servals tend to be inactive for at least 40% of the day, usually during the hottest part of the day (San Diego Zoo, 2010). When active they can cover as much as 3-6 kilometres in one night (Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002).
9. REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
Male and female Servals will come together during a female oestrus, which happens several times a year and each oestrus can last 1-4 days. The pair will sometimes travel and rest together during the female’s oestrus (Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002).
Females can give birth twice a year, with a minimum interval of 184 days. Gestation in the wild is estimated at 66-77 days, with an average litter size of 2-3 kittens (Markula et al., 2009). The month they give birth is usually before peak rodent reproduction (Wilson & Mittermeier, 2009) but fall in different months in the various locations in Africa (Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002). Birthing dens are hidden in dense vegetation or disused Aardvark or Porcupine burrows (Wilson & Mittermeier, 2009).
10. LONGEVITY
Longevity is estimated at 10 years in the wild (San Diego Zoo, 2010; Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002; Livingston, 2009). In captivity they are found to live anywhere up to 214 years in males and slightly longer, 226 years, in females (Weigl 2005)Robbins, 2011).
11. FUTURE RESEARCH
Future research opportunities lie in their conservation. Even though listed as “Least Concern” things could change rapidly unless populations are monitored (especially in areas where hunting is not prohibited or regulated). Livingston (2009) also states that further research is required into the Serval’s specific dietary needs, specifically nutrient requirements.
HOUSING REQUIREMENTS
12. EXHIBIT DESIGN
In Australia not every state and territory has its own guidelines for exhibit standards for captive animals. New South Wales has developed several specific standards for exhibiting animals, guidelines which other states can follow in absence of their own. Adelaide Zoo uses these guidelines when constructing exhibits and off display areas (Skipper pers. comm. 2012). Below are the Standards for Exhibiting Carnivores, specifically Servals, in New South Wales as found in the Exhibited Animals Protection Act 1986 (NSW DPI, 2005).
• Exhibit size should have a surface area 85 square metres with a maximum of 2 animals and an additional 15 square metres per each additional individual. These minimums are set to allow freedom of movement both vertically and horizontally for the animal;
• Exhibit walls may be a mesh fence and must be enclosed with a roof. The mesh walls must be a minimum height of 3 metres and suggested mesh diameter is 3 millimetre. Solid walls, including glass panels can be used if they will be effective in containing the animals in the exhibit;
• All gates, doors and slides used on the main exhibit and off display areas must be placed in areas that can be accessed safely and securely by staff;
• All main exhibits and off display areas must be able to safely and securely confine the animal in or out of the main exhibit area to allow for staff to enter areas when necessary such as for cleaning, feeding and routine maintenance.
The following are the design components of the Serval exhibit at Adelaide Zoo;
• The exhibit has a surface area of approximately 90 square metres;
• The exhibit walls are a mesh fence with a completely enclosed roof that is also mesh fence;
• The mesh gauge is larger than recommended by NSW standards, 40mm by 40mm is used for all walls and roof. This gauge still allows for the Servals to get their paws and arms through, which does have its safety issues for staff and animals. In areas that Servals can come into close contact to staff or another Serval a smaller gauge mesh (15mm by 15mm) is placed over the area.
13. OFF DISPLAY DESIGN
Below are the Standards for Exhibiting Carnivores, specifically Servals, in New South Wales as found in the Exhibited Animals Protection Act 1986 (NSW DPI, 2005).
Each off display area must have a minimum surface area of 10 square metres per animal. As Servals are solitary animals there must be sufficient off display areas for each individual housed so that they can be denned separately.
The following are the design components of the Serval off display area at Adelaide Zoo;
• Each off display area has a surface area of approximately 20 square metres;
• The walls in the off display area are a combination of cement and mesh fence. The completely enclosed roof is mesh fence;
• The mesh gauge is larger than recommended by NSW standards, 40mm by 40mm is used for all walls and roof. This gauge still allows for the Servals to get their paws and arms through, which does have its safety issues for staff and animals. In areas that Servals can come into close contact to staff or another Serval a smaller gauge mesh (15mm by 15mm) is placed over the area.
14. POSITION
To pick an ideal position for an exhibit there are many factors to consider which will be restricted by things such as free space, budget and other exhibits already in place. Ideally the position of a brand new Serval exhibit would take in the following factors: weather, the animals’ natural behaviour and other animals exhibited in the area.
Weather will differ for each institution but the position of an exhibit should first take into account any weather extremes such as flood and bushfire zones. The aspect in which the exhibit faces, such as when the sun is hitting the exhibit should also be taken into account. An optimal aspect, especially for hot summers in a place like Adelaide, would have the cooler morning sun on the exhibit and then in the shade in the hotter afternoon. This would allow the animal to bask in the morning and rest in the shade when it is hotter in the afternoon. Natural shade, such as large trees already planted, can be used when choosing a position for an exhibit as well (McKee pers. comm. 2012).
As Servals are carnivorous their exhibit should be surrounded by other similar carnivorous animals rather an animal that could potentially be their prey or predator, which could cause stress to both animals. Hyenas, African Wild Dogs, and Leopards are listed as potential predators of Servals (Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002). At Adelaide Zoo the Serval exhibit is located directly across from the African Lion exhibit, there is potential for stress for the Servals however this has not been observed (Hayward pers. comm. 2012).
In the wild Servals surround themselves in habitats with long grasses, bamboo and forest, keeping themselves somewhat hidden. This could be replicated within the exhibit design by having one to two viewing areas while providing space for the animal to withdraw from view allowing it to feel safe and secure.
15. SUBSTRATE
Natural substrate, such as sand, is the preferred substrate as it is easier on the feet of the Serval, easy to clean but does have the downfall of becoming compacted over time. Other substrates that can be used permanently and/or for enrichment are mulch, leaf litter and dirt. Large areas of cement are not ideal as this will wear on the pads of the feet of the animal. Overall the substrate used should not be harmful to the animal, allow the animals natural behaviours, be able to be cleaned or replaced easily and allow adequate drainage (DAFF, 2009).
Underneath the substrate it is not necessary to have the entire ground wired but it is recommended to have the wire go out 1 metre from perimeter fencing under the substrate (NSW DPI, 2005).
16. HOUSING CONDITIONS
WATER
Clean, drinkable water should be available at all times, except as per veterinary direction prior to veterinary procedures. Water should not be located in direct sunlight, so it can remain cool. Water troughs/ bowls need to be cleaned thoroughly every day (Mellen, 1997). Automatic water troughs should be checked that they are working correctly (DAFF, 2009).
Adelaide Zoo has found that Servals are quite adept at tipping over water bowls. When not using secured water troughs it is recommended to use heavy water bowls or secure them so the animals cannot tip the bowl and be left without water. Melbourne Zoo has found some individuals will chew the plastic float used in automatic water troughs (Thomas pers. comm. 2010). Individual behaviour may need to be taken into account when determining how to provide water (Hayward pers. comm. 2012).
WEATHER EXPOSURE
Outdoor exhibits should have appropriate shelter areas for extreme temperatures that are outside the natural temperature range of the animal. Exhibits and off display holding should have areas allowing the animal to shelter from wind, rain and direct sunlight (Mellen, 1997).
LIGHTING
The Serval is generally considered to be nocturnal and crepuscular so could be housed in an indoor nocturnal exhibit but are generally displayed in outdoor exhibits. The Standards for Exhibiting Carnivores states that all carnivores must have access to direct sunlight to allow for basking (NSW DPI, 2005).
Lighting requirements are needed more for animals housed in indoor exhibits; outdoor exhibits should provide natural light. For indoor enclosures a subdued lighting level is recommended, full spectrum lighting requirements has not be substantiated (Mellen, 1997).
For outdoor exhibits animals will have access to natural light cycles but depending on the horticultural component of an outdoor exhibit, plants may need to be thinned in winter to allow in more natural light where as the plants can grow during summer to provide shade.
At Adelaide Zoo the Serval exhibit is located outdoors which has a large leafy tree in the middle of the exhibit which provides excellent shade in summer and is pruned back to allow in sunlight during winter (Hayward pers. comm. 2012).
VENTILATION
Ventilation will be required if the animal is housed in an indoor exhibit. Good ventilation will minimise drafts, odours, dust and moisture condensation and is needed for good hygiene (Mellen, 1997).
17. FURINISHING
Below are the Standards for Exhibiting Carnivores, specifically Servals, in New South Wales as found in the Exhibited Animals Protection Act 1986 (NSW DPI, 2005):
• sight barriers are essential which will allow the animal to withdraw from visual contact from the public;
• the exhibit must include scratching posts or logs and climbing structures. The logs and structures must provide complexity allowing the animal to climb and hide. Climbing structures must be a minimum of 1.8 metres off the ground;
• If a pond is provided it must have a non slip surface and no sharp edges. It must also be filled with clean drinkable water. If not cleaned daily there must be an additional clean drinkable water source available.
AZA suggests that felines should have use of at least 75% of their exhibit with addition of climbing structures. Platforms at the tops of exhibits are good in allowing the cat to get out of direct site and also peer out over its exhibit (Mellen 1997). Even though Servals are not an arboreal species of Felidae they are known to use vertical structures in captivity and these also provide a form of environmental enrichment. The Serval exhibit at Adelaide Zoo has climbing/ scratching trees and horizontal perching between these trees giving more complexity to the exhibit. A large hollow log and small den is provided on exhibit to provide an area for the individual to hide in (Hayward pers. comm. 2012).
Enclosure furniture should be appropriate to the animal and its natural behaviour and not cause Occupational Health & Safety issues for the animal or staff (DAFF, 2009).
18. SPATIAL REQUIREMENTS
See above 3.1 & 3.2 for minimum spatial requirements recommended by the New South Wales Exhibited Animals Protection Act 1986 (NSW DPI, 2005).
GENERAL HUSBANDRY
19. CLEANING REGIME
Cleaning of exhibits is preferably done before visitor hours, in order to have animals back on display as visitors arrive. The following is an example of a cleaning routine at Adelaide Zoo:
Daily
• faeces and food scraps removed
• water bowl emptied, scrubbed and refilled
• sand substrate raked over
• quick turnover of mulch areas for aeration
• hosing of cement areas and keeper corridors
• den and bed boards hosed
• nest box checked
Weekly
• nest boxes cleaned out and new straw added
• removal of old browse and add more if available
Monthly
• weed and prune plants
Yearly
• new plants added for general aesthetics and enrichment
• mulch areas dug out and new mulch added
• compacted sand substrate turned over
• safety inspection of mesh wall and ceiling, slides, doors and locks
20. ENCLOSURE MAINTENANCE
As Servals are potentially hazardous animals it is important to have regular safety checks of all mesh, slides, doors and locks of the exhibit and off display areas. Regular checks will make sure their area is safely secure not only for staff and public but also for the animal (McKee pers. comm. 2012).
Maintenance by staff other than keeping staff, such as maintenance and horticulture can be a regular occurrence. During this the animal will need to be locked out of the area that requires the maintenance. During maintenance, especially anything that is loud, the animal will need to be monitored by keeping staff. Before allowing the animal back into the area where maintenance was preformed keeping staff should make sure that all staff and equipment are clear and the area is safe for the animal (i.e. checking for left over nails, bolts, etc.) (McKee pers. comm. 2012).
21. RECORD KEEPING
Record keeping is a very important tool in collecting information on individual animals that can be used in the present or future. Main information recorded includes the following:
• Life history traits- life events such as birth, deaths and transfers;
• Daily events- daily observed changes such as changes in diet, behaviour and appearance;
• Medical information- health of the individual, treatments administered;
• Routine housing and husbandry- any changes to routine, such as now housed in different area or minimal clean as parents are aggressive due to pregnant female;
• Body measurements- weights and lengths (Hosey et al., 2009).
Currently Australian Zoos are changing from ARKS (Animal Record Keeping System) to ZIMS (Zoo Information Management System). Both systems work by collating information recorded daily on individual animals. Information is entered into ZIMS either by the institutions records officer or directly by keepers, such as training notes. Copies are sent to the veterinary department and records officer to enter into the record system. The ARKS program has the drawback that it is not integrated with other programs, such as ISIS, MedARKS and SPARKS, so when entering information it must be entered separately into all four programs. ZIMS is a global information database which will integrate all the above systems allowing easier access to individual animal information (Hosey et al., 2009).
22. IDENTIFICATION
It is very important to be able to confirm the identity of individual animals to make sure observations and records are documented on the correct animal.
Identification of the animal should be possible from a distance and the method needs to be long lasting. For Servals there are limited ways for identification besides individual characteristics; however Servals are kept solitary and should be easier to tell apart. Micro-chipping is permanent method of identification which is injected under the skin between the shoulder blades. This microchip number will correspond to the individuals’ identification (i.e. ARKS number or Local ID (ZIMS)) however you need to be in close range to scan and read it and it can move from where it was first injected. For visual identification, photos and physical descriptions of the animals can be used, such as face markings or spot/ stripe patterns and if housing a pair males tend to be bigger than the females. Keepers at Adelaide Zoo use physical appearance to identify the male and female Servals. The male has a noticeably larger body and head than the female. Photos of both have been taken and are available to new keepers to aid in identification (Hayward pers. comm. 2012).
CAPTURE, RESTRAINT & TRANSPORT
23. CAPTURE EQUIPMENT, TIMING AND METHODOLOGY
For short term capture of an individual for reasons such as vaccinations, weighing or quick health checks a medium size hoop net can be used. Before capture check the state of the hoop net, looking for holes in the net, detachment from the frame or broken handle.
For long term capture of an individual for transport reasons two methods could be used; training/ conditioning into transport container or netting and moved into container.
Ideally capture of an animal should take place earlier in the day when the weather is cooler (especially in summer) and before visitors are present, in cases when capture takes place on exhibit. Sometimes this will not be ideal for transport animals as flight times are later in the day and animals should not be held in their transport containers for more than 2 hours before departure (IATA, 2007).
When using nets to capture individuals their behaviour needs to be taken into account. Servals are efficient climbers and jumpers so it is best to move the animal into a small space such as an off limit area or den, hopefully minimising capture stress to the animal (Mellen & Wildt, 1998). At Adelaide Zoo the following technique is used for net capture. It is advisable to enter the area with at least two experienced staff, both with nets, both slowly and safely move the animal into an area where it may try to run past the keeper where it can be netted. Once netted the top of the net should be twisted shut or rope can be tied around the top. Once netted the animal can have quick veterinary checks, vaccinations, weighing or be moved into a transport container (Hayward pers. comm. 2012).
For animals being transferred to other institutions training/ conditioning of the transfer animal can be done in advance to make transfer less stressful. This will depend on the enclosure set up and if there is an adequate area to set up the transport container so it can be safely accessed by animal and keeper. The use of positive reinforcement, food, can be used to get the animal to willingly move into the transport container. This should be started at least 2 weeks before transport allowing enough time to get to the point of being able to shut the door safely and with minimal stress to the animal.
24. HANDLING AND RESTRAINT OF ANIMAL
When using hoop nets and preforming quick veterinary procedures such as vaccinations, micro chipping, etc. the animal will need to be restrained and handled by staff. The following handling and restraint technique is used at Adelaide Zoo. Once successfully captured and contained in the net, staff will be able to restrain the animal (towels or gloves will be useful for protection). For smaller individuals, such as kittens, it is best to restrain them with one hand grabbing the scruff and the other supporting the rest of the body, underneath the hindquarters. For bigger individuals, such as full grown adults, grabbing the scruff is still advisable but two people may be needed to restrain and move them (Hayward pers comm. 2012).
25. PRECAUTIONS
As with all feline species Servals have very sharp teeth and claws that can be a risk to staff during capture and restraint when using nets. Not only can their teeth and claws cause damage to staff but also get caught in the net, so be aware during capture. Servals also have long slender legs that can get through small spaces and can also break easily during capture (McKee pers. comm. 2012).
During capture be aware of the area you are capturing the individual in; is there perching they can climb; on which staff can hurt themselves or animals can fall from during capture.
26. HEALTH CHECKS, WEIGHING AND MEASURING
During short term capture and restraint in nets veterinary staff are able to give injections such as vaccinations and microchips through the net. Chemical restraint injections can also be administered for more intense veterinary treatments. Chemical restraint can be administered via three methods, darting, pole injection or hand injection (with training or captured in net). Weighing is also possible by moving the animal into a pet pack.
For transport animals pre-shipment or post-arrival veterinary requirements such as health checks, weighing and measuring will be decided between the two exchanging institutions (Skipper, 2011). Veterinary staff from the sending institution should:
• Prepare medical records, MedARKS,
• Determine which veterinary checks are required pre-shipment, such as:
o Physical examination: conscious or under anaesthetic;
o Diagnostic screening (clinical pathology, serology, radiology, etc.);
o Pre-shipment faecal examination;
o Prophylaxis (vaccinations, worming, etc);
o Contraception;
o Weight;
o Body measurements; and
o Any other checks required by receiving institution,
• Consider if there are any dietary or husbandry issues for the animal that have veterinary implications for the transaction and
• Contact receiving institution to discuss pre-shipment or post-arrival checks/ examinations and any medical history issues for the animal (Skipper, 2011).
27. RELEASE
For short term capture and restraint, the animal should be released from the net, pet pack or hand restraint (kittens) as soon as possible to minimise stress. As soon as any veterinary checks or procedures (injections) are done the animal should be returned to its off display or den area.
For release post anaesthetic the animal, if possible, should be placed in a confined darkened area, such as a den, allowing them to recover slowly. Places where they can climb and injure themselves would not be suited for recovery. Keeping and veterinarian staff need to be able to easily and safely observe the recovering animal. At Adelaide Zoo recovering individuals are placed in a den which is a dark area and can be confined from the rest of the off display area. Staff and veterinary staff are able to view the animal without risk to themselves. Heating is also available in this den to keep the animal warm during recovery (Hayward pers. comm. 2012).
For release of transport animals they should be released into a small area, such as an off limits area and at their own discretion. As Servals are hazardous animals it would be best to release the animal into an area where staff does not need to be in with the individual. For example at Adelaide Zoo the transport box would be placed in the exhibit with the exit point of the container up against the slide/ entry to the off limits area. This would allow the animal to enter into the off limits area without staff present, staff would be able to shut the slide behind the animal confining it to the off limits area. The animal should not be forced out of the box, allowing it to exit in its own time, if needed the slide to the transport container can be fixed open. Once out the animal should be left to settle in its new surroundings (McKee pers. comm. 2012).
28. TRANSPORT REQUIREMENTS
For international air travel, transport requirements are described in detail by IATA (International Air Transportation Association) Live Animal Regulations with container requirements specific for small wild cat species (see Appendix 1). IATA suggests the following for transporting carnivores:
• Reduce the usual amount of food fed to the animal before transfer to reduce chance of regurgitation.
• Darkened containers will aid in decreasing the stress of the animal.
• IATA Regulation 11 says that the container used should be of sufficient size to allow the animal to stand or lie down but should not be too big to allow excessive movement which could lead to injury (IATA 2007).
Information about the individual animal, such as specimen reports, medARKS reports and animal husbandry notes, such as diet, should be either sent ahead or attached to the crate before departure. Animals should be transported singularly which will prevent injury or stress from other box mates (Skipper, 2011).
BOX DESIGN
Ideally the box design should match Container Requirement 82 of the IATA Live Animal Regulations (see Appendix 1).
For internal institution moves less complicated pet packs or wooden boxes can be used. Whichever is used, it needs to be big enough to allow the animal freedom of movement, being able to stand, lie down and turn around. Before moving the animal make sure the exits of the crate are secured, such as a zip tie for pet packs and screw in the wooden box slide. Towels or blankets can be placed over the crate to make it dark while moving the animal.
FURNISHINGS
There are no furnishings required in a transport container for Servals (IATA 2007).
WATER AND FOOD
As Servals are hazardous animals the container would be fully enclosed not allowing any access to food or provide water inside the container so there must be access from the outside. IATA also has regulations that products of animal origin, such as meat or food containing meat will not be accepted in the container but in emergencies, where an unforeseen delay has occurred, canned cat food can be provided. For short transportation times, food and water is not required but if there are unforseen delays it can be given via external access (IATA, 2007).
HEALTH REQUIREMENTS
29. ROUTINE TREATMENTS
Routine faecal collections are recommended twice a year, this will monitor for periodic intestinal parasitic infections. Parasitic infections can be kept at bay with routine removal of faeces from exhibits, pest (stray cat) control and freezing protocols of meat and whole prey (McLelland, 2012).
30. ROUTINE VACCINATIONS
It is recommended for all captive felid species that an annual vaccination is given, with this protocol being extrapolated from domestic cats. Yearly vaccinations are ideal but depending on an institution’s preventative medicine program this may be triennial as there is low risk of infection or testing is done on antibody titres to allow for longer time between boosters (Howe, 2011). Inactive, or “killed,” vaccines as apposed to live vaccines are recommended for exotic felids as live vaccines have potential to produce disease. An “F3” vaccine is commercially available in Australia, Fel-o-vax and Fevac, and both have three viral pathogens at the core of the vaccination; feline panleucopaenia virus, feline rhinotracheitis virus and feline calicivirus. (Howe, 2011).
The World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA) recommends the following protocol for vaccinations of felids. Kitten vaccinations should start at 8-9 weeks old, second vaccination at 11-12 weeks old, the third vaccination at 16 weeks old and a forth one at one year old. From then a triennial vaccination is recommended (Howe, 2011).
In certain countries the rabies and tetanus vaccinations are required yearly. Only killed rabies vaccines are to be used on felines (Mellen, 1997).
31. KNOWN HEALTH PROBLEMS
The following are diseases that have been seen in exotic captive felines but are not specific to Servals.
• Renal disease,
• Feline infectious peritonitis,
• Feline herpes virus,
• Salmonellosis,
• Upper respiratory disease,
• Veno-occlusive disease (Mellen & Wildt 1998) and
• Nutrition related disease such as obesity, Type II diabetes and metabolic bone disease (Livingston 2009).
32. QUARANTINE PERIODS AND TREATMENTS
Before individuals are shipped to other institutions a 3 day faecal collection is done and depending on the request of the receiving institution a clinical examination under anaesthesia can be done (McLelland, 2012).
Many institutions, including Adelaide Zoo, have new individuals spend a minimum of 30 days in quarantine. Wild captured animals and animals from overseas zoos may require longer in quarantine depending on the receiving institution (McLelland, 2012; Mellen & Wildt, 1998). Ideally the staff caring for the quarantined animal should not be in contact with any other felids (Mellen, 1997; Mellen & Wildt, 1998). During this time faecal collection will take place at three different times to check for parasitic infections and a general examination under anaesthesia can take place if not done at the prior establishment before leaving (McLelland, 2012).
33. VETERINARY PROCEDURES
Veterinary staff are required for the first catch up of kittens for sexing, weighing, micro-chipping and vaccinating and then again for all subsequent vaccinations. There are no special requirements for veterinary procedures for Servals but any other procedures besides vaccinations would be due to illness, injury or reproduction management.
Adelaide Zoo has a preventative medicine program in place where it would be ideal to have biennial examination under anaesthesia and on alternate years have visual exams of the individuals. When under anaesthesia a general dental exam and bloods are taken (McLelland, 2012).
34. CONTRACEPTIVE TECHNIQUES
As Servals are a solitary animal contraception is unnecessary. For litters with male kittens these individuals will need to be removed from the dam before sexual maturity, estimated at one and half years. In rare circumstances where both sexes are housed together, permanent or temporary contraception can be used. Permanent contraception for males involves castration or vasectomy and females can be spayed (ovariohysterectomy). Temporary contraception of either sex involves injecting them with a hormonal contraceptive implant, and both can be done (Mellen & Wildt 1998).
BEHAVIOUR
35. ACTIVITY
In the wild Servals are mainly crepuscular and nocturnal, tending to be inactive for at least 40% of the day, usually during the hottest part of the day (San Diego Zoo, 2010).
In captivity it has been observed (during the hours of staff presence) individuals are more active early and later in the day. There could be several reasons for this; these are the cooler times of the day, this is when keepers move animals, feed or enrich animals, and when they get to smell where another Serval has been.
36. SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
Servals are solitary animals and social interaction is usually limited to breeding situations and while a dam has kittens, however Werribee Zoo has three hand raised female Servals that spend their time together (Rushworth pers. comm. 2012). In the wild sightings of groups or pairs have consisted of mother and her kittens or a mating pair (Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002). Male and females in the wild maintain separate territories and lead solitary lives only coming together to breed (Markula et al., 2009).
37. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR
Male and female Servals will come together during a female oestrus, which happens several times a year and each oestrus can last 1-4 days (Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002). In the wild females tend to coincide their oestrus with a certain season of the year but in captivity they do not have a reproductive season (Breitbeil, 2002).
During the female’s oestrus both animals will become quite vocal, emitting short sharp meows. The pair will spend the majority of time near the other one, even when separated by a wall. If there is a section of mesh where they can have somewhat protected contact they may cheek rub at mesh towards each other. Both sexes will increase frequency of urine marking coming into a female’s oestrus (Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002).
During an introduction a receptive female will face away from the male, lower down onto haunches and raise hindquarters, known as a lordosis posture. The male will mount from behind and bite the nape of the females’ neck, with the interaction ending with growling and female striking out at the male (Breitbeil, 2002). Several matings can take place during an introduction and the more successful matings the more chance of the female becoming pregnant.
38. COMMON BEHAVIOURAL PROBLEMS
Shepherdson et al. (1993) state that captive small cats (Felis sp.) tend to be inactive, spending most of the day sleeping or out of visitor sight and if they are active their behaviours stereotypic. Stereotypic behaviours can include pacing, excessive grooming and inactivity (Livingston, 2009).
A common behavioural problem seen at Adelaide Zoo is stereotypic pacing. All individuals have periods of inactivity but are almost always in view of visitors when sleeping. Pacing seems to be in correlation with food and the female being in season. The male has been seen pacing with food in mouth seeming to be looking for a place to hide and eat. To minimise this staff provide more visual shelter with the use of browse but it does not completely limit the view of the animal by visitors. When the female is in season both animals have been seen pacing, commonly looking for the other. This behaviour usually stop once they are able to see each other and have protected contact at the mesh panels (Hayward pers. comm. 2012).
39. MIXED SPECIES COMPATIBILITIES
Presently there is no information available to suggest that Servals can co-inhabit an exhibit with other species. It is unlikely that Servals can be placed in mixed species exhibits being that they are carnivores and solitary animals (Hayward pers comm. 2012).
40. BEHAVIOURAL ENRICHMENT
The goal of behavioural enrichment is to increase activity, reduce levels of aggressive, abnormal and stereotypic behaviour, over grooming and provide physical and mental stimulation (Shepherdson et al., 1993). When designing enrichment programs for individuals it is best to look at their wild, normal and natural behaviours, hoping to bring wild and captive behaviours together to stimulate the animal. Enrichment can fall into the following categories:
• Food based: providing new types of food or ways of presenting food;
• Physical: objects such as balls, boxes, etc.;
• Environmental: changes to their structural environment. This can be done from when the exhibit is first designed to changing perching and platforms regularly;
• Sensory: stimulation of the senses; sight, hearing, vision and smell;
• Social environment: as Servals are a solitary animal, social enrichment will take place during breeding pair introductions and subsequent birth of kittens (Hosey et al. 2009).
New enrichment should be approved by veterinarian staff and monitored when first introduced to the individual. How and how long they interact with the enrichment should be documented allowing for review.
At Adelaide Zoo one of the most successful behavioural enrichment devices is a shallow pool with small fish or squid in it. This allows the individual to use their long arms to “fish” out the items. We have found our Servals also enjoy eating fish and squid, something out of their normal diet.
The current list of Adelaide Zoo approved enrichment items and photos can be found in Appendix 2.
TRAINING
Training and conditioning is also a form of behavioural enrichment and can aid in everyday husbandry and medical procedures.
Most training is done with positive reinforcement, when the asked behaviour is done correctly there is a reward (e.g. food). Werribee Zoo has three hand raised Servals which are used for full contact training and visitor experiences. These individuals are trained twice a day with positive reinforcement, using diced pieces of kangaroo, beef or horse meat as reward (Rushworth pers. comm. 2012). Servals have proven to be very intelligent animals however starting training earlier in life may be more beneficial. As seen at Adelaide Zoo one individual had training started at 2 ½ years and he seems less inclined to interact that closely with keeping staff, this could have been reduced if this individual was interacted with earlier (Hayward pers. comm. 2012).
41. ANIMAL INTRODUCTION
Introductions of Servals will only take place between a breeding pair when a female is in oestrus. Introductions are best done in off display areas, as it may have more areas to separate and it is best for public not to be watching if the introduction gets aggressive. To gauge interest from both individuals before completely introducing the pair, where possible have the pair on either side of the mesh. For example at Adelaide Zoo the female is brought into the den of the off display area which can be shut with a mesh slide. The male is then brought into that off display area. This allows for interest to be gauged and both individuals to be protected from the other if needed. If interest is positive the slide between the two can be opened. Positive interest includes the individual not in the den going straight up to the individual in the den, vocalising, rubbing face against mesh, female in lordosis posture, and both staying with each other at the mesh. The best time to open the slide between the pair is when both individuals can see each other and the male is not waiting directly at the slide. Introductions need to be closely monitored by experienced keeping staff and when signs of aggression are seen animals should be separated (McKee pers. comm. 2012).
FEEDING REQUIREMENTS
42. CAPTIVE DIET
Zoos in Australia prefer to have a diet based on whole prey, muscle and organ meats with the addition of supplements. Whereas zoos overseas use commercially prepared carnivore foods that are nutritionally complete versus feeding muscle or organ meats (Mellen, 1997).
The commercially prepared diets used overseas usually consist of horse or beef meat, cereal grains and are balanced with vitamin and mineral premixes. These commercial preparations are available frozen or canned and do not have hide, hair, bones or hooves. However these commercially prepared foods have high fat content, high levels of Vitamin A and can create dental problems. These soft food diets require little chewing or tearing and can lead to build up of dental plaque and calculus formation resulting in a variety of dental issues (Mellen, 1997).
Feeding whole prey, such as rats, mice and chicken is beneficial in many ways. Whole prey is a rich source of Vitamin A and Niacin and also stimulates teeth and gum use. Diets consisting mostly of muscle meats will be low in calcium, manganese and fat-soluble vitamins (D, E and A). These diets can lead to nutritional bone disease and should be supplemented with vitamins and minerals, especially calcium (Mellen & Wildt, 1998).
FOOD, AMOUNTS AND REGIME
The following is a list of foods successfully fed to Servals at Adelaide Zoo:
• Horse
• Chicken, unfeathered and not whole
• Chicken, feathered and whole
• Rat, whole
• Turkey
• Beef
• Kangaroo
• Guinea Pig, whole
• Rabbit, whole
• Mice
Not all are readily available, but horse, chicken and rats are consistently used. Whole items are fed at least once a week and muscle meat tends to be with bone and hide. Small pieces of muscle meat without bone and hide are used when training or doing a scatter feed.
At Adelaide Zoo amounts fed each day differs, there is not a set amount to be fed each day. Prior to 2012 Adelaide Zoo had two starve days for their Servals. Fasting has been a traditional practice and is appropriate for large cats but not for smaller felids, especially cats less than 10kg (Mellen, 1997). Due to management and training reasons these starve days were ended and now the Servals are fed every day. How much is fed depends on current weights, current appetite of the individual and how much was fed the previous day. Adelaide Zoo likes to vary what is fed and the size, some days large feeds are given, evened out with a small feed the next day. They are usually fed once or twice a day and how depends on enrichment, training, time and food used (Hayward pers. comm. 2012). Mellen (1991) suggests feeding at least twice a day to encourage activity. As most of the food fed to the Servals contains bone and hide it is hard to provide exact meat weights for feeds but the following is an example of weights when using chicken (unfeathered, not whole and with bones) and feeding a 15kg male Serval:
• Large feed: 1 kg
• Medium feed: 650 g
• Small feed: 350-400 g
For comparison I have included the diet for Werribee Zoo, Auckland Zoo and Melbourne Zoo.
Werribee Zoo- house hand raised, full contact training female Servals. The Servals are fed 4 times a day, 2 of which are training feeds (Rushworth pers. comm. 2012).
1. one adult mouse or day old chick
2. training feed- 125-130g of diced kangaroo, beef or horse meat
3. training feed- 125-130g of diced kangaroo, beef or horse meat
4. one rabbit leg or chicken drumstick
Auckland Zoo- housed parent raised male and female Servals. Females were fed once a day in the pm and the male was fed twice a day. Females were fed 300-900g depending on current weights and the male was fed a consistent amount of roughly 1kg. The following mixture is the average amount fed, per day, per animal, over a one week period. (average female weight is 10kg).
• one day old chick 35g
• salmon 50g
• chicken pieces (including bone) 70g
• boneless beef 50g
• beef kidney 20-30g
• bone/horse meat 250g
• horse heart 23g
• whole mouse 11g
• whole rabbit and heads 100g+
Also when available venison (50g) is used. Supplements used are megaderm or fish oil (15g) and calcium carbonate (2.5g) (Serval Diet Sheet Auckland Zoo, 2012).
Melbourne Zoo- house parent raised male and female Servals. Fed meat and whole prey items (600g per animal). Food items include
• Day old chicks
• lean beef
• fish
• guinea pigs
• goat
• mice
• rabbits
• yabbies
• deer
• hourse
• kangaroo
• chicken pieces
• emu
• rats
Supplement used is Big Cat Supplement by Wombaroo (Melbourne Zoo Carnivore Diet Sheets, 2001).
ORDERING, STORAGE, FREEZING AND DEFROSTING OF FOOD
Most institutions will have a food store manager that orders, receives and stores meat deliveries. Below are some guidelines that should be followed for ordering, storage, freezing and defrosting of meat for carnivores. These guidelines are based on the guidelines set at Adelaide Zoo by Dr. Smith (Smith pers. comm. 2012) and the Manual of Standard Operation Procedures from the USDA (Crissey et al., 2001).
All food fed to carnivores needs to be wholesome, palatable and not to contain disease or be contaminated. Meat should be ordered from suppliers that process and store the meat as if it were for human consumption. Suppliers should provide where the meat comes from, how it is processed, handled, stored and distributed.
When meat is received from the supplier it should immediately be placed in the institution’s freezer. Before the newer shipment is placed in the freezer, move any meat from the last shipment aside and this is to be used first before the new shipment. If the meat is received in a container (eg, box or bag) it should be labelled with date it was received. Adelaide Zoo recommends a set freezing time before meat can be defrosted to be fed out. This depends on the freezing temperature but for most freezers (-20°C) there is a seven day freezing period that will help kill some parasites and control the growth/ spread of other micro organismsmicroorganisms. In colder freezers (-35°C) a 24 hour period may be adequate.
When needed, meat is moved from the freezer to refrigeration for defrosting, this is the safest way to defrost meat. Defrosting in the fridge allows for the meat to defrost more uniformly. Meat must not be defrosted at room temperature, in standing water or by exposure to excessive heat, as none of these can regulate the temperature the meat defrosts at and increases the chance of nutrient loss. Time in the fridge is only temporary and once defrosted the meat must be used within 24 hours.
Temperatures recommended for optimal storage of meat are as follows:
• Fridge: 4 to 6°C
• Freezer: -30 to -18°C or lower
Other guidelines for storage and defrosting of meat for carnivores include:
• storage areas are dedicated to food items only, nothing toxic or harmful is to be stored in there
• regular servicing of storage units should be done
• temperatures of storage units should be checked regularly by staff
• defrosted meat is never to be refrozen
• defrosting areas, i.e. fridge, needs to be cleaned and sanitised regularly
• appropriate storage areas for food waste need to be leak and pest proof. At Adelaide Zoo “food waste only” bins are stored in the meat freezer until emptied by an outside company.
PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION OF FOOD
Most meats fed to captive animals have a certain level of micro organisms on them but the growth of these organisms can be reduced through cleaning and sanitation of the preparation area. All equipment used during preparation such as cutting boards, food containers; knives and cleavers should be cleaned and sanitised after each use. This would also include buckets or wheelbarrows used to transport meat up the animals’ enclosure (Crissey et al., 2001).
Several small cat species including the Serval eat small prey items, allowing for hunting several times a day. This can be replicated in captive environments by giving whole prey, multiple small feeds, distributing, presenting and hiding the food in appropriate ways to simulate their natural hunting behaviour to search and forage for food (Shepherdson et al., 1993; Livingston, 2009). The following are different ways to present food and provide enrichment, all of which are successfully used at Adelaide Zoo:
• Whole prey
• Food hidden in boxes, browse piles, Hessian sacks, treat balls, etc
• Hanging food
• Food scatter
Meat can be fed cold to animals but frozen is undesirable as it is most likely unpalatable to animals. Any food that is uneaten by the animals should be removed after 12 hours (Crissey et al., 2001).
43. SUPPLEMENTS
The following are examples of two Carnivore supplements used in Australian captive institutions.
• Wombaroo Passwell Big Carnivore supplement- “provides balanced levels of vitamins, minerals, essential fatty acids and carotenoids to animals fed a primarily meat diet.” Every feed put 10 grams (1 level tablespoon) of supplement to every kilo of meat. The breakdown of the active constituents of this supplement is provided in Appendix 3.
• Predamax Carnivore Supplement- “calcium, multivitamin and mineral supplement to be used for carnivores being fed a raw meat diet.” Every feed put 5 grams of supplement per 20 kilos body weight of the animal.
BREEDING
44. ENCLOSURE MODIFICATIONS
If the institution is recommended to breed Servals a maternity den would be advantageous in the off display area. This should be an area only accessible by the female, so the male does not scent in the area. The den should be completely sheltered and have heating, such as a lamp or heat pad. It should also be an area that has minimal disturbance by keeping staff but allowing for observation of dam and offspring (e.g. camera or one way viewing glass) and have two access points, one to separate the dam from the offspring and the other allowing staff access to the offspring (Mellen & Wildt, 1998).
45. BREEDING PROFILE
SEASON
Females are polyestrus, coming into season many times a year, potentially giving birth twice a year. The average interval between births is 184 days (San Diego Zoo, 2010).
STRATEGY
For an institution to breed Servals it is essential to have a pair, one male and one female, where they can be rotated between the exhibit and off limits area. This will allow for both cats to move throughout both areas frequently smelling the scent marks left by the other individuals (Mellen & Wildt, 1998), especially when the female is in oestrus.
PAIRING
Not all mating pairs are going to be successful, so all pairs need to be closely observed for compatibility before being introduced to each other (Mellen, 1991). Some reasons for pair incompatibility are homosexuality, what environments individuals are raised in and kept in long term and how potential mating pairs are introduced (Schmalz-Peixoto, 2003). As Servals are solitary animals they can only be brought together during the height of the females’ oestrus for breeding. Some institutions have found they can successfully keep Serval Felis sp. pairs together post successful matings but majority of the time the males’ presence has had negative effects on the successful rearing of the offspring. It is recommended to separate sexes when the female is suspected to be pregnant or when aggressive behaviour is seen from either individual (Mellen, 1991).
COURTSHIP AND MATING
During the female’s oestrus both animals will become quite vocal, emitting short sharp meows. The pair will spend the majority of time near the other one, even when separated by a wall. If there is a section of mesh where they can have somewhat protected contact they may cheek rub on mesh towards each other. Both sexes will increase frequency of urine marking coming into a female’s oestrus (Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002).
A study on small cats’ (including Servals) social and reproductive behaviour by Mellen (1993) found the intensity of certain social behaviours, such as cheek rubbing, flehmen and scent marking by urinating changed in relative rates as an indicator of oestrus and/or reproductive activity. Most notably the rate of flehmen by male felids increased days prior to copulation.
During an introduction a receptive female will face away from the male, lower down onto haunches and raise hindquarters, known as a lordosis posture. The male will mount from behind and bite the nape of the female’s neck, with the interaction ending with growling and the female striking out at the male (Breitbeil, 2002). During the female’s oestrus (usually 1-4 days) the pair may remain together as multiple matings will take place. The pair should be closely monitored for successful matings and signs of when they should be separated (i.e. aggression from either individual) (San Diego Zoo, 2010).
46. BREEDING SITES
Where possible a maternity area, such as a den or enclosed area (i.e. a very large hollow log was used to give birth in by a female at Adelaide Zoo) needs to be provided for breeding females. This area should only be for the female (once pregnancy is suspected) and should allow her to feel safe, secure and protected from potential predators and inclement weather. If nest boxes are provided these need to be regularly cleaned leading up to the birth (and if possible post birth) making sure not to disturb mother and young. Nest boxes can be filled with a small amount of soft substrate such as straw. Multiple nesting areas are ideal in case the female feels unsafe in one and can move the young to another (McKee pers. comm. 2012).
47. ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION, SURROGACY
Semen cryopreservation, artificial insemination and in vitro fertilisation practices have been successful and advanced for domestic cat breeding. These practices have been adapted and proven successful for Leopards, Cheetah, Tigers and Pumas (Goodrowe, 1992); therefore it may be possible to apply all these practices to Serval breeding. A research centre in New Orleans, United States, had one Serval kitten successfully born from in vitro fertilisation followed by embryo transfer (Kasa, 2002).
Currently there is no information on surrogacy by other animal species for Serval kittens. However there is a newspaper article about a keeper at a zoo in Munich taking home a rejected Serval kitten which was socialised with their two dogs. Feeding was taken care of by the keeper and the dogs were there for socialisation and companionship (Daily Mail, 2008).
48. DIET CHANGES
For pregnant females, condition and weight loss/gain needs to be closely monitored but it is usually not until the third trimester that food amounts are increased. Lopate (2012) suggests starting to slowly increase food amounts for pregnant cats from week 2 of gestation, with majority of increase in the last third of pregnancy. Food amount increase should be at least 25% of regular maintenance diet and up to 50%. During lactation the 25% increase should be maintained and this can start reducing when the kittens start eating solids. Additional supplements are not required for pregnant and lactating females. Care must be taken not to overfeed, as weight and body condition should be maintained and not lead to obesity (Lopate, 2012).
49. GESTATION
Gestation is estimated at 74 days (San Diego Zoo, 2010; Wackernagel, 1968), with 67 and 77 days also seen in captivity (Wackernagel, 1968).
50. ANIMAL CHECKS
In addition to the vaccination protocol (as described in 5.2- Routine Vaccinations) Mellen (1991) suggests socialisation between keeping staff and kittens. This has a two fold purpose of being able to closely monitor the health of the kittens and reducing fear towards humans but still allow the kittens to be raised and cared for by their mother. Reducing fear towards humans will hopefully make captive life less stressful. Socialisation of leopard cubs with their keepers has resulted in adults that adjusted well to changes, bred successfully, raised their own offspring and remained calmer around humans (Mellen, 1991).
51. LITTER SIZE
Female Servals can have litters of 1-5 young. Five young is rare (San Diego Zoo, 2010) and the average litter size would be 2-3 (Markula et al., 2009; Livingston, 2009). Females can produce litters twice a year (Wackernagel, 1968).
52. DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG
BIRTH WEIGHTS
Kittens weigh approximately 250g at birth (Livingston, 2009). The minimum recorded weight is 230g and the maximum recorded weight is 260g (Wackernagel, 1968).
GROWTH CURVES
Below is a tableare tables showing the weight at yearly intervals of Servals held in captivity worldwide done through a weight comparison report in ZIMSgrowth of a male (Maji) and female (Kali) Serval currently housed at Adelaide Zoo (Figure 2 & 3) (ISIS 2014). To see growth rates for kittens please refer to 10.8 Growth Rates and Developments.
[pic]
Figure 2. Comparison of weights at yearly intervals for male Servals held in captivity worldwide (ISISZIMS 2013).
[pic][pic]
Figure 32. Comparison of weights at yearly intervals for for a male and female Servals held in captivity worldwide (ISISZIMS 20143) at Adelaide Zoo.
AGE AT WEANING
Kittens are weaned sometime between 3 and 5 months of age (Livingston, 2009).
AGE OF REMOVAL FROM PARENT
Servals are solitary animals so at some point all offspring will be removed from the dam, this will depend on sex of the offspring, space availability and individual animals’ behaviour. Male offspring will should be removed first, before sexual maturity. Female offspring tend to be tolerated by the dam for longer (San Diego Zoo, 2010) but signs of aggression from dam to offspring or vice versa needs to be monitored.
AGE OF SEXUAL MATURITY
Sexual maturity is estimated at 12-24 months in captive Servals (San Diego Zoo, 2010; Breitbeil, 2002).
BREEDING AGE
In the Australasian captive population femaleFemale Servals are considered reproductive between 2 – 14 years of age and. mMales are considered reproductive between 1 ½ - 14 years of age. (Robbins, 2011). The American Serval Studbook has found females breeding as early as 12 months and as late as 16 years and for males as early as 15 months and as late as 18 years old (Breitbeil, 2002).
53. USE OF FOSTER SPECIES
Currently there is no information available on the use of foster species for Servals .
ARTIFICIAL REARING
54. HOUSING
Generally a carrier that is draft free and temperature controlled (with the temperature set to 30°C) can be used for the first couple of weeks (Andrews, 2003). For severely weak neonates incubators can be used (Hedburg, 2002). Flannel or fleece blankets are best as claws can get caught in towels (Andrews, 2003). Synthetic fleece can cause issues if the young suckle on the blanket, allowing for ingestion of the fabric and possible constipation (Hedburg, 2002).
55. HEAT SOURCES AND TEMPERATURES
At neonate stage the Servals are not able to regulate their own body temperature so they rely on the temperature of their surrounding environment. Their bodies should feel warm, if the insides of their ears are very warm and their pads are sweaty then they are too hot. If heat pads are used they need to be covered by a blanket (Andrews, 2003) and must be kept on the lowest setting as they still can cause burns. Heat lamps are not suggested as they can cause severe hydration and burns if left unattended (Hedburg, 2002).
Rectal temperatures can be checked. A guide for temperatures at different age ranges is supplied by Andrews (2003):
• First week: 35°C
• Weeks 2-4: 36°- 37°C
• 6 months-adult: 38°- 39°C
•
56. DIET
From neonate to weaning a formula will be used. There are a variety of formulas all with differences in percentage of fats, solids, proteins and carbohydrates. When determining which formula compare the contents of the maternal milk to what is available in formulas. Which formula used may also depend on the animal and its tolerance and acceptance of the formula (Hedberg, 2002). When hand raising Servals, Mogo Zoo used “Lions Milk” formula produced by Wombaroo (Van Der Merwe pers comm. 2012).
One important nutrient needed for the development of felids is the amino acid Taurine. Deficiency in Taurine can cause serious changes in heart function and retinopathy, a disease to the retina of the eye. If Taurine is not in the artificial formula it can be an additional supplement of 250mg per day. Once weaned and on a meat based diet, additional Taurine supplement is no longer required (Hedburg, 2002) but may still be in supplements, such as Wombaroo Big Carnivore Supplement.
Electrolytes are useful as a supply of energy during the first few feedings for a neonate. Some electrolyte solutions contain dextrose which is easily digestible and good sustaining fluid that can help with gut stabilisation (Andrews, 2003). Initially a dilution of 75% electrolytes and 25% formula can be offered and over the next 24-36 hours the percentage of formula can be increased (Hedburg, 2002). When hand raising Servals, Mogo Zoo did not use electrolytes with their formulas (Van Der Merwe pers comm. 2012).
Feed consumption for kittens can be around 15-20% of their bodyweight per day; however they should not be overfed. Overfeeding can lead to diarrhoea and difficulty supporting their own body weight which can lead to bone development abnormalities. Sterile water or electrolytes can be used if the kitten is still hungry and will minimise the risk of overfeeding (Hedburg, 2002).
Feeding regimes suggested are feeding kittens every 2.5 - 3 hours from 8am to 9pm, averaging 6-8 feeds a day (Hedburg, 2002). When kittens are born their intestines will usually be filled and will not require feeding in the first few hours after being born (Andrews, 2003).
57. HYGIENE
Cleaning and sterilisation of all tools and utensils used for feeding kittens is vital, this includes bottles, nipples and any other items used to prepare feeds. All equipment should be thoroughly cleaned with hot soapy water and rinsed thoroughly. Using boiling water is an optimal way to sterilise items.
Hygiene of staff taking care of the kittens is also as important as the sterilisation of the equipment used. Staff taking care of the kittens should avoid contact with other animals, especially other felids. If this is not possible the staff need to completely change clothes and shoes and wash hands and arms with antibacterial solution before entering the area with the kittens. The area where the kittens are housed should be considered a quarantine area, cleaning of hands and changing of shoes are essential for the health of the kittens (Andrews, 2003).
58. SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS
Common medical problems with artificially rearing small felids are described by Hedburg (2002) and include: respiratory infections, umbilical stump infections, hypothermia, dehydration, calcium deficiency and diarrhoea.
• Respiratory infections have been found to be fatal to kittens less than 8 weeks of age. It is very important to minimise the kittens’ exposure to potential pathogens.
• Umbilical cords, before they dry up and fall off, can be an easy route of infection for kittens. Bacterial infections are common and to reduce this you can use chlorhexidine to clean the stump every 6 hours for 1 day.
• Neonate felids are susceptible to hypothermia as it is difficult for them to regulate their own body temperature. If a newborn’s body temperature drops below 34.5°C their suckling response will be greatly reduced. Hypothermia can be caused by a low environmental temperature, neonate or weak young and over grooming. Please refer to 10.2 Heating and Temperatures for further details.
• Dehydration can be a problem with neonates and fluids can be supplemented orally such as providing electrolytes (as described above in 9.3 Diet) or parenteral, such as giving subcutaneous injections. How much fluid is required depends on how fast the animal absorbs them. Formula should not be given to a dehydrated animal as it will make it worse.
• Calcium is very important in bone development and appropriate levels need to be maintained till the kitten is mature. Artificial formulas should have correct amounts of calcium and phosphorus and this needs to be continued once the kitten is weaned onto solid meats, with whole prey items and supplements.
• Diarrhoea is common in hand raised felids and is generally caused by a dietary imbalance. Artificial formulas chosen need to be appropriate to the species and any changes made need to be gradual especially when weaning onto solids. Faecal cultures can be done to rule out any bacterial causes. If diarrhoea is severe or continues for more than a week consult veterinary staff.
• Urination and defecation is important, neonates should be stimulated to urinate/defecate before their first bottle and after every feed (Andrews, 2003).
• Claws should be checked and trimmed frequently. As claws get longer and sharper this can lead to problems getting claws caught on blankets and injuring other littermates and themselves.
• Hair loss at 6 to 8 weeks has been seen in some hand raised felids most likely due to an unknown dietary deficiency. Hair growth and general coat appearance seems to enhance when the kittens are weaned onto solids (Mellen & Wildt, 1998).
59. SPECIES SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
There are no special requirements for Servals.
60. IDENTIFICATIONS METHODS
With young kittens, without natural distinguishing characteristics, you can use brightly coloured nail polish on one claw to tell apart the kittens (Hedburg, 2002). Werribee Zoo used nose markings and behaviour to tell apart their three hand raised kittens (Rushworth pers. comm. 2012).
Permanent identification methods include implanting a microchip. The number on the microchip can be matched to the animals’ individual identification number at the institution (i.e. a Local ID number) as recorded on its ARKS or ZIMS record. For visual identification, photos and physical descriptions of the animals can be used, such as face markings or spot/ stripe patterns and if housing a pair, males tend to be bigger than the females.
61. GROWTH RATES AND DEVELOPMENTS
Important kitten development includes:
• Kittens are born blind and they will open their eyes between 8-14 days (Andrews, 2003; Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002).
• Umbilical cord will dry and fall off around 3-7 days (Andrews, 2003).
• Incisor teeth come out about 4-5 weeks old (Hedburg, 2002)
• Permanent canine teeth come in about six months old (Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002).
An average weight gain of 50-100g per day is expected with small felids (Andrews, 2003; Livingston, 2009). Andrews (2003) took the mean weights of 19 individuals at different intervals during hand raising:
• Birth 261g
• 1 week 514g
• 2 weeks 594g
• 3 weeks 807g
• 4 weeks 966g
• 5 weeks 1174g
62. BEHAVIOURAL CONSIDERATIONS
It is more beneficial to allow the mother to rear her own young but in situations where this is not possible hand raised sibling groups are better than hand raised single individuals. Mellen (1992) conducted a study on domestic cats, which she extrapolated to exotic felids, and found that hand raised single individuals sexually imprinted on humans, had lower reproductive success and maternal care instincts, were more aggressive and had decreased courtship and copulatory behaviours. Hand raised sibling groups had better social interaction and were better able to adapt to their captive environment but it was not conclusive if they would have better reproductive success. For hand raised single individuals Mellen (1992) suggests the carer should take the kitten home to have interaction with a different environment such as other cats, dogs and children so they can hopefully develop normal behaviour.
Depending on the end result of hand raising, such as visitor interaction, full contact training or exhibit, will affect the amount of human raising and interaction.
63. WEANING
Weaning the kittens from formula to solids can start when the incisor teeth have erupted, which can be as early as 4-5 weeks of age (Hedberg, 2002). This can be started by introducing solid food on a feeding plate with a small amount of formula poured on it or alternatively try hand feeding solid foods (Van Der Merwe pers comm. 2012). Weaning time is dependent on the individual but usually kittens will be completely onto solid foods by 10-12 weeks (Andrews, 2003; Mellen & Wildt, 1998).
64. REHABILITATION PROCEDURES
The need for rehabilitation of Servals in captive environments will be limited to those already in the collection. Rehabilitation of injured Servals from the wild is not applicable to Australasian institutions.
Injured individuals will most likely be cared for by the institutions veterinary team, possibly up at the animal health care centre rather than on exhibit/off display, but this does depend on the level of injury. If an individual was to come back to exhibit/off exhibit for rehabilitation they most likely would be kept off display and in a confined area as not to further injury themselves and under close observation by keeping staff.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1. IATA transport box requirements
[pic]
[pic]
[pic]
APPENDIX 2. Adelaide Zoo Behavioural Enrichment List
See below for photos of Servals with enrichment at Adelaide Zoo.
Food Based
Whiskas Milk- diluted with water and put on paper plates
Whiskas Meat- smeared around exhibit
Ice block- blood, meat
Horse Mince- smeared around exhibit
Meat Scatter
Fish Scatter
Fish and squid in a shallow pool
Eggs- raw
Day Old Chick
Physical Based
Cardboard Box
Ball/Toy
Paper Mache- hanging from trees
Pinecone
Newspaper- scrunched up
Straw/wood wool
Log Piles with food hid in it
Shallow paddle pool
Scent Based
Snakeskin
Spices
Essential Oils
Herbs- especially lavender and rosemary
Native Grasses
Animal Faeces
Leaf Litter
Browse- loves palm fronds
Feathers
Mulch
Hessian Sack
[pic]
Cardboard box with food inside
[pic]
Leaf litter with spices
[pic] [pic]
Hessian sacks Paddle pool with fish and squid
[pic] [pic]
Hanging herbs and fresh grass Cardboard box hidden in browse
APPENDIX 3. Nutritional breakdown of Wombaroo Big Carnivore Supplement
| |
|NUTRIENT |COMPOSITION PER kg |COMPOSITION PER MJ OF PREPARED MEAT |
|Retinol |34mg |144μg |
|Cholecalciferol |750μg |1.05μg |
|d-a-tocopherol |5300mg |7.8mg |
|Phytomenadione |4.3mg |8μmg |
|Pantothenic Acid |170mg |1.2mg |
|Pyridoxine |140mg |0.8mg |
|Riboflavin |110mg |0.4mg |
|Thiamine |170mg |0.4mg |
|Folic Acid |36mg |60μg |
|Biotin |860μg |4.2μg |
|Cyanocobalamin |690μg |6.0μg |
|Calcium |300g |440mg |
|Phosphorus |32g |360mg |
|Magnesium |3.6g |35mg |
|Iron (Fe++) |2100mg |6.0mg |
|Zinc |360mg |4.5mg |
|Manganese |400mg |600μg |
|Copper |120mg |300μg |
|Iodine |36mg |90μg |
|Linoleic acid |1800mg |230mg |
|linolenic acid |5000mg |85mg |
|Arachidonic acid |28mg |110mg |
|Eicosapentaenoic acid |690mg |46mg |
|Docosahexaenoic acid |370mg |16mg |
|Taurine |38g |53mg |
|Total Carotenoids |3.6mg |5.0μg |
| | | |
| |
12. REFERENCES
Andrews, P. (2003) Hand-rearing of small felids. Hexagon Farm Wild Feline Breeding Facility.
Breitbeil, B. (2002) Serval, Leptailurus serval. North American Regional Studbook 1st Ed. FL, USA.
Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Henschel, P. & Sogbohossou, E. 2008. Leptailurus serval. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.1. . Downloaded on 02 October 2011
Crissey, S.D., Slifka, K.A., Shumway, P. & Spencer, S.B. (2001) Handling Frozen/Thawed Meat and Prey Items Fed to Captive Exotic Animals. A Manual of Standard Operating Procedures. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
Daily Mail (2008) “Shakira the Serval kitten finds puppy love in her adoptive home…with a pack of Rhodesian Ridgebacks” > Dowloaded on 19 September 2012
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries & Forestry (DAFF) (2009) Draft Australian Animal Welfare Standards & Guidelines: exhibited animals. DAFF Animal Welfare Branch downloaded on 03 September 2012
Livingston, S.E. (2009) The nutrition and natural history of the Serval (Felis serval) and Caracal (Caracal caracal). Vet Clin Exot Anim 12: 327-334
Lopate, C. (2012) Management of pregnant and neonatal dogs, cats and exotic pets. Wiley & Blackwell, USA
Markula, A., Hannan-Jones, M. & Csurhes, S. (2009) Pest animal risk assessment: Serval, Leptailurus serval. Invasive Plants and Animals, Biosecurity Queensland, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Brisbane, QLD.
McLelland, D. (2012) Preventative Medicine Program, Serval. Adelaide Zoo
Mellen, J.D. (1991) Factors influencing reproductive success in small captive exotic felids (Felis spp): a multiple regression analysis. Zoo Biology 10: 95-110
Mellen, J.D. (1992) Effects of early rearing experience on subsequent adult sexual behaviour using domestic cats (Felis catus) as a model for exotic small felids. Zoo Biology 11: 17-32
Mellen, J.D. (1993) A comparative analysis of scent-marking, social and reproductive behaviour in 20 species of small cats (Felis sp). American Zoologist, 33: No. 2, 151-166
Mellen, J.D. (1997) Minimum Husbandry Guidelines for Mammals: Small Felids. American Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA)
Mellen, J.D. & Wildt, D. (1998) AZA small felid husbandry manual. American Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA)
NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) (2005) Standards for Exhibiting Carnivores in New South Wales. Exhibited Animals Protection Act 1986, NSW Department of Primary Industries. NSW, AU.
Robbins, A. (2011) Annual report for Serval. Species coordinator. Auckland Zoo
San Diego Zoo (2010) Serval Fact Sheet. San Diego Zoo Global Library downloaded on May 01, 2012
Schmalz-Peixoto, K.E. (2003) Factors affecting breeding in captive Carnivora. University of Oxford, Oxford. Unpublished thesis
Shepherdson, D.J., Carlstead, K., Mellen, J.D. & Seidensticker, J. (1993) The influence of food presentation on the behaviour of small cats in confined environments. Zoo Biology 12: 203-216
Skipper, G. (2011) Zoos SA Animal Management Policies and Procedures: Animal Transfers. Zoos SA, Australia
Sunquist, M. & Sunquist, F. (2002) Wild Cats of the World. University of Chicago Press, IL, USA. pp.143-151
UNEP-WCMC (2012). Serval. UNEP-WCMC Species Database: CITES-Listed Species
downloaded on 03 September 2012
Wackernagel, H. (1968) A note on breeding the serval cat, Felis serval, at Basle Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook, Vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 46-47
WAZA (2012) Serval. World Association of Zoos and Aquariums. downloaded on September 03, 2012
Weigl, R. (2005) Longevity of mammals in captivity; from the living collections of the world. Kleine Senckenberg-Reihe. Stuttgart, Germany
Wilson, D.E. & Mittermeier, R.A. eds. (2009) Handbook of The Mammasl of the World Vol. 1. Carnivores. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
13. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Amy Robbins, Serval Species Coordinator, for giving me the chance to take on this husbandry manual and Tineke Joustra, acting Coordinator for amazing spell checking and very helpful advice on the final draft. . Paul Rushworth for providing information on the care of Werribee Zoos three hand raised Servals. Hannelie Van Der Merwe for providing information about handraising Servals at Mogo Zoo and Steve McKee, Adelaide Zoo Carnivore Senior Keeper, for his guidance and advice. Also a thank you to Auckland Zoo, Melbourne Zoo and Werribee Zoo for providing their Serval diet sheets.
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