PDF Use of Morphology 1 Running head: MORPHOLOGY AND ... - Spell
Running head: MORPHOLOGY AND SPELLING
Use of Morphology 1
Use of Morphology in Spelling by Children With Dyslexia and Typically Developing Children
Derrick Bourassa Acadia University Rebecca Treiman and Brett Kessler Washington University in St. Louis
Correspondence:
Derrick Bourassa Department of Psychology Acadia University Wolfville, Nova Scotia Canada B4P 2R6 Phone: (902) 585-1405 E-mail: derrick.bourassa@acadiau.ca
Use of Morphology 2
Abstract In English and some other languages, spelling problems that arise at a phonological level can sometimes be solved through consideration of morphology. For example, children could infer that tuned should contain an n and that fighting should contain a t because their stems include these letters. Children could thus avoid misspellings that might otherwise occur, such as "tud" and "fiding." We used a spellinglevel match design to examine the extent to which children with dyslexia and younger typical children use morphology in this way. Both groups of children benefited from morphology to some extent, but not as much as they could have given their knowledge of the stems. Our results suggest that the spellings produced by older children with dyslexia are similar to those of younger normal children in their morphological characteristics, as well as in other ways.
Use of Morphology 3
Use of Morphology in Spelling by Children With Dyslexia and Typically Developing Children
In an alphabetic writing system, the spelling of a word reflects the sounds that it contains. Learning to spell, in large part, involves learning the mappings between sounds and letters. Difficulties of several sorts may arise as children learn and use these mappings. One source of difficulty is phonemic segmentation skills that are not fully developed. Other difficulties occur because of irregularities in the sound-to-spelling correspondences of a writing system. In English and certain other languages, spelling difficulties at the phonological level can sometimes be overcome through the use of morphological information. In the present study, we examine the extent to which typical learners and learners with dyslexia use morphology to solve phonological spelling problems.
Children learn most efficiently and productively if they can divide spoken words into units of the size represented by the writing system--phonemes in the case of English and other alphabetic systems. However, the ability to segment spoken words into phonemes develops later than the ability to segment words into units such as syllables, onsets (initial consonants or clusters), and rimes (vowel + final consonant units) (e.g., Liberman, Shankweiler, Fischer, & Carter, 1974; Treiman & Zukowski, 1991). Consider a young child who conceptualizes the onset of a word like fly as a single unit. If this child has not separately learned a spelling for the /fl/ unit, the child may misspell the word as "fi" or "fy" (e.g., Caravolas & Bruck, 1993; Treiman, 1991).1 Such spelling errors do not reflect any irregularity in the spelling of the onset cluster. Instead, the errors reflect the child's difficulty in analyzing speech at the level of phonemes.
Use of Morphology 4
Links between phonemes and graphemes that are irregular or unpredictable also cause difficulty for learners. For example, the phoneme /?/ is spelled as a in English words such as bat and flag but as ai in plaid. Situations such as this are common in English, more common than in languages such as Finnish or Italian. In some cases of one-to-many links from sounds to letters, spellers could choose the correct letter if they considered the sound's position in the word or syllable or the identity of the surrounding sounds (Kessler & Treiman, 2001). In other cases, such disambiguation is not possible. This is true for the /?/ of plaid, and it is also true for the flaps that occur in certain dialects of English, including North American English. The second consonants of words like water, writer, and rider are almost always pronounced as flaps. Flaps are made with a quick tap of the tongue against the ridge that lies behind the upper teeth, and the flap that occurs in writer sounds no different from the one that occurs in rider. Indeed, these two words are homophonous for most Americans, including the population we study in this paper. It is not possible to predict on the basis of a flap's sound whether it should be spelled as t or d. Children do not always make the same decisions that the writing system does, leading to misspellings such as "woodr" for water (e.g., Ehri & Wilce, 1986; Read, 1975).
In learning to spell, children must overcome both segmentation problems and irregularity problems. How do children manage to do this? Some of the problems could be solved if children considered a word's morphological structure. A case in point is the segmentation problem that arises for words that end with consonant clusters, such as brand. If children's phonological segmentation skills are insufficient to allow them to conceptualize a separate /n/ in the spoken form of brand, they might produce
Use of Morphology 5
misspellings like "brad" (e.g., Treiman, Zukowski, & Richmond-Welty, 1995). However, such children may be able to include an n when spelling a two-morpheme word like tuned if they relate this word to its stem, tune. Indeed, Treiman and Cassar (1996) found that young children were significantly more likely to symbolize the first segment of a final consonant cluster with an appropriate letter when a stem existed that could aid their spelling, as with tuned, than when no such stem existed, as with brand.
Morphology could potentially help children deal with certain irregularities as well. Consider a young child who is unsure how to spell the flaps of daughter and body. Such a child should produce more accurate spellings for the flaps of waiting and cloudy if he or she relates these words to their stems, wait and cloud. Indeed, Treiman, Cassar, and Zukowski (1994) found that the proportion of correct spellings of flaps was higher for two-morpheme words such as waiting and cloudy than for one-morpheme words such as daughter and body. This was true as early as kindergarten and first grade. These results suggest that children use their knowledge of related words, to some extent, to help deal with irregularities in the mappings from sounds to letters.
The findings that we have just described with English-speaking children, together with findings from learners of languages such as French (e.g., Pacton, Fayol, & Perruchet, 2002; S?n?chal, 2000) and Greek (e.g., Chliounaki & Bryant, 2002), suggest that normally developing children make some use of morphology from fairly early on in the development of spelling. However, we should not overstate the extent of this benefit. Even for morphologically transparent English words such as waiting, children do not benefit from their knowledge of the stem as much as they could when spelling the inflected word. For example, a child who consistently uses t to spell the final segment of
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