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Chapter 8- Human System and Resource Usedemographicsstatistical data relating to the population and particular groups within it.doubling timeThe number of years needed to double a population, assuming a constant rate of natural increase.crude death rateThe number of deaths per year per 1,000 people.crude birth rateThe number of live births per year per 1,000 people.fertility ratethe average number of children a woman of childbearing years would have in her lifetime, if she had children at the current rate for her countrynatural inceasecrude birth rate - crude death rate / 10 (ignore migration)population densityA measurement of the number of persons per unit land area.Human Development Index (HDI)Indicator of level of development for each country, constructed by United Nations, combining income, literacy, education, and life expectancyLEDCLess economically developed country: a country with low to moderate industrialization and low to moderate average GNP per capita.MEDCMore economically developed country: a highly industrialized country with high average GNP per capita.life expectancyThe average number of years an individual can be expected to live, given current social, economic, and medical conditions. Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live.demographyThe scientific study of population characteristics.Malthusian TheoryMalthus' theory that population increase would outpace increases in the means of subsistenceBoserup's TheoryStrongly disagreed with Malthus. Thought that if people were threatened by malnutrition they would have more drive to provideoverpopulationThe number of people in an area exceeds the capacity of the environment to support life at adecent standard of living.high infant mortality (reasons for large families)The percentage of children who die before their first birthday within a particular area or country.One of the main factors leading to large families - have more children as some will die, but 50% will survive = large population growthsecurity in old age (reasons for large families)the tradition in the family is that the children look after the parents/grandparents - therefore, more children = more carechildren as an economic asset (reasons for large families)especially in agricultural societies - children are needed to work on the farmsstatus of women (reasons for large families)in many societies, women still have a lower social position, and the belief is that they should stay home and look after childrenlack of contraceptives (reasons for large families)in MEDCs, these are the prime reason for reduced birth rateshowever, in may LEDCs, people are too poor to buy them, or they are not availableprovide education (ways to reduce family sizes)basic literacy in adults and children has been shown to reduce birth ratesimprove health (ways to reduce family sizes)by preventing spread of diseases, increased hygiene, improved nutrition, simple medicines and vaccinations - all these will reduce child mortality = reduction in birth rateincrease availability of contraceptives (ways to reduce family sizes)to allow for family planningenhanced income (ways to reduce family sizes)e.g. microlending may provide opportunities for families to provide for themselves, and possibly even create small businessespopulation pyramidsVisual representations of the age and sex composition of a population whereby the percentage of each age group (generally five-year increments) is represented by a horizontal bar the length of which represents its relationship to the total population. The males in each age group are represented to the left of the center line of each horizontal bar; the females in each age group are represented to the right of the center linedemographic transition model (DTM)The process of change in a society's population from a condition of high crude birth and death rates and low rate of natural increase to a condition of low crude birth and death rates, low rate of natural increase, and a higher total population.Stage 1 - DMThigh stationary - high birth rate and high death rate in an LEDCStage 2 - DMTearly expanding - high birth rate but decreasing death rate due to improved economy, food supply and health - large population increase in an LEDCStage 3 - DMTlate expanding - death rate is still falling, birth rate is also starting to fall as access to contraceptives and family planning increases - still a large population increase in an LEDCStage 4 - DMTlow stationary - low birth rate and low death rate, this is in an MEDC - means population growth slows or even reaches 0Stage 5 - DMTdeclining - fertility rate is dropping even further and death rate is low - average number of children is less than 2, and so population size is decreasing - only in some MEDCs (such as in Europe)greying of Europepopulation growth of Europe is falling, and its population is ageingnatural capitalA term sometimes used by economists for natural resources that, if appropriately managed, can produce a "natural income" of goods and services. The natural capital of a forest might provide a continuing natural income of timber, game, water and recreation.natural incomeRenewable resources such as plants, animals, and soil provided by the earth's natural capital.maximum sustainable yieldthe maximum rate at which a renewable resource can be exploited without impairing its ability to be renewed or replenishedrenewable natural capitalNatural resources that have a sustainable yield or harvest equal to or less than their natural productivity; for example, food crops, timber.non-renewable natural capitalNatural resources that cannot be replenished within a timescale of the same order as that at which they are taken from the environment and used; for example, fossil fuels.replenishable natural capitalNon-living natural resources that depend on the energy of the Sun for their replenishment; i.e. groundwater.exploitationuse or utilization, especially for profit - often has negative inferencedynamic nature of natural capitalthe importance of a resource which changes over timee.g. flint - in past extremely important for tools, now, not souranium - in the past, unknown, unable to utilise, now - extremely valuable due to increased nuclear poweruse valuation - natural capital that we can put a price on- economic price in market- ecological functions, e.g. water storage or gas exchange in forests- recreational function, e.g. tourism, leisurenon-use evaluation - natural capital that is almost impossible to put a price on- the intrinsic value (right to exist)- future uses that do not know about yet (science, medicines, gene pool)- value in existing for future generations - existence valueSEEAUsually The System of Environmental-Economic Accounting - sometimes Socio-economic Environmental Assessmentvaluation of a nations environment with the aim of encouraging nations to conserve their natural capitalsolid domestic waste (SDW)all the solid waste created by households:- biodegradable- recyclable- WEEE (waste electrical and electronic equipment)- hazardous- toxic- medical- inert- mixedcircular economySpiral loop system or self-replenishing economydesigners must consider use of material after product use so the materials need to be recovered and used againlinear economytake, make, dumpindustrial economy that the material flows only go one way, from resource o production to consumption to waste without reentering the biosphere or circulationreduce (strategies for minimising waste)use fewer resources - the best way to reduce SDWreuse (strategies for minimising waste)when products are used for something other than their original purpose when returned to the manufacturerrecycle (strategies for minimising waste)the sorting of materials into different types, and then transported to recycling plantsstyrofoama plastic material used commonly in packing or takeaway foods - takes 500 years to break down/dissolvelandfillalso known as a dump; a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and is the oldest form of waste treatment.incinerationAdvantages-volume of waste reduced by 90% and waste heat can be used. Disadvantages-toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride, dioxin), scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal.anaerobic digestionis the decomposition of waste under anaerobic conditions to produce biogas and a compost-like residuehuman carrying capacityTheoretical estimates of the numbers of humans who could inhabit Earth at the same timeecological footprintLand and water area appropriated by each nation as a resource to consume or to absorb the waste it generates.ecological footprint calculationper capita food consumption (kg/ha/yr)------------------------------------------------mean food production per hectare of arable land (kg/ha/yr)+per capita CO2 emission (kg C/yr)------------------------------------------------net fixation per hectare of local natural vegetation (kg C/ha/yr) ................
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