I



CHAPTER 14 NOTES: DISCOVERY & CRISIS IN THE 16TH & 17TH CENTURIES

I. An Age of Discovery and Expansion

A. The Motives

1. Europeans had long been attracted to lands outside of Europe

2. Although Muslim control of central Asia cut Europe off from the countries further east, the Mongol conquests in the 13th century had reopened the doors

3. Merchants, adventurers & government officials had high hopes of finding precious metals and new areas of trade, in particular, more direct sources for the Spices of the East

4. Religious Zeal “God, Glory, & Gold”

5. Europeans had achieved a level of wealth & technology that enabled them to make a regular series of voyages beyond Europe

6. Europeans had developed remarkably seaworthy ships as well as new navigational techniques

7. Growing knowledge of wind patterns spurred exploration

B. The Development of a Portuguese maritime Empire

1. Under Prince Henry the “Navigator,” Portugal began to explore the coast of Africa

2. In the 1440s, the Portuguese made some of their first profits from their maritime exploration and returning ships and from the sale of Africans slaves

3. In 1471, they discovered gold along the southern coast of the Western hump of Africa (Gold Coast)

4. Hearing reports of a route to India around the southern tip of Africa, Portuguese sea captains continued their probing

a. In 1488, Bartholomew Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope

b. Vasco da Gama, from 1497 to 1499, rounded the Cape of Good Hope; stopped at several East African ports controlled by Muslims; sailed across Arabian sea to Calicut, India; brought valuable spices such as ginger and cinnamon from India

c. In 1511, Portuguese captain Alfonso de Albuquerque sailed into the harbor of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula

5. Portuguese fleets returned annually to India, seeking to destroy Arab Muslim shipping and established monopolies in the Spice Trade

6. The development of a Portuguese maritime empire encompassing Malacca and the Malay Peninsula was achieved, in part, through ruthless attacks on all prior Arab settlers in the region including the murder and mutilation of male and female Islamic prisoners.

7. Portuguese were successful because of guns and seamanship.

C. Voyages to the New World

1. Spanish attempted to reach the Indies by sailing westward across the Atlantic

2. Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)

a. With 3 ships, the Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria manned by 90 men, Columbus set sail on August 3, 1492 west across the Atlantic.

b. On October 12, 1492, Columbus reached the Bahamas and then went on to explore the coastline of Cuba and the northern shores of Hispaniola

1. told Spanish monarchs that gold and silver would be found there

2. believed he had reached Asia

3. because of their contact with Europeans, the native population of Hispaniola went from 100,000 to 300 in just 80 years following Columbus’ initial arrival

c. Although Columbus clung to his belief until his death, other explorers soon realized that he had discovered a new frontier altogether. (The Americas)

3. Other explorations

a. In 1497, Venetian John Cabot explored the New England coastline of the Americas under the backing of Henry VII of England

b. In 1500, Portuguese sailor Pedro Cabral discovered South America. (Accompanied by Vespucci)

c. In 1513, Spaniard Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached the Pacific Ocean

d. In 1519, Spaniard Ferdinand Magellan’s crew circumnavigated the world (Magellan was killed in the Philippines)

4. Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the new world between Spanish and Portuguese

D. The Spanish Empire in the New World

1. Sanctioned by the Castilian crown, Spanish Conquistadors were successful at conquering large chunks of the Americas because:

a. superior weapons

b. organizational skills

c. determination

d. rivalries among native peoples

e. disease

2. Hernan Cortes (1485-1547) exemplified Spanish expansion and exploration of the New World by his defeat of the Aztecs in Mexico

3. Francisco Pizarro (1475-1541) defeated Incas and established a Spanish colony in South America by 1535.

4. Administration of the Spanish Empire

a. Queen Isabella of Spain declared the natives of the New World to be the subjects of Castile and issued the encomienda

1. was designed to protect the Indians, pay them wages, and supervise their spiritual needs

2. in reality, it allowed Spaniards to collect tribute from the natives and to enslave them

b. Forced labor, starvation, and diseases such as smallpox, measles, and typhus took a fearful toll on Native American populations (NO immunities to European diseases)

c. 30% to 40% of native populations died due to contact with Europeans

d. Spanish developed an administrative system based on viceroys

e. Catholic monarchs of Spain were given extensive rights over ecclesiastical affairs in the New World

f. Mass conversion of Native Americans by Dominican, Franciscan, and Jesuit missionaries brought the organizational and institutional structures of the Roman Catholic Church to the New World

E. Impact of Expansion

1. Destroyed Native American cultures that came under European control to a large degree

2. Large influx of precious metals such as gold and silver to Europe from the New World

3. Introduction of new foods into Europe such as potatoes, coffee, corn, and tobacco

4. Introduction of horses, sheep, and wheat to the New World from Europe

5. Deepened rivalries among competing European countries

II. Politics and Wars of Religion in the 16th Century

1 The French Wars of Religion

1. Francis I (1515-1547) and Henry II (1547-1559) had been strong rulers in France who kept the internal peace and controlled the Church

2. After the accidental death of Henry II (jousting accident), he was succeeded by sons who were weak, feeble, and neurotic

3. Henry II’s widow, Catherine de’Medici acted as a regent and dominated French politics during her sons’ reigns; nicknamed “Madame Snake”

4. Concerned by the growth of Calvinism, French kings tried to stop its spread by persecuting Huguenots (French Calvinists)

5. The Huguenots

a. made up approximately 7% of the total French population

b. made up approximately 50% of the total French nobility

c. came from all levels of society, rich and poor a like

d. strong-willed and well organized

6. The sons of Henry II of the Valois dynasty were staunchly Roman Catholic

7. The Guise Family, a powerful French Catholic family that posed a threat even to the Catholic Valois family, spear-headed the anti-Huguenot movement in France

8. Religious issues were not the only factors that contributed to civil war in France:

a. Towns and provinces resented the power of the monarchy

b. The nobility, particularly the Huguenot nobility, also resented royal authority

9. Civil Wars temporarily halted the development of a centralized state in France

10. The wars erupted in 1562 when the powerful Duke of Guise orchestrated a massacre of thousands of Huguenot men, women, and children who were peacefully congregating in Vassy

11. Although outnumbered badly, the Huguenots were excellent at defensive warfare and proved difficult to conquer

12. A truce seemed to be reached between the Catholics and Huguenots when King Charles IX’s sister agreed to marry Henry of Navarre, a Huguenot leader and member of the Bourbon family.

13. Henry of Navarre’s mother had introduced Calvinism to Navarre

14. Truce ended with the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in August, 1572

a. the Guise family influenced Charles IX through his mother Catherine de’Medici that the gathering of Huguenots in Paris for Henry’s wedding was a threat to the crown

b. King’s guards sought out and murdered prominent Huguenot leaders

c. King’s actions unleashed a wave of violence as Catholic mobs killed 3,000 Huguenots in Paris

d. Thousands more Huguenots were killed in the towns and provinces

e. Massacre eventually worked against Valois dynasty which was badly discredited over the bloodshed

15. After the assassination of two kings, the violence finally ended with the crowning of Henry of Navarre as the CATHOLIC King of France (Henry IV)

16. In 1598, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes which stated:

a. acknowledged Catholicism as France’s official religion

b. guaranteed Huguenots right to worship in selected places in every district in France

c. allowed Huguenots to keep fortified towns

d. allowed Huguenots to enjoy all political privileges

A. Philip II and the Cause of Militant Catholicism

1. Philip II of Spain and the Hapsburg Dynasty (1556-1598)

a. son of Charles V

b. husband of Mary I of England; she died in 1558

c. great advocate of militant Catholicism and most important political figure in the 2nd half of the 16th Century other than possibly Elizabeth I

2. Goals of Philip II

a. first goal was to consolidate and secure lands inherited from his father

b. his most important goal was to make Spain the dominant power of Europe

c. successful at leading the Holy League against Muslim, Mediterranean holdings (Battle of Lepanto-1571)

d. championed all things Catholic

e. Turned his royal palace, Escorial, into a functioning monastery

f. Gold and silver poured into Spain from New World

3. Problems Of Philip II

a. the influx of gold and silver made inflation skyrocket which disrupted domestic textile and agricultural production

b. he wasn’t good at delegating authority

c. debt overwhelmed his monarchy (2/3’s of state income went to servicing the debt

d. foreign policy fiascos with the Netherlands and England

B. The Revolt of the Netherlands

1. Netherlands revolted against Philip II because of:

a. the Dutch were tired of paying taxes to support Spanish interests

b. Dutch nobles thought they would lose privileges as Philip II attempted to strengthen his grip on the region

c. Dutch citizens who were becoming increasingly Calvinist viewed Catholic Philip II with suspicion

2. Revolt started when Calvinists began destroying statues and stain glass windows in Catholic churches

3. Philip II sent Duke of Alva and 10,000 troops to put down rebellion

4. Duke of Alva instituted the Council of Troubles which set into motion a reign of terror against powerful Calvinists

5. William of Orange led the Calvinist resistance

6. Revolt ended with a truce that divided the Netherlands into northern and southern provinces

a. Northern provinces would become an independent Dutch republic

b. Southern provinces remained under Hapsburg control

C. The England of Elizabeth

1. England under Elizabeth I (1558-1603):

a. became leading Protestant country in Europe

b. laid the foundations for a world empire

c. experienced a cultural renaissance

2. Elizabeth, half sister of Mary I, based her religious policies on the concepts of moderation and compromise as she put the interest of the state above religious ideology

3. With Catholicism being identified with the unpopular Spanish, Catholic numbers dwindled in England

4. Catholic Mary Queen of Scots did pose a threat to Elizabeth

a. Mary Queen of Scots, cousin to Elizabeth, was next in line to the throne after Elizabeth

b. Mary Q of S fled from Scotland to England fearing for her life after a successful Calvinist revolt there

c. A suspicious Elizabeth put Mary Q of S under house arrest upon her arrival

d. In 1587, Elizabeth had Mary Q of S beheaded after she was implicated in a plot to assassinate Elizabeth

5. Puritans were an unwanted distraction to Elizabeth that she successfully contained during her reign

6. In foreign policy matters, Elizabeth tried to avoid provoking war with other European powers but did approve and support English pirating efforts of Spanish ships and secretly aided Protestants battling Catholic forces in France and the Netherlands

7. In 1588, Philip II sent the Spanish Armada to crush the English navy and to clear the way for a Spanish invasion of England

a. Sent because Philip II was tired of English pirating and its interference in internal Hapsburg matters on the continent.

b. Armada consisted of large, lumbering ships equipped with small guns

c. British navy was smaller, fas` ```ter, and had superior guns

d. Combination of British navy and bad weather doomed the Armada

e. Remnants of the Armada returned to Spain battered and beaten although fighting would continue between England and Spain for 16 more years

f. From the moment the Armada was defeated, England rose in power both within Europe and on the world stage while Spain began its slow but steady decline as a power

III. Economic and Social Crises

A. Inflation and Economic Stagnation

1. Inflation was a major economic problem during the 16th and early 17th Centuries

2. Though the inflation rate was probably a relatively low 2 to 3 percent a year, it was noticeable in a Europe accustomed to stable prices

3. Wages failed to keep up with price increases (wage earners standard of living dropped as a result)

4. Possible Causes of 16th & 17th Century Inflation

a. Influx of precious metals from the New World

b. Rapidly increasing population (increased demand for food & land)

5. By the 1620s, inflation was replaced by economic contraction particularly in Italy & Spain

B. Trade, Industry, Banking, and Agriculture

1. The Flourishing European trade of the 16th Century

revolved around 3 major areas:

a. The Mediterranean in the south

b. The low Countries and the Baltic region in the north

c. Central Europe which relied on the Rhine & Danube

2. The commercial expansion of the 16th and 17th centuries was made easier by new forms of commercial organization especially joint-stock trading companies which were able to raise huge sums of capital for world trading ventures

3. Commercial banks replaced the traditional family banking institutions

4. Despite the growth of commercial capitalism, 80% to 90% of Europeans still relied on Agriculture for their incomes.

C. Population and the Growth of Cities

1. The16th century was a period of expanding population in Europe as the population went from 60 million in 1500 to 85 million in 1600

a. Warmer climate

b. Increased food supply

2. The rise in population was reflected in the growth of cities by 1600

a. Paris’ population was 500,000 (largest city in Europe)

b. Naples’ population was 300,000

c. London’ population was 250,000

3. 17th Century cities visibly reflected the remarkable disparity in wealth during the century

IV. 17th Century Crises: War and Rebellions

A. The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)

1. A struggle between militant Catholicism and militant Calvinism played an important role in the wars outbreak

2. Secular, dynastic-nationalist considerations were even more important as the war progressed

3. Although much of the fighting took place in Germany, the war escalated into a European –wide conflict

4. France looked to break out of its Hapsburg encirclement

5. Spain looked to regain the Netherlands after losing the territory in a “temporary” truce

6. The Austrian Hapsburg wished to consolidate their holdings in Austria & Bohemia by eliminating Protestantism and creating stronger central authority

7. Protestant Union (1608)

a. Formed by the Elector Palatine Frederick IV

b. League of German Protestant states

c. Backed by Dutch, English, & French

8. Catholic League (1609)

a. Organized by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria

b. Catholic union designed to counteract its Protestant rival group

c. Backed by Spain and the Holy Roman Emperor

9. Bohemian Phase of the Thirty Years’ War

a. lasted from 1618-1625

b. Protestant nobles rebelled against the Catholic ruler Ferdinand in Bohemia

c. Protestant nobles managed to kick Ferdinand out of Bohemia and replaced him with a Protestant ruler, Frederick IV, who was the leader of the P.U.

d. Ferdinand, while ousted from Bohemia, became the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire

e. With the backing of the C.L., Ferdinand defeated Frederick’s forces at the Battle of White Mountain outside of Prague in 1620.

f. Ferdinand, Duke Maximilian, and the Spanish Hapsburgs divided up the spoils after defeating Frederick

10. Danish Phase of the 30 Years’ War

a. lasted from 1625-1629

b. King Christian IV attempted to intervene on the Protestants’ behalf by invading northern Germany

c. Danes most likely hoped to annex the German provinces along the Baltic Sea

d. Danes & Protestant forces were whipped by the pro-Catholic imperial army led by the brilliant Albrecht von Wallenstein

e. Danes defeat ended their involvement in the war and even ended their dominance in the Baltic

f. After the defeat of the Danes, Ferdinand II issued the Edict of Restitution (1629)

1. prohibited Calvinist worship

2. restored to the Catholic Church all land taken by Protestant princes in Germany from the church over the previous 75 years.

3. angered the princes greatly

11. Swedish Phase of the 30 Years’ War

a. lasted from 1630-1635

b. Phase began when Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus entered the fighting in northern Germany on behalf of the Protestants

c. With French financial backing, Gustavus, a brilliant military leader, swept the imperial “Catholic” forces out of northern Germany and chased them southward

d. Von Wallenstein, who had been relieved of command of imperial forces for political reasons at the end of the Danish phase, was placed in command of imperial forces once again

e. Von Wallenstein’s imperial army met Gustavus’ Swedes at the Battle of Luzen (1632) near Leipzig

1. the battle was a Swedish victory

2. Swedes paid a high price as Gustavus was killed in battle

3. Swedish army was never the same after the death of their brilliant leader

f. less effective Swedish army was defeated by von Wallenstein-less (victim of assassination) imperial army at the Battle of Nordlingen (1634) which drove the Swedes out of southern Germany

1. victory guaranteed that southern Germany would remain Catholic

2. Ferdinand repealed Edict of Restitution in an effort to end hostilities with Protestant nobles

12. Franco-Swedish Phase of the 30 Years’ War

a. lasted from 1635-1648

b. religious differences became secondary to dynastic rivalries during this phase

c. Catholic French & Protestant Swedes took on Catholic Hapsburgs of Germany and Spain

d. War considered by most to be part of the greater struggle between Bourbon France and Hapsburg Spain

e. Decisive battle was the Battle of Rocroi (1643) where the French defeated the Spanish bringing to an end Spanish military greatness

f. Peace of Westphalia (1648)

1. ended fighting in Germany

2. allowed German states to determine their religion

13. Impact of 30 Years’ War

a. Bourbons and France emerged as dominant power in Europe

b. Witnessed the devastation of most of the German countryside

c. Brought to an end the Holy Roman Empire as a single political entity and ensured German disunity for 200 more years

B. A Military Revolution?

1. by the 17th century, war played an increasingly important role in European affairs

2. Medieval warfare had been replaced by a new modern warfare which included:

a. use of conscripts rather than mercenaries (Gustavus)

b. more flexible military tactics because of conscripts

c. infantry armed with pikes and halberds and organized into massive rectangles (battalions)

d. utilization of firearms and cannons limited effectiveness of cavalry

e. better disciplined armies

C. Rebellions

--Rebellions that swept through Europe at the time of the 30 Years’ War indirectly resulted in an increase in the power of the European monarchies.

The Witchcraft Craze

D. History in European Society

1. Witchcraft had been part of traditional village culture for centuries in Europe

2. Viewed as sinister when the medieval church connected witches to activities of the devil

3. 13th Century Inquisition saw people accused of a variety of witchcraft practices turned over to secular authorities, and burned at the stake or hanged

4. Witches were used as scapegoats by the church & society for the Black Death

E. 16th & 17th Century

1. Witchcraft trials were prevalent in England, Scotland, Switzerland, Germany, some parts of France, the Low countries, and even New England in North America

2. 16th and 17th Centuries were different from early times because of the increased numbers of trials and executions during this time (100,000 people were prosecuted on witchcraft charges)

3. The witch hunts of 16th & 17th Centuries resulted in accusations against mainly lower class women (80% women almost all from lower class)

4. A typical witch trial in the 17th century consisted of torture to gain “confessions” from the accused

5. Works of the time such as Malleus Maleficarum (Hammer of Witches) argues women were more likely to be witches because:

a. Weaker than men both mentally and morally

b. Women more likely to succumb to the allures of Satan

c. For years was considered to be standard & highly reliable guide for finding and killing witches

6. Recent scholarship suggests that the witchcraft craze of the 16th & 17th Centuries took place because social conditions threatened old communal values

7. By the end of the 17th Century and beginning of the 18th Century, the witchcraft craze died down as more and more educated people were questioning altogether their old attitudes toward religion and finding it especially contrary to reason to believe in the old view of a world haunted by evil spirits

V. Culture in a Turbulent World

A. Mannerism

1. The Artistic Renaissance came to an end when a new movement called Mannerism emerged in Italy of the 1520s and 1530s

2. The worldly enthusiasm of the Renaissance gave way to anxiety, uncertainty, suffering, and a yearning for spiritual experience

3. Mannerist painters deliberately distorted the rules of proportion by portraying elongated and contorted figures that conveyed a sense of suffering and a strong emotional atmosphere filled with anxiety and confusion

4. Mannerism, which broke from the high ideals of the Renaissance, reached its peak with the work of Domenikos Theotocopoulos Called “El Greco”

a. born in Crete

b. studied in Venice and Rome

c. moved to Toledo, Spain in 1570 where he was the official church painter

d. used shades of yellow and green against an eerie background of grey in his works

e. notable work was Laocoon (1608-1614)

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5. Mannerism was eventually replaced by the Baroque movement that dominated the artistic world for a century and a half.

B. Baroque Movement

1. Baroque artists sought to harmonize the classical traditions of Renaissance art with the intense religious feelings fostered by the revival of religion in the Reformation

2. first appeared in Rome in the Jesuit church of Il Gesu whose façade was finished in 1575

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3. Primarily embraced by Catholics (especially in Hapsburg areas)

4. art & architecture reflected the search for power that was characteristic of much of the 17th century

5. painting was known for its use of dramatic effects to heighten emotional intensity----------------------------2

6. notables in Baroque style include:

a. Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)—prolific painter—Landing of Marie de’Medici at Marsailles (1622-1626)

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b.

c. Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680)—architect who completed St. Peter’s Basilica (mid 1600s)

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Bernini also did the Ecstasy of Saint Theresa (1647-1652)

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d. Artemisia Gentileschi (1593-1653)—less known but well accomplished female artist—Judith beheading Holofernes (1620)----------------------1

VI. [pic]

A. Thought: The World of Montaigne

1. The humanist emphasis on the dignity of man and the role of education in producing moral virtue seemed questionable in view of the often violent passions of dynastic and religious warfare

2. Intellectuals and writers began to adopt new approaches in criticizing tradition and authority

3. Positive Skepticism

a. closely associated with Frenchman Michel Montaigne (1533-1592)

b. Montaigne preached toleration and moderation in his Essay on Experience

B. A Golden Age of Literature: England and Spain

1. Periods of crisis often produce great writing, and so it was of this age, which was characterized by epic poetry, the first great chivalric novel, and a golden age in theater

2. England

a. often called the Elizabethan Era since much of England’s cultural flowering took place during her reign. (Golden Age in Literature)

b. Elizabethan literature exhibits the exuberance and pride associated with English exploits under Elizabeth I

c. Drama drove the English theater of this era

d. William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

1. England’s leading dramatist of the era

2. master of the English language

3. technical proficiency was matched by an incredible insight into human psychology

4. writer, actor, producer of both comedies and dramas

5. known for use of iambic pentameter

6. his plays were the best example of patriotic enthusiasm and pride of all things English

7. often performed at the Globe Theatre

3. Spain

a. playwrights such as Lope de Vega flourished in Spain during this time

b. plays were written primarily to entertain rather than to educate or sermonize

c. the zenith of the Spanish Golden Age in Literature was reached in the works of Miguel Cervantes (1547-1616)

--most famous work was the first chivalric novel Don Quixote

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