PDF ADVANCED PLACEMENT DITION The Earth and Its Peoples

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ADVANCED PLACEMENT* EDITION

The Earth and Its Peoples

A Global History

THIRD EDITION

Richard W. Bulliet

Columbia University

Pamela Kyle Crossley

Dartmouth College

Daniel R. Headrick

Roosevelt University

Steven W. Hirsch

Tufts University

Lyman L. Johnson

University of North Carolina?Charlotte

David Northrup

Boston College

Houghton Mifflin Company Boston New York

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About the Authors

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Richard W. Bulliet Professor of Middle Eastern Steven W. Hirsch Steven W. Hirsch holds a Ph.D. in

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History at Columbia University, Richard W. Bulliet re- Classics from Stanford University and is currently Asso-

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ceived his Ph.D. from Harvard University. He has written ciate Professor Classics and History at Tufts University.

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scholarly works on a number of topics: the social history He has received grants from the National Endowment

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of medieval Iran (The Patricians of Nishapur), the his- for the Humanities and the Massachusetts Foundation

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torical competition between pack camels and wheeled for Humanities and Public Policy. His research and pub-

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transport (The Camel and the Wheel), the process of con- lications include The Friendship of the Barbarians:

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version to Islam (Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Xenophon and the Persian Empire, as well as articles and

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Period), and the overall course of Islamic social history reviews in the Classical Journal, the American Journal of

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(Islam: The View from the Edge). He is the editor of the Philology, and the Journal of Interdisciplinary History. He

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Columbia History of the Twentieth Century. He has pub- is currently working on a comparative study of ancient

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lished four novels, co-edited The Encyclopedia of the Mediterranean and Chinese civilizations.

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Modern Middle East, and hosted an educational tele-

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vision series on the Middle East. He was awarded a fel- Lyman L. Johnson Professor of History at the Uni-

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lowship by the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial versity of North Carolina at Charlotte, Lyman L. Johnson

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Foundation.

earned his Ph.D. in Latin American History from the

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University of Connecticut. A two-time Senior Fulbright-

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Pamela Kyle Crossley Pamela Kyle Crossley re- Hays Lecturer, he also has received fellowships from the

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ceived her Ph.D. in Modern Chinese History from Yale Tinker Foundation, the Social Science Research Council,

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University. She is Professor of History and Rosenwald Re- the National Endowment for the Humanities, and the

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search Professor in the Arts and Sciences at Dartmouth American Philosophical Society. His recent books in-

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College. Her books include A Translucent Mirror: History clude Death, Dismemberment, and Memory; The Faces

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and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology; The Manchus; of Honor (with Sonya Lipsett-Rivera); The Problem of

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Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the Order in Changing Societies; Essays on the Price History

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End of the Qing World; and (with Lynn Hollen Lees and of Eighteenth-Century Latin America (with Enrique

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John W. Servos) Global Society: The World Since 1900. Her Tandeter); and Colonial Latin America (with Mark A.

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research, which concentrates on the cultural history of Burkholder). He also has published in journals, includ-

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China, Inner Asia, and Central Asia, has been supported ing the Hispanic American Historical Review, the Journal

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by the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation of Latin American Studies, the International Review of

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and the National Endowment for the Humanities.

Social History, Social History, and Desarrollo Econ?mico.

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He recently served as president of the Conference on

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Daniel R. Headrick Daniel R. Headrick received Latin American History.

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his Ph.D. in History from Princeton University. Professor

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of History and Social Science at Roosevelt University in David Northrup Professor of History at Boston Col-

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Chicago, he is the author of several books on the history lege, David Northrup earned his Ph.D. in African and Eu-

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of technology, imperialism, and international relations, ropean History from the University of California at Los

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including The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Angeles. He earlier taught in Nigeria with the Peace Corps

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Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century; The Tentacles of and at Tuskegee Institute. Research supported by the

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Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism; Fulbright-Hays Commission, the National Endowment

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The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and Inter- for the Humanities, and the Social Science Research

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national Politics; and When Information Came of Age: Council led to publications concerning pre-colonial

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Technologies of Knowledge in the Age of Reason and Rev- Nigeria, the Congo (1870?1940), the Atlantic slave trade,

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olution, 1700?1850. His articles have appeared in the and Asian, African, and Pacific Islander indentured labor

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Journal of World History and the Journal of Modern His- in the nineteenth century. A contributor to the Oxford

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tory, and he has been awarded fellowships by the Na- History of the British Empire and Blacks in the British

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tional Endowment for the Humanities, the John Simon Empire, his latest book is Africa's Discovery of Europe,

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Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, and the Alfred P. 1450?1850. For 2004 and 2005 he serves as president of

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Sloan Foundation.

the World History Association.

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Cover illustration: New Year's Festival (woodcut) by Utagawa Kunisada (1786?1864) Victoria and Albert Museum, London, UK / Bridgeman Art Library International, Ltd.

Part opener credits: Pt. 1, p. 1: Gian Berto Vanni/Corbis; Pt. 2, p. 89: ? Corbis; Pt. 3, p. 193: Tokyo National Museum/DNP Archives; Pt. 4, p. 291: Biblioth?que nationale de France; Pt. 5, p. 401: Library of Congress; Pt. 6, p. 537: ? Hulton-Deutsch/Corbis; Pt. 7, p. 677: Charles O'Rear/Corbis; Pt. 8, p. 817 ? Corbis.

Chapter opener credits: Ch. 1, p. 4: Giraudon/Art Resource, NY; Ch. 2, p. 36: Courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum; Ch. 3, p. 59: Woodfin Camp & Associates; Ch. 4, p. 92: Bibliot?que nationale de France; Ch. 5, p. 123: ? Dennis Cox/ChinaStock; Ch. 6, p. 150: Dinodia Photo Library; Ch. 7, p. 173: Allan Eaton/Ancient Art & Architecture; Ch. 8, p. 196: Suleymaniye Library, Istanbul. Courtesy, Karen Pinto, History Department, Columbia University; Ch. 9, p. 218: Mus?e de Bayeaux/ Michael Holford; Ch. 10, p. 248: Fujita Art Museum; Ch. 11, p. 267: Justin Kerr; Ch. 12, p. 294: Imperial Household Agency/International Society for Educational Information, Japan; Ch. 13, p. 324: Imperial Household Collection, Kyoto; Ch. 14, p. 349: Copyright Brussels, Royal Library of Belgium; Ch. 15, p. 375: G. Dagli Orti/The Art Archive; Ch. 16, p. 404: Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna/The Bridgeman Art Library, New York and London; Ch. 17, p. 430: Archivo General de la Naci?n, Buenos Aires; Ch. 18, p. 457: From William Clark, Ten Views in the Islands of Antigua, 1823. British Library; Ch. 19, p. 484: V&A Picture Library; Ch. 20, p. 510: Novosti; Ch. 21, p. 540: Jean-Loup Charmet/ The Bridgeman Art Library; Ch. 22, p. 568: Science & Society Picture Library; Ch. 23, p. 592: Estaci?n de Orizaba, 1877. From Casimiro Castro, Album del Ferro-Carril Mexicano: Coleccion de Vista Pintadas (Victor Debray and Company, 1877); Ch. 24, p. 623: Eyre and Hobbs House Art Gallery; Ch. 25, p. 650: Mary Evans Picture Library; Ch. 26, p. 680: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, gift of Lincoln Kirstein, 1959 (JP 3346). Photograph by Otto E. Nelson. Photograph ? 1986 The Metropolitan Museum of Art; Ch. 27, p. 707: Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz; Ch. 28, p. 735: Imperial War Museum/The Art Archive; Ch. 29, p. 765: akg-images; Ch. 30, p. 793: Genevieve Naylor, photographer/Reznikoff Artistic Partnership, NY; Ch. 31, p. 820: Bettmann/Corbis; Ch. 32, p. 847: Paul Chesley/Getty Images; Ch. 33, p. 878: AFP Photo/ Doug Kanter/Getty Images.

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PART ONE

The Emergence of Human Communities, to 500 B.C.E.

CHAPTER 1 From the Origins of Agriculture to the First River-Valley Civilizations, 8000?1500 B.C.E.

CHAPTER 2 New Civilizations in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, 2200?250 B.C.E.

CHAPTER 3 The Mediterranean and Middle East, 2000?500 B.C.E.

Around 10,000 years ago, some human groups in various parts of the world began to cultivate plants, domesticate animals, and make pottery vessels for storage. One consequence of this shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture was the emergence of permanent settlements--at first small villages but eventually larger towns as well.

The earliest complex societies arose in the great river valleys of Asia and Africa, around 3100 B.C.E. in the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in Mesopotamia and along the Nile River in Egypt, somewhat later in the valley of the Indus River in Pakistan, and on the floodplain of the Yellow River in China. In these arid regions, agriculture depended on irrigation with river water, and centers of political power arose to organize the massive human labor required to dig and maintain channels to carry water to the fields.

Kings and priests dominated these early societies. Kings controlled the military forces; priests managed the temples and the wealth of the gods. Within the urban centers--in the midst of palaces, temples, fortification walls, and other monumental buildings--lived administrators, soldiers, priests, merchants, craftsmen, and others with specialized skills. The production of surplus food grown on rural estates by a dependent peasantry sustained the activities of these groups. Professional scribes kept administrative and financial records and preserved their civilization's religious and scientific knowledge.

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Over time, certain centers extended their in-

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fluence and came to dominate broad expanses

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of territory. The rulers of these early empires

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were motivated primarily by the need to secure

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access to raw materials, especially tin and copper,

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from which to make bronze. A similar motive accounts

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for the development of long-distance trade and diplomatic

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relations between major powers. Fueling long-distance trade

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was the desire for bronze, which had both practical and sym-

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bolic importance. From bronze, artisans made weapons, tools

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and utensils, and ritual objects. Ownership of bronze items was

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a sign of wealth and power. Trade and diplomacy helped spread

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culture and technology from the core river-valley areas to neigh-

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boring regions, such as southern China, Nubia, Syria-Palestine,

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Anatolia, and the Aegean.

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In the Western Hemisphere, different geographical circum-

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stances called forth distinctive patterns of technological and cultural

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response in the early civilizations of the Olmec in southern Mexico and

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Chav?n in the Andean region of South America. Nevertheless, the challenges

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of organizing agriculture and trade led to many of the same features of com-

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plex societies--social stratification, specialization of labor, urbanization,

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monumental building, technological development, and artistic achievement.

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1 From the Origins of Agriculture to the First River-Valley Civilizations 8000?1500 B.C.E.

CHAPTER OUTLINE Before Civilization Mesopotamia Egypt The Indus Valley Civilization DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Violence and Order in the Babylonian New Year's Festival ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY: Environmental Stress in the Indus Valley 4

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Some five thousand years ago in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), people living in Sumer, the

lizations arose in Mesopotamia and Egypt sometime before 3000 B.C.E. needs examination.

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world's first urban civilization, cherished the story of

Scholars agree that settled agricultural life and

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Gilgamesh, superhero king of the city of Uruk. The certain political, social, economic, and technological

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goddess of creation, it recounted, fashioned the wild traits are indicators of civilization, if not of every civ-

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man Enkidu?:

ilization. These traits include (1) cities as administra-

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tive centers, (2) a political system based on defined

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There was virtue in him of the god of war, of Nin- territory rather than kinship, (3) many people en-

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urta himself. His body was rough, he had long

gaged in specialized, non-food-producing activities,

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hair like a woman's; it waved like the hair of Nis- (4) status distinctions based largely on accumulation

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aba, the goddess of corn. His body was covered

of wealth, (5) monumental building, (6) a system for

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with matted hair like Samuqan's, the god of cat-

keeping permanent records, (7) long-distance trade,

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tle. He was innocent of mankind; he knew noth- and (8) sophisticated interest in science and art.

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ing of the cultivated land. Enkidu ate grass in the

The earliest societies exhibiting these traits ap-

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hills with the gazelle and jostled with the wild

peared in the floodplains of great rivers: the Tigris?

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beasts at the water-holes; he had joy of the water and Euphrates? in Iraq, the Indus in Pakistan, the Yel-

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with the herds of wild game.

low (Huang He?) in China, and the Nile in Egypt (see

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Map 1.2). Periodic flooding fertilized the land with silt

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When Gilgamesh learns of Enkidu from a hunter, and provided water for agriculture but also threatened

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he sends a temple prostitute to tame him. After her se- lives and property. To control the floods, the peoples

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duction causes the wild beasts to shun him, she says: living near the rivers created new technologies and

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forms of political and social organization.

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Come with me. I will take you to strong-walled

In this chapter, we describe the origins of domes-

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Uruk,? to the blessed temple of Ishtar and of Anu, tication among the scattered groups of foragers living

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of love and of heaven . . . there all the people are at the end of the last Ice Age and the slow development

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dressed in their gorgeous robes, every day is holi- of farming and herding societies. We then trace the rise

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day, the young men and the girls are wonderful

of complex societies in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the

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to see. How sweet they smell! . . . O Enkidu, you

Indus River Valley from approximately 3500 to 1500

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who live life, I will show you Gilgamesh.1

B.C.E. (China, developing slightly later, is discussed in

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Chapter 2). This story roughly coincides with the ori-

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She clothes Enkidu and teaches him to eat cooked gins of writing, allowing us to document aspects of

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food, drink beer, and bathe and oil his body. Her human life not revealed by archaeological evidence

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words and actions signal the principal traits of civi- alone.

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lized life in Sumer, just as the divine comparisons of

As you read this chapter, ask yourself the follow-

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the wild Enkidu show Sumer's dependence on grain ing questions:

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and livestock.

How did plant and animal domestication set the

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The Sumerians, like other peoples, equated civi-

scene for the emergence of civilization?

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lization with their own way of life. But lifestyles varied. Given the ambiguity of the term civilization, there-

Why did the earliest civilizations arise in river valleys?

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fore, the common understanding that the first civi-

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Tigris (TIE-gris) Euphrates (you-FRAY-teez)

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Enkidu (EN-kee-doo) Uruk (OO-rook)

Huang He (hwang huh)

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6 Chapter 1 From the Origins of Agriculture to the First River-Valley Civilizations, 8000?1500 b.c.e.

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How did the organization of labor shape political lasted until 10,000 years ago, about 3,000 years after the

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and social structures?

end of the last Ice Age, long periods when glaciers cov-

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ered much of North America, Europe, and Asia. The Ne-

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How did metallurgy, writing, and monumental con- olithic? (New Stone Age), which is associated with the

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struction contribute to the power and wealth of origins of agriculture, followed.

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elite groups?

Fossilized animal bones bearing the marks of butch-

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How do religious beliefs reflect interaction with the ering tools testify to the scavenging and hunting activi-

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environment?

ties of Stone Age peoples, but anthropologists do not

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believe that early humans lived primarily on meat. Mod-

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ern foragers (hunting and food-gathering peoples) in

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BEFORE CIVILIZATION

the Kalahari Desert of southern Africa and Ituri Forest of central Africa derive the bulk of their day-to-day nour-

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ishment from wild vegetable foods. They eat meat at

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Evidence of human artistic creativity first came to light in 1940 near Lascaux in southwestern France with the discovery of a vast underground cavern. The cavern walls were covered with paintings of animals, including many that had been extinct for thousands of years. Similar cave paintings have been found in Spain and elsewhere in southern France.

To even the most skeptical person, these artistic troves reveal rich imaginations and sophisticated skills, qualities also apparent in the stone tools and evidence of complex social relations uncovered from prehistoric sites. The production of such artworks and tools over wide areas and long periods of time demonstrates that skills and ideas were not simply individual but were deliberately passed along within societies. These learned patterns of action and expression constitute culture. Culture includes material objects, such as dwellings, clothing, tools, and crafts, along with nonmaterial values, beliefs, and languages. Although it is true that some animals also learn new ways, their activities are determined primarily by inherited instincts. Only human communities trace profound cultural developments over time. The development, transmission, and transformation of cultural practices and events are the subject of history.

feasts. Stone Age peoples probably did the same, even though the tools and equipment for gathering and processing vegetable foods have left few archaeological traces.

Like modern foragers, ancient humans would have used skins and mats woven from leaves for collecting fruits, berries, and wild seeds, and they would have dug up edible roots with wooden sticks. Archaeologists suspect that the doughnut-shaped stones often found at Stone Age sites served as weights to make wooden digging sticks more effective.

Cooking makes both meat and vegetables tastier and easier to digest, something early humans may have discovered inadvertently after wildfires. Humans may have begun setting fires deliberately 1 million to 1.5 million years ago, but proof of cooking does not appear until some 12,500 years ago, when clay cooking pots came into use in East Asia.

Studies of present-day foragers also indicate that Ice Age women probably did most of the gathering and cooking, which they could do while caring for small children. Women past child-bearing age would have been the most knowledgeable and productive food gatherers. Men, with stronger arms and shoulders, would have been better suited for hunting, particularly for large animals. Some

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early cave art suggests male hunting activities.

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Food Gathering and Stone Technology

Stone toolmaking, the first recognizable cultural activity, first appeared around 2 million years ago. The Stone Age, which

lasted from then until around

4,000 years ago, can be a misleading label. Stone tools

abound at archaeological sites, but not all tools were of

stone. They were made as well of bone, skin, and wood,

materials that survive poorly. In addition, this period

encompasses many cultures and subperiods. Among

the major subdivisions, the Paleolithic? (Old Stone Age)

The same studies, along with archaeological evidence from Ice Age campsites, indicate that early foragers lived in groups that were big enough to defend themselves from predators and divide responsibility for food collection and preparation, but small enough not to exhaust the food resources within walking distance. Even bands of around fifty men, women, and children would have moved regularly to follow migrating animals or collect seasonally ripening plants in different places.

In regions with severe climates or lacking in natural shelters like caves, people built huts of branches, stones,

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Paleolithic (pay-lee-oh-LITH-ik)

Neolithic (nee-oh-LITH-ik)

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