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 The Americas - Background to Involvement in WW2US in the 1920sSignificance of US Involvement not to join League of Nations. Internationalism as involving not so much US standing apart from world affairs, as only cooperating when it felt it would benefit America, and on its own terms. Whilst LoN a key principle of Woodrow Wilson’s International idealism, Congress voted not to join.1922-3 Washington Conference, and consequent Washington treaty. Limits number of ships US/UK/Japan/France and others can have. No decision on submarines. Japan also forced to relinquish Chinese territories gained at Germany’s expense in WW1.1924 Dawes Plan - US loans to Weimar Germany funded Weimar economic recovery.1929 Young Plan - Restructured Weimar Germany Treaty of Versailles reparations repayments 1929 - Wall Street Crash - US largely withdraws from global trade - 1934 New Deal as focussed on internal markets at the expense of international onesThe London Conference -1933 – 66 nations met to discuss economic policy. Clear FDR prioritized economic recovery over foreign policy.- USA unwilling to send a representative. FDR unwilling to sacrifice possibility of domestic recovery for hope of international cooperation- He criticized the conference for attempting to stabilize currencies, and withdrew USA from negotiations – conference collapsed.Freedom for the Filipinos and Recognition for the Russians- 1934 McDuffy Act. Provided independence of the Philippines after a 12 year period (in 1946).- In reality US more concerned for their own welfare, apparent disregard for the political situation in Asia. Philippines economically still reliant on USA. US army as still based in Philippines into 1940s.- Roosevelt’s internationalist gesture: 1936 extended the hand of diplomatic recognition to Bolshevik regime, motivated by the hope for trade with Russia, by the desire to bolster the Soviet Union as a friendly counter-weight to the possible threat of German power in Europe and Japanese power in Asia.Becoming a good neighbor- US giving up its ambition to be a world power + content itself instead being merely a regional power- The Great Depression led to investors being sackholders instead of stockholders- Link back to 1823 Monroe Doctrine: Roosevelt renounced armed intervention devised by Theodore Roosevelt.-1933 Seventh Pan-American Conference in Montevideo, Uruguay: formally endorsed nonintervention.- Good Neighbor Policy: accent on consultation and nonintervention. Aimed to spread democratic ideals across the Americas.Secretary Hull’s Reciprocal Trade Agreements- Hull believed that trade was a two way street, that a nation can sell abroad only as it buys abroad, that tariff barriers choke off foreign trade, and that trade wars beget shooting wars- 1934 Reciprocal Trade Agreements: designed to lift American export trade from the depression doldrums, aimed at both relief and recovery- Reversed the traditional high-protective-tariff policy that had persisted almost unbroken since the Civil War daysImpulses Toward Storm-Cellar Isolationism- Rise of USSR and Stalin, Mussolini, and Hitler- Mussolini attacked Ethiopia in 1935 with bombers and Tanks: LoN not interested. Britain and France attempted to sign a secret deal with Italy legitimising the move (Hoare-Laval Pact).- 1936 Rome Berlin Axis: Hitler & Mussolini allied themselves.- America believed that their encircling seas conferred immunity from global affairs- 1934 John Debt Default Act: prevented debt dodging nations from borrowing further in the United States. Congress Legislates Neutrality- Congress made haste to legislate the nation out of war.- The Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937 stipulated that when the president proclaimed the existence of a foreign war, certain restrictions would automatically go into effect.- marked an abandonment of the traditional policy of freedom of the seas.- Storm Cellar neutrality proved to be tragically short sighted; US falsely assumed that the decision for peace or war lay in its own hands.America Dooms Loyalist Spain-Spanish war occurred in 1936~1939-Fascist leader Franco lead rebels to overthrow left wing government-Supported by Hitler and Mussolini-Americans did not want to go for war so gives up their fellow democratic country to death-Franklin D Roosevelt thought Franco was a gentleman with good manners-America was in for Peace at any price ism so their military powers were in process of reducing + Roosevelt got branded as warmonger.Appeasing Japan and Germany-In 1937 the Japanese militarist faction led by army started the war with china by exploding Marco Polo Bridge in Beijing - considered as curtain raiser-Roosevelt delivered his sensational speech called Quarantine Speech. Called for an ‘international quarantine of aggressor nations’, but signified US isolationism.-Due to Isolationism, USA did not really interfered with foreign nations.-When Japan blew up USA gunboat during bombing of Nanjing in 1937, USA accepted Japan’s apologies. - Adolf Hitler meanwhile grew louder and bolder in Europe. Openly ignored the treaty of versailles and changed to their military service to conscription system. Marched through DMZ(Rhine Land)Began to put Jews into ghetto ( 6 millions approx)- Britain and France willing to appease Hitler as a man who could be trusted. 1938 Munich Agreement after German invasion of Czechoslovakia British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain claimed to have won ‘peace in our time’. Hitler’s Belligerency and U.S.Neutrality-Stalin and Hitler agreed to have pact called ‘Nazi-Soviet Pact’ (or Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact)-Both countries knew that Pact was only temporary. USSR wanted to build up army, Germany to avoid a two-front war.-Hitler asks Poland to give up some territories where Germany lost after the world war 1. Attacks Poland at dawn on September 1, 1939. Divided Poland with USSR as part of Pact.-The US was much more concerned about war in Europe, than war in the Pacific - it had far more links with Europe, not least in the fact many US immigrants had originally come from Europe.The fall of France-Phony war: collapse of Poland and the European countries fell in immediate silence. This anxious period was broken by Soviet Union attacking Finland(to secure border)-USA aided Finland with $30million but was defeated by USSR.-1940-Hitler attacked Netherland, Belgium France -> France forced to surrender -French army evacuated from Dunkirk, but was a shock for America -> Roosevelt called debt burdened countries to build airfleets and two ocean navy(37 billion dollars)-> congress passed a law: 1.2million troops+800,000reserves buildFDR shatters the Two-Term Tradition-November 1940 - FDR won - fought for continuing neutrality, and not engaging in the war.-Four Freedoms speech promised to bring economic/political freedom to world - as harbinger of intervention in WW2.-Broader context of isolationists vs interventionists. Lindbergh leading the America First Committee 1940. Opposed by Committee to Defend America who supported aiding UK, though not military intervention.Bolstering Britain-Since Britain stood alone against Germany, the reason for Washington maintaining its neutrality was controversial->Media broadcasted about Britain’s devastating situation, sympathy towards Britain grew more and more->Roosevelt’s conflicts: isolationist vs helping Britain-Britain: needed destroyers to be safe from Germany’s submarine->Roosevelt sent them aid, by transferring to Great Britain old destroyers in return for military bases on British colonies such as Jamaica and Newfoundland (known as ‘Bases for Destroyers’ deal.-June 1940 US sent 50 destroyers to Britain army, which was both supported and condemned. -March 1941 Lend Lease - designed to give military aid to UK and later Russia. Signalled end of isolationist policies. Equipment supposed to be returned at the end of the war. In actual fact left Britain in massive debt to USA which would propel the US to an economic superpower after WW2 ended.-August 1941 - Atlantic Charter with Britain - defined allied goals for post war world - a precusor to the UN. Decided with Churchill who was desperate for US intervention.Surprise Assault on Pearl Harbor - By end of 1930s Japan struggling for natural resources. Japan wanted to invade Southern Asian Dutch and British colonies to get oil. Saw war with USA as inevitable.- 1940: first embargo on Japan-bound supplies → negotiation in Washington(1941 Nov. - Dec.) - U.S knew that Japan will start a war → but did not believe that Japan could strike Hawaii - On the “Black Sunday” Dec.7 1941 Japan attacks Pearl Harbour → 3000 casualties(Americans), destroyed aircrafts - Dec. 11 1941 the official war bet. U.S and Japan started America’s Transformation from Bystander to Belligerent - Isolationist opposed war until the Pearl Harbour was attacked, made US entry to WW2 inevitable.-On day of attack USA declared war on USA, Hitler then declared war on USA making it enter war on both fronts.Key QuestionsHow far was US isolationist in the 1920s and 1930s?How far was Pearl Harbour the key reason for US entry into WW2?Why did America largely stay outside of world affairs in the 1920s and 1930s?How far can FDR’s intervention in the war be described as ‘gradualist’? (as opposed to isolationist or interventionist)Assess US Japanese relations prior to 1941, and how these contributed to Pearl HarbourAssess the effectiveness of FDR’s neutrality policiesThe US Economy in WW2WW2 as end of Great Depression - unemployment had risen again in late 1930s, after 1941 fell permanently. Rapid industrialisation which began with lend-lease as US began supplying weapons to allies. Increased after US joined war at end of 1941.US economy as government run - a range of new organisations form to manage economy in the war 1940-1. Growth of military-industrial complex.=Office of Production Management dealt with production targets in the war.=Supplies Priorities and Allocation Board - designed to ensure sufficient raw materials supplied to factories.=War Production Board - directed overall production.=Office of Price Administration - controlled inflation which averaged 3.5% during the war. =War Manpower Commission - Set up April 1942 to establish a clear policy on wartime labour force. Established Training within Industry to overcome skills shortage, trained more than 1.5mil workers in the war. -Government encouraged US public to buy war bonds - by 1945 85mil Americans had bought almost $200mil, mainly through automatic deductions from their wages.-By 1944 US produced 25% of UK’s military equipment (showing eclipse of UK, US as global superpower), 1944 half of global manufacturing took place in USA. US GNP grew from $200bil in 1940 to $300bil in 1950.-US economy in war as largely funded by government, massively increased the amount of debt taken on by US industry. As a global model for Keynesian economics post war?US Economy during and after the war-During the war loaned huge amounts of money to Europe - eg UK borrowed $50mil. 1947 Marshall Plan as increasing aid to European countries.-World Trade - post war development of Washington Consensus - notion of US as global economic hegemon, focussed on global free trade (as opposed to US protectionist policies in the 1930s)-1944 Bretton Woods Conference - made US Dollar global reserve currency. Also creation of IMF and World Bank.-1944 Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (GI Bill) - helped servicemen start businesses and go to college. By 1951 aid equalled almost $51bil dollars.-1946 Employment Act - stated federal government responsible for promoting maximum employment, production and purchasing power.-Wages frozen during the war, led to strike action across USA 1945-6 and workers sought to improve conditions now war was over. Powers of unions curbed by 1947 Taft-Haftley Act which made it illegal to force workers to join a union, and authorized 80 day federal injunction when a strike threatened health and safety.Key QuestionsHow did WW2 affect the US economy?How far did US government intervention in WW2 represent a continuation of the policies pursued in the New Deal?Social change in WW2Women-Female employment hugely increased during the war, 1941 13mil women workers, 1944 19mil.-Women still paid much less than men, the majority were paid 50-60% of what men earned for doing the same job.-1941 creation of Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps - allowed women to contribute to war effort by doing non-combatant military jobs. 1943 created Women’s Army Corps.-1942 creation of Women accepted for volunteer emergency services (WAVES) - non-combatant female only division in US Navy.- 1942 creation of Women’s Flying Training Attachment and then Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP). Disbanded 1944.-Large numbers of women also served as nurses during the war.African Americans-Racism against African Americans as a deeply ingrained issue in US society, especially in the South. Black Americans earned less than half the average wage.-1943 March on Washington movement, led by A Philip Randolph forced FDR to pass Fair Employment Practices Commission which allowed workers to protest against discrimination, During the war FEPC investigated 8000 instances of discrimination.-By end of war Black Americans as having 8% of defence jobs, and 200,000 employed by government, three times more than pre war.-Trade union involvement increased - 1.25mil black Americans in trade unions by 1945.-Fought in armed forces, racism rife. Vast majority of units segregated (exception was an integrated unit which fought in the Battle of the Bulge in Germany in 1944).-Impetus for civil rights movement - NAACP membership increased from 50,000 1940 to 450,000 1945. Bus boycott in Harlem in 1944 aimed to end segregation on public transport. Continued with 1947 Journey of Reconciliation during which CORE activists fought to end segregation on interstate buses.-CORE founded in 1942 - held sit-ins 1942-5. Broader context of Double V for Victory campaign.-Racial tension increased in the war - large numbers of Black Americans migrated to work in industry in N cities, led to riots in Detroit and NYC 1943.Mexican Americans-1930s/40s thousands of Mexicans had come across the border (often illegally) and worked mainly in Californian farming.1943-Zoot Suit riots between Mexican Americans and American servicemen in LA. Mayor of LA declared city off limits to US servicemen, and rioting subsided.-1942 US government signed Bracero Agreement - allowed Mexican citizens to work temporarily in the US to fill gaps in employment in agriculture and on railroads.-By end of war more than 100,000 Braceros working in US.Native Americans-Navaro worked as coders in Pacific campaign as Japanese unable to decipher their language-Resulted in thousands moving to cities, and away from reservations and into cities. Ultimately encouraged assimilation of Native Americans into mainstream culture (as opposed to seperatist tendencies represented by the reservations).Japanese Americans-1942 Exec order 9066 announced internment for Japanese. Japanese Americans very powerful in Californian farmers, lost around $500mil in 1942 values.-More than 100,000 sent to camps in remote parts of US. Remained patrotic, eg raised flag every morning.-Seen as racist and unjustified. No Japanese convicted for sabotage during the war. 1948 US Congress passed American Japanese claims act - allowed Japanese Americans to claim back $37mil to surviving internees. 1988 finally offered an apology for internment and gave $20,000 compensation to each surviving internee.Key QuestionsHow did WW2 create social change in USA?How far did WW2 increase social tension in the USA? FDR and the HolocaustUS reaction to Nazi policies towards Jews in the 1930s-US attitudes towards immigration through 1920s and 1930s gradually led to legislation against immigrants, for example the 1921 immigration act which set quotas for Jews - this meant that despite widespread condemnation of the Nuremberg laws little was done.-Equally Anti semitism was a problem in the USA. Many Americans did not think they should help Jews.-Concern about Anschluss and treatment of Jews led to FDR calling for an international conference to examine what could be done to help Jews in 1938.-32 countries represented at Evian Conference - Myron Taylor, Chairman of Board of US steel represented FDR, had little experience of dealing with US immigration. Most countries including US and UK against letting in more immigrants. Dominican Republic agreed to letting in up to 100,000 Jews, it was suggested Jews could emigrate to Philippines, eventually about 1200 did.-Intergovernmental committee on refugees (ICGR) created to pressure Germany to allow the Jews to leave with enough resources to begin new lives. ICGR never made an agreement with Nazi Germany.-Huge condemnation of Kristallnacht in USA. FDR declared tourist visas of more than 15,000 Germans and Austrians would be extended. US withdrew ambassador from Germany - first time US had withdrawn an ambassador in peacetime. Announced German and Austrian immigration quotas would be combined.-75% of US citizens against letting in more immigrants.-1939 Wagner-Rogers Bill introduced to Congress by Senator Robert Wagner, by joint Republican-Democrat representatives. Designed to allow 20,000 Jewish children into the US above the quota. Backed by Eleanor Roosevelt, but opposed by FDR. Congress rejected the bill in Feb 1939.-1939 half of immigrants who were allowed to enter USA were Jewish.SS St Louis Case-St Louis left Germany for Cuba May 1939 with 930 Jewish refugees. Not allowed into Cuba, went to Miami where also not allowed to disembark. Ship had to return to Europe where about 30% eventually died in camps HOWEVER could have gone to Dominican Republic but opted not to.-Similar case a year later of SS Quanza trying to dock at Veracruz Mexico. Blocked by Mexico, after intervention of Eleanor Roosevelt allowed to enter USA.US reaction of Nazi Policies during the War-1940 Breckinridge Long made Secretary of State. Decided to curb immigration supposedly to prevent spies from Germany and Russia entering USA. Led to a sharp decline in immigration after 1940; 90% of quota for German and Italian immigrations thus not taken up.-Breckinridge seen as an anti-semite. 1941 embassies in Germany closed making emigration impossible.-1942 Riegner report - Riegner representative of World Jewish Congress (WJC) in Geneva - alleged thousands of Jews being systematically murdered in Poland and Ukraine. Report sent to under secretary of State Sumner Welles. Rabbi Stephen Wise, president of WJC met with FDR to discuss problem, and UN issued a statement condemning Nazi Germany for treatment of Jews.-1943 Wise organised a demonstration at Madison Square Gardens NYC. -Nov 1943 Breckinridge Long fired for lying about number of Jews helped since 1933 (he claimed US had allowed in 580,000, actual number was 165,000).-Jan 1944 FDR created War Refugee Board (WRB) to help Jews. Aided by Henry Morgenthau who FDR had made secretary of the treasury. WRB helped create routes for Jews to escape, prepare fake documents and provide cash for bribery purposes. As a result some 20,000 Jews escaped to Switzerland.-Representative of WRB in Hungary, Raoul Wallenberg, helped rescue Jews, in particular preventing the Nazis from liquidating the Budapest Ghetto.-FDR criticised for not bombing camps. Some WJC members had argued should bomb supply lines to camps to stop further transfer of Jews, others horrified as Jewish inmates might be killed. 1944 bombed factories in Auschwitz killing 40 Jewish inmates in process-FDR believed priority to win the war. Arguably unable to let in more Jews as congress opposed it, and FDR a pragmatist (which accounts why he was such a successful politician). He supported the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. At Yalta he urged Stalin to also support this.-FDR did appoint Jews to key positions, eg Morgenthau as secretary of Treasury. In 1943 had pressed pope Pius XII to act but he did nothing.-Post war after Nazi atrocities exposed, Truman increased quotas for Jews, allowing 16,000 to enter in 1945. 1948 Congress passed displaced persons act granting 480,000 visas above quota system of which 80,000 went to Jews. Parts of legislation blocked by congress.Latin America, Canada and the HolocaustArgentina-After 1933 began to impose immigration quotas. 1933-43 only 20,000 Jewish immigrants allowed to enter, compared with 80,000 1933-43.-Anti Jewish riots in Argentina in WW2, for example in the province of Entre Rios.-Peron, leader of Argentina after 1945, accused of anti semitism, and harbouring Nazi war criminals such as Adolf Eichmann, who had deported more than 400,000 Jews to Poland. However more than 5000 holocaust survivors also allowed to settle in post war Argentina.Brazil-1918-33 admitted 96,000 Jews, 1933-41 only 12,000.-Huge number of Germans in Brazil, 1900-39 more than 100,000 immigrants from Germany, around 3,000 members of the Nazi Party. Made President Vargas’s role difficult. Had to close trading links with Germany, but did not want to lose and important trading partner. Some Nazis such as Franz Stangl, leader of Treblinka death camp, escaped to Brazil with help of Vatican.Canada-Great Depression leading to anti immigration - Canada’s unemployment rate reached 30% in 1933. If an immigrant could not contribute to the economy, the one became a ‘public charge’ and could be deported. By 1935, number of deportations had reached more than 28,000. -But the degree of inaction greater than the US. Canada did not have a refugee policy so refugees were required to follow all the regulations that were imposed on ordinary immigrants. Did nothing at Evian Conference.-Although the Canadian Jewish Congress guaranteed the financial support of 10,000 Jewish refugees to Canada it was refused by the government. Only admitted around 5,000 Jewish refugees in the 1930s, and told to work in agriculture, not more skilled trades.-Role of MacKenzie King’, leader of the Liberal Party which depended on the province of Quebec’s support; Quebec was more anti-Semitic than other provinces because it did not want to harm its French identity and the Catholic values of the province. Prime Minister MacKenzie King not willing to challenge public opinion. Wanted to maintain national unity, with keeping Quebec and other English-speaking provinces working in the same direction.-After WW2 attitudes slowly changed. 1948 allowed 1000 Jewish children to immigrate. By 1950 around 40,000 Jewish immigrants had settled in USA.Key QuestionsHow far is FDR to be blamed for US attitude towards the Holocaust?How far might it be argued the US government might be seen as anti-semitic for its failure to rescue European Jewry in WW2?Use of the Atomic Bombs in WW2The Background to the use of the Bombs-US Campaign in the Pacific, which had involved attacking Japanese military positions, one island at a time, involving huge US casualties. By May 1945 after the attack on Okinawa, they were on the verge of launching an invasion on the Japanese mainland.-After 1943 the US sank more than 75% of Japan’s merchant ships, and by mid 1945 were bombing the Japanese mainland at will, and unopposed. In particular, the tide of the war turned as early as the Battle of Midway in June 1942 when the US defeated the Japanese navy.-From March to September 1945 275 square km of Japan’s cities destroyed by incendiary bombs. Twenty two million people made homeless. In particular bombing of Tokyo in March 1945 killed 80,000 people and arguably created more destruction than the atomic bombs.Reasons justifying use of the bombs- The Japanese were determined to defend their homeland to the last man in order to raise the human cost of Allied victory and force a negotiated peace. The Japanese appeared to be ready to defend the mainland to the last man. So-called ‘Bushido’ military spirit implied the Japanese would defend their country to the last man, including the sacrifice of women and children. It was suggested had the USA invaded, it might have lost as many as 100,000 more soldiers.- Use of atomic bomb was inevitable for America in terms of protecting their people and also the massive death rate expected for Japan.- Conceived as a legitimate weapon to be used against enemy. Other such technological innovations had been used during the war, many for the first time, such as radar, aircraft carriers, rockets and jet aircraft. The Germans had developed V2 rockets by 1945 which were used to powerful effect in Europe. Given the expense of the Manhattan project in developing the bombs, from a military perspective it was certainly justified.- Use of the bombs prevented USSR intervention in the war. Had Stalin invaded Japan he would have sought to convert Japan to Communism in the post war period.- It appeared to be the only way to force unconditional surrender on Japan.-Notion morality unimportant in terms of a total war. Priority had to be ending the war. U.S. dropped leaflets on Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and 33 other Japanese cities on August 1st, 1945. Warned Japanese civilians that in a few days, the cities they lived in would be targeted for bombing and were advised to leave right away to save themselves from destruction.Since most people in Hiroshima & Nagasaki did not leave, US was not responsible for the deaths.-Revenge for Pearl Harbour as an important factor in decision to use bombs.Reasons suggesting use of the bomb was not justifiable-Japan suffering from resource shortages, and on the verge of surrendering; by July 1945 senior army officials had already suggested doing so. By leaving Japan alone, they would have surrendered anyway. Especially as they felt threatened by the Russians, and did not want to surrender to Stalin fearing he would try to make Japan Communist.- They only used it as they had to justify the use of 2 billion dollars spent on the Manhattan project. They could have merely set off a bomb to demonstrate its power, before actually using one.-As a result of attacking Pearl Harbour, American citizens wanted to punish Japan. USA as motivated by revenge not military necessity.- The use of atomic bombs was unnecessary, only used as a threat to Russia . With the end of the war nearing, the Soviets were an important strategic consideration, especially with their military control over most of Eastern Europe, despite the grand alliance, it was clear there would be tension with Russia. If the USA waited the Soviet to join the war (as Roosevelt intended to in the Yalta conference, the surrender of Japan would’ve been unclear. Ultimately, the bomb was necessary to impress the soviets and to persuade them to relax their grip in Eastern Europe.-Racism against Japanese is seen as a major factor leading to use of the bomb. The Japanese were portrayed in USA as rats in war time propaganda, and in America were the only racial group to face internment. Very small numbers of Italians/Germans were interned. Key QuestionsHow far was the use of the Atomic Bombs militarily justifiable?Assess the military strategy of the USA in the Pacific theatre of warHemispheric Relations 1930-45Good Neighbour Policy-FDR as against isolationists - belief US could act as a moral force in the world affairs-Inaugural speech discussed policy of ‘good neighbour’ - notion US should respect other nations. Policy designed to transform Monroe Doctrine into policy enabling hemisphere to take mutual action against aggressors. Cordell Hull as secretary of state in charge of policy, unlike FDR he supported free trade (for example opposed 1930 Smoot Hawley tariff which protected US farmers).-Inter American conference at Montevideo in 1933 US and Latin American states agreed no-one had the right to intervene in any other state’s affairs.-US forces left Haiti, Dominican Republic and Nicaragua. 1934 congress nullified the Platt Amendment which had authorized US invasion of Cuba. US kept base in Guantanamo.-By 1938 US had signed treaties with more than 10 Latin American countries boosting trade.-1934 reciprocal trade agreement designed to end USA isolationist trade policies. -1936 renegotiated Panama Canal Treaty, signed treaty with Panama preventing US interference in politics of Panama. Annual rent raised to $430,000.- 1936 Buenos Aires Conference - designed to discuss arms limitations, neutrality and foreign intervention. FDR attended and suggested new policy where Americas would discuss any defence policy together - led to a neutrality pact for US nations in the Western Hemisphere. Non Intervention protocol signed in December 1936. FDR particularly concerned about spread of fascism in the Americas.-1938 8th Pan American Conference in Lima - met to discuss collective security of the Americas. 21 American republics agreed on declaration of the solidarity of America whereby they would continue to cooperate over foreign intervention. Also signed declaration of American Principles whereby they declared importance of cooperation, and opposition to use of force.-1938 FDR stood by principles when Mexico nationalised US-owned companies. However, US oil companies, despite compensation from Mexico, boycotted Mexico for a number of years.-1938 FDR created Cultural Division of the State Department with Latin America as a special focus. Four conferences on art, music, publication and libraries.-Policy also indirectly supported pro US dictators such as Somoza in Nicaragua, Batista in Cuba, and Trujillo in the Dominican RepublicMilitary role of Latin America in WW2-Brazilian president Vargas opposed to sending troops to war, despite being urged to do so by FDR. Concerned might leave Brazil vulnerable to attack by Argentina.-In 1930s Germany, Brazil’s closest trading partner. Vargas followed ‘pendulum policy’ taking what he could from both sides in the conflict. Naval war in Atlantic meant trade with Germany dropped 400%, exports to UK doubled, trade with USA grew by 10%.-Jan 1942 broke diplomatic relations with Germany due to ‘unrestricted submarine warfare’. Led to US doubling amount of lend-lease to Brazil. May 1942 US agreed to help equip Brazilian army, in return Brazil to provide resources such as iron ore and chrome to US, as well as coffee and cacao.-1941-2 more than 40 Brazil merchant ships sunk - Vargas allowed US to use Brazilian bases. These were used in N African campaign.-Brazil only Latin American country to send troops in WW2. 1944 Brazilian expeditionary force and first fighter group sent to Italy. BEF had 25,000 soldiers. -Brazil-Argentine relations weakened as Argentina neutral.Mexico-Initially when war broke out Mexico tried to make beneficial trade deals with Germany/Japan. However, submarine warfare sinking merchant ships, and pressure from the US led to them making a deal with the US and declaring war on the Axis powers in 1942.-US gave lend lease aid to Mexico, giving weapons and training to armed forces. However, Mexico had no direct involvement in the war.-In 1945 Mexico sent 201st Fighter Squadron to serve with US fifth air force in the Philippines, Helped fight for liberation of Luzon.Argentina-Wanted neutrality when war broke out, and despite US involvement saw no reason to change this stance after the outbreak of war. As a result it did not receive any lend lease.-In particular wanted to end dominance of UK on Argentinian economy by remaining neutral. UK controlled transport and huge investments in the country.-About 250,000 people of German origin in country, many supported the Nazis.-1943 US held talks with Argentina, pointing out it was the only country not to have ended diplomatic relations with Axis powers. Took economic sanctions against Argentina such as halting loans and stopping exports.-March 1944 refused to recognise new government of Edelmiro Farrell and broke off diplomatic relations. Corden Hull talked of Argentina as a Nazi country, and even considered a joint attack with Brazil.-Forced Argentina to declare war on Germany in March 1945. Many Argentinians had volunteered to fight in the war - 750 fought in British, S African and Canadian air forces, and almost 4000 others volunteered for other services.Effects of WW2 on Brazil-From 1937 President Vargas announced policy of Estado Novo - the new state - and intended to rely on import substitution and industrialisation, intending to move away from reliance on exports of coffee, textiles, sugar and beef. Clearly understood importance of US economy in this, but did not want to become reliant.-By late 1930s 900,000 people of German descent and 1.5 million Italians in Germany. Value of trade with Germany quadrupled in 1930s, and Brazil was the biggest non European consumer of German goods.-Aski system meant German paid higher goods for imports than other countries. Money held in a special Aski account in German which Brazilian companies could use to buy German goods at reduced prices.-1939-41 US tried to divert Brazil away from German economy. Helped achieve this through offers of investment, and and loans to Vargas. 1940 loaned almost 70$mil to Brazil, and offered help in building the Volta Redonda Steel Mill. Mill symbolised relationship between US and Brazil; 1942 Brazil declared war on Axis powers.-Introduction of lend lease from 1942, Brazil sent troops to fight with US army, and emerged from war with strongest military in S America. 70% of all S American Lend Lease aid went to Brazil.-In particular Brazil supplied US with rubber - annual production more than doubling in the war years. At the end of the war rubber industry declined dramatically.-By 1945 Brazil had developed a range of industries, particularly in terms of small and medium sized enterprises, as well as the National Motor Factor which made cars and trucks. Furthered import substitution process, and made Brazil strongest country in Latin America.-Diplomatically key change in war switch from German to US allegiance. In particular Jan 1942 Rio conference agreed alongside other S American countries to coordinate defence in the Western hemisphere.-1945 elections new president - Dutra - who sought to encourage more private investment in Brazil’s economy, especially from US. Outlawed Brazil’s Communist party in 1947 and broke off relations with the USSR.Key QuestionsAssess the social and political impact of WW2 on one country in the AmericasTo what extent were hemispheric relations successful from 1933 to 1940?Examine the diplomatic and military role of one country in the region during the Second World War.Diplomacy in WW2Conferences1) Washington Conference - Dec 1941-Jan 1942 - US and UK-Agreed to focus on defeating Germany rather than the USSR-Jan 1942 – ‘Declaration of the United Nations’ invited all countries fighting the Axis to join together until the Axis defeated-FDR saw the British empire as an anachronism, and wanted free trade.-FDR wanted to open a second front in Europe, Churchill to defeat Nazis in Africa. FDR went with Churchill = Operation Torch.-Stalin did not agree on notions of ‘religious freedom’ and much of the UN Charter2) Casablanca - February 1943 - US/UK (Stalin did not come due to ongoing siege of Stalingrad)-FDR still wanted a second front. Churchill persuaded him to invade Italy. Invasion of France put back to 1944. Stalin angered by this.-FDR pledged Lend Lease to the USSR-FDR/Churchill agreed to launch bombing on Europe (Operation Point Blank)-Decided on policy of unconditional surrender.3) Washington - May 1943 UK and USA-Argued about second front in Italy. Churchill made a speech to congress and agreed to invade. After Italy defeated decided to invade France May 1944.4) Quebec - August 1943-After Mussolini resigned allies divided how to force Italy to surrender,-Also discussed Pacific War strategy and assistance to partisans in the Balkans. Agreed to send them aid.-FDR insisted on prioritising Pacific front, and a S E Asia command to help China.-Discussed Operation Overlord and post war world. FDR aware of issues of Poland and Germany.5) November 1943 Cairo Conference - USA, UK, China- Stalin did not attend due to Chiang’s presence-Cairo communique stated Japan would be forced to surrender unconditionally-‘and in due course Korea shall become free and independent’Other Conferences-Tehran (UK/USA/USSR)Nov-Dec 1943-Quebec Sept 1944 (UK/USA) – debated use of British Navy in Pacific and Morganthau Plan for post war German deindustrialisation-Moscow Conference Oct 1944 – UK/USSR – discussed division of E Europe after the war – eg UK should have 90% influence in Greece, USSR in Romania-Yalta Feb 1945-Potsdam July 1945This overlaps with the Cold War and is covered in those notes. Equally Hemispheric Relations forms a part of this.Key QuestionsAssess the effectiveness of the various wartime conferences in maintaining allied unity ................
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