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Critical Question 1How do athletes train for improved performance?Strength TrainingWhat is it?Strength training is any training done in order to improve an athlete’s muscular strengthThe three types of strength training include resistance training, weight training and isometric trainingStrength is the ability of a muscle group to exert a forceHypertrophy is the enlargement of an organ or tissue from the increase in size of its muscle fibres and cellsStrength program variablesRepetitions maximum – the maximum weight that can be lifted a specified number of times. For example, 1RM = the maximum weight that can be lifted only once; 8RM = the maximum weight that can be lifted eight timesSet – a number of repetitions done in succession; for example, one set = 10 repetitionsResistance – the weight or loadRest – the period of time between exercises, sets or sessionsPeriodisation – the process of varying the training load over discrete periods of timeExercise specific – adaptations will only occur in the parts of the body that are stressed by the exercise. For example, biceps development will generally have little effect on an athlete’s running ability. Employs the overload principle – the individual is loaded beyond normal requirementsUses progressive resistance – resistance is increased as adaptations occur Resistance TrainingA form of strength training where any form of resistance is created during the exerciseResistance increases the intensity of the exercise and requires the athlete to exert more strength often at a speed to develop powerPower is a combination of strength and speedElastic ResistanceRequires an elastic to create the resistanceUsed in rehabilitation or with beginnersVersatile, low cost and eases transportThe resistance is smaller than can be produced through other methodsThe resistance increases as the band or spring is stretchedResistance band gradingYellow (thin)Red (medium)Green (heavy)Blue (extra heavy)Black (special heavy)Silver (super heavy)Hydraulic ResistanceProduced by the compression of an air or liquidHydraulic resistance machines very expensiveGives a fixed amount of resistance throughout entire exercise depending on speed of movementProvide resistance in pushing and pulling and lifting and loweringOthersThere are other methods where resistance is created through frictionThey are particularly used to improve an athlete’s speed and powerThey include exercises such as parachute running, tire flipping, weight sleds etc. Weight trainingThe most popular strength training methodIncludes machine weights, weight plates, dumbbells, barbellsVersatile form of strength trainingNumber of repetitions, the length of rest between sets and the exercise done can all create very specific benefits for sports performanceConcentric and Eccentric ContractionsConcentric contractions occur when a muscle shortens, causing movement at a jointEccentric contractions occur when the muscle lengthens under tensionWeight training for muscular enduranceMuscular endurance is the muscle’s ability to repeat the same movement repeatedly push up testWeight training for muscular endurance involves more repetitions with small rest periods4-5 sets of 20-30 RM (30 sec-1min rest)Weight training for hypertrophyHypertrophy is when there is an increase in muscle cross-sectional areaThis increase often results in strength gains, but increases muscle massThis is beneficial in sport such as AFL and rugby codes2-4 sets of 12-15RM (2-3 min rest)Weight training for strengthStrength gains are best achieved with lower repetitions and greater rest periods2-4 sets of 8-10RM (3-4min rest)Weight training for powerFundamental for sports such as shotput, high jump, football etc.Training for increased power requires the athlete to lift weights at a rapid speed but for short periods of time1-3 sets of 2-6RM (4 min rest)Weight training equipmentWeight plates, weight machines, barbells and dumbbellsIsometric TrainingStrength training method where muscle produces a force without change in muscle lengthE.g. gymnast holding an arabesque Similar to isometric stretching where stretch is held in same position and muscle doesn’t change in lengthProvides increases in strength for static contractionRequire great strength with little movement e.g. martial arts, gymnastics or danceDifferent from isotonic and isokinetic contractions muscle length movementAn isometric contraction doesn’t produce movement because the muscle doesn’t change in lengthIsometric ExercisesPushing against a wallHolding push up positionHolding out weightsYogaHow strength training adaptations can be measured1RM test = athlete lifts weight once only and cannot lift a second timeCan be adapted for the various major and minor muscle groups and should increase with strength trainingSkin-fold testing and circumference measurements measuring hypertrophySafety in Strength TrainingInjury preventionHave a person to train with to spot when lifting weightsPerform each movement with correct techniqueTraining programmes designed and monitored by professionalsConducting session in professional mannerDon’t hold breath but exhale at the point of greatest exertionExercises are balancedRecovery and restCool down and avoid overtraining Aerobic TrainingWhat is it?A type of training that focuses on progressively overloading the cardiovascular, respiratory and aerobic energy systemsDesigned to improve the rate at which the heart, lungs and muscles can effectively use oxygen during exercise3 types; continuous, fartlek and long intervalApply principles of training; FITT can be used to ensure physiological adaptations are measuredContinuous FormAerobic training involving a single exercise for an extended period of time without restRequired the heart rate to move into the aerobic training zone and maintain for 20 minutes65-85% of maximum HR, depending on individualHigh-intensity continuous training is performed of 80-100% of HRStrenuous training type and physically demandingBeneficial for marathons, cycling, swimming and skiingFartlek TrainingGeneral running interspersed with periods of higher paced running over varying terrainShort bursts may continue for 100-200 metres or so followed by recovery joggingDuring recovery period, ventilation rate should come back to where it was before intensity is increased and the jogger should feel that energy stores have been replenishedThis period is then followed by another burst, however intensity is increased, challenging the overload principleThis training helps the body remove lactic acid, and recover from high intensities that may be required during competition but can also ensure the athlete continues to perform at a high intensity while recoveringHeart rate will change constantly with the intensity as will their respiratory rates, cardiac output and oxygen uptakeFootball and rugby, netball, hockey, AFLLong Interval TrainingAthlete has longer periods of higher workloads followed by a shorter rest periodThe long periods of higher workload usually extends for 3+ minutes with a short 30-60 second rest periodThe higher workloads can be in the upper range of the aerobic training zone or push into the anaerobic training zonePreferred by distance runners, triathletes and footballers in preparation for competitionPracticed on athletic tracks or flat groundsInterval training has specific terminologyIntervals when repeated are called repetitions and a group of repetitions is called a set400 m, 75-80% pace 3 sets of 3 reps (2 min walk rest) 4 min recovery between setsHow can aerobic training adaptations be measured and monitored?Improved heart strength and efficiency resulting in an improved ability to pump bloodDecreased resting and sub-maximal exercise heart rateImproved lung ventilationImproved glycogen storageIncreased number of red blood cells Strengthening and enlargement of skeletal muscleIncreased size and efficiency of slow-twitch fibresVo2 max testingBeep testTreadmill VO2 max testBlood samplingSafety in aerobic trainingRemaining hydratedUsing safe environmentWearing correct clothing and footwearUsing fitness professionalsOveruse injuries are common so it is important to provide rest periods for recoveryProgressive overload in slow, controlled mannerIncorporate cross-training to provide variety and load different muscle groupsFlexibility TrainingWhat is it?Flexibility is defined as the range of motion of your joints or the ability of your joints to move freelyFlexibility training requires that muscles stretch or lengthen safetyStretching and improved flexibility are important for a number of reasons including injury prevention, injury rehabilitation, improved skill execution and minimising post-workout muscle sorenessAll stretching movements must be safeWhen the muscle is stretched, so is the muscle spindle, which then acts to register changes in length of the fibreThe message is sent to the central nervous system which then activates the stretch reflexStretching more often allows for improved flexibility Performance of a safe stretch program on at least three to four occasions each weekEnsure muscles are warmed up before stretchingStretching no further than the muscles will go without painNot aiming at excessive flexibility, as this causes joint instability and increased risk of injuryStatic FlexibilityThe use of static stretches to increase a joint’s range of motion/movementImproves joint range of motion, increasing flexibility which can improve performanceHeld 15-30 seconds repeated 3-5 times on each side of the bodyPain should not be felt and joint should not be taken beyond normal range of motionPNF StretchingStretching with a partner for 6-10 secondsFastest and most effective way known to increase static-passive flexibility When a muscle undergoes an isometric contraction, it relaxes more meaning you can lengthen the muscle furtherDynamic FlexibilityStretching with continual movement through the joint range of motionGrowing trend among sports and fitness professionalsGo-to stretching method for warm-ups and cool-downs and has been shown to be highly advantageous for athlete well-beingBenefits: endurance, coordination, balance, biomechanical efficiency, speed of contraction Involves slow purposeful movements that move throughout a joints full range of motionE.g. walking lungesBallistic StretchingBody goes through a bouncing movementE.g. trying to touch your toes whilst bouncingUsed in preparation for athletic events in which explosive movements are requiredHurdles, boxing, high kicks in aerobic competitions and certain movements in gymnastic routinesPotentially dangerous; activates stretch reflex that prevents muscle fibre damage through overstretching Should only be used for athletes and should follow a thorough warm-up and another form of stretchingMeasuring and monitoring flexibility training adaptationsAdaptations include: increased range of movement in joints, reduced muscle tensions, increased muscle elasticity, resulting in less risk of injury, improved posture, enhanced performance in most physical activity, delayed onset of muscle fatigue and muscle soreness following exerciseSit and reach testSafe and potentially harmful flexibility training proceduresAppropriate to ability choose exercisesWarm up to reduce muscle fibre tearsCool down at the end of every sessionStretch slowly with controlDon’t lock jointsBreathe normallyPrecede ballistic movements with static stretchingCritical Question 2What are the planning considerations for improving performance?Initial Planning ConsiderationsWhat are they?The initial planning considerations focuses on the specific sport of the athleteThe sport is broken down to identify specific components of fitness that are more fundamentalSome sports have different requirements, thus a focus on the sport is neededE.g. a GD in netball does not need to be a good shooterTypes of competitions need to be analysesSome sports have a 6-month period of competition followed by an off season e.g. cricketSome sports have a small number of major competitions at various times and locations throughout the year e.g. tennisThe schedule of events/competition needs to be examined in the initial planning considerations for improved performancePerformance and Fitness NeedsThe performance and fitness needs considered are both athlete and sport specificComponents of fitness should be relevant to the sport, and performance requirements identify the skills and other components used in the sport needing developmentAthlete specific so that each individual athlete improves for their specific role in competition and meet their own specific goals and starting pointsThe athlete’s sport should be broken down into its various components and the key components of fitness identifiedBoth the skill and health related components e.g. a triathlete would focus on their cardiovascular fitnessIn team sports, the sport specific performance and fitness needs are essentially the performance and fitness needs of the team e.g. an AFL team will need good cardiovascular endurance, power, muscular endurance and coordinationElite athletesHave much more detailed and higher level performance and fitness needsWill complete a wider range of fitness and performance tests to determine their performance and fitness needsAmateurWould not complete as many testsMay only need to perform for shorter periods of timeTheir goals may be to develop relationships and remember everyone’s name, rather than be performance focusedSchedule of Events/CompetitionIdentify when major events and competitions are held Careful planning of training leading up to, during and after events/competitions is vital for an athlete to perform their best when it countsNo good peaking during the off or pre-seasonsA single athlete may have a larger number of scheduled events/competitions than othersInternational, different times, climates, jetlag?Amateur athletes do not make schedules of competition, they simply know when they are competing and turn upE.g. elite football player plays in A-league, competes in Asian championships and in Australia for multiple international gamesOverlap and form complex travelling therefore the need for a schedule is highClimate and SeasonMany sports have a season in which they are playedFootball (AFL, NRL) is played in winterCricket is played in the summerSports have major competitions throughout the year and may or may not focus on specific seasons if they play all year roundIt determines the type of environmental conditions in which the sport will be played Elite athletesConsider a wider range of climates and seasons in their planningHave to travel around the world for international competitions and move into new climates and seasonsAmateur athletesDo not travel large distancesOnly have to consider climate and season at local level where they playClimate may change, but it wont impact them as much as elite Planning a training year (periodisation)What is periodisation?Periodisation is simply planningIt gives direction and purpose to training and assists coaches to review what worked and what didn’t work rather than solely relying on a win/loss recordEffective periodisation will take the athlete/team to a new levelIt begins with the preseason and ends with the competitionTo effectively periodise the training year, a number of important considerations need to be addressedPhases of CompetitionPre- season; period before competitionDuring season; in the competition phase. It can be very short or quite long depending on type of sport and length of competitionPost season; the off season or transition phase of competition immediately follows the competition phase, and focuses on relaxation and recoverySubphasesMacrocycleTraining phaseBroken up into the preparation phase, competition phase and transitionMesocycleMajor phase of training within a macrocycle or training phaseEach mesocycle should aim to elicit significant improvement in a particular areaSmaller chunk of timeConsist of a few weeks or a few monthsOften mesocycles match up with the 3 phases of competitionMicrocycleWeekly training planIncludes details on each individual training sessionSmaller, often a single week of a training programFocus on a singular aspect that adds together with other macrocycles in order to achieve mesocycle goals which accumulates to achieve the macrocycle goalsSport Specific SubphasesPeakingPlan to peak for particular race tournament by working hard on skills and fitness then following this up with a taperWhen athlete is performing at their absolute best during competitionThe coach attempts to have the athlete peak for most important competitionsTaperingA special training period immediately preceding the major competition during which the training stimulus is reduced in a systematic fashion to achieve a peak in performanceFatigue decreasesWell-restedMental confidence increasedImproved performanceDecrease in training volume with increase level in intensity to stimulate race paceElements of a training sessionWhat are the elements?Health and safetyProviding an overviewWarm up/Cool downSkill instructionSkill practiceConditioningEvaluation Health and SafetyComplete risk management plan that identifies any potential risks (program, participants, environment) and strategies that will minimise the riskRoutinely check equipment for faultsAssess the training environment for anything that may cause injury, such as broken glass, waterKnow your athletes and their capabilities – plan appropriate activitiesApply the principle of gradual progression – increase volume or intensity or complexity (not all three at once)Ensure correct equipmentSchedule appropriate rest and drink breaksEncourage athletes to be honestProviding an overviewOverview of objectives for sessionCould relate to previous game or training sessionCould relate to the overall season planIt gives focus and expectations from athletesIncreases motivationTimeGroupingFocus pointsGoalsStrategiesWarm Up & Cool DownPrepares the body physically and mentallyJogging, dynamic flexibility, skills and gamesCool; down; jogging, stretchGives time for the coach to review training session and give positive feedbackSkill instructionInstructional and practice methodsInstructions are relevant, clear and conciseMake sure athlete is listening and clarify thisInstructional strategies may varySkill PracticeNew skills should be taught immediately after the warm-upFatigue makes learning skills more difficultExecuting skill when fatigued; progressionsSmall-sided games with modified rulesFull practice gamesConditioningIf speed, power or acceleration are important, these must be scheduled into conditioning earlyCircuits or intervalsE.g. suicide runsIncreases fitness and skillsEvaluationEvaluating session in relation to athletes learning and performanceGives feedback to athletes on how they felt they performedCoach can provide feedbackCoaches can see what worked and what didn’t work with the sessionAvoiding overtrainingPlanning to avoid overtrainingOvertraining leads to poor performance and leads to injuries, particularly overuse injuriesIt is when an athlete does high intensity training, in high volumesOften this comes in the athlete training too often and not including enough rest between sessions of high intensityThis affects their recovery and prevents physiological adaptations from occurring Athletes who suffer from overtraining becomeFatiguedTiredLethargicThis feeling becomes a lack of motivation in the athlete and can also lead to injury through poor technique and overuseAmount and intensity of trainingintensity Leads to overtraining when the athlete completes high intensity training too often/in large amounts.?Particular forms of training (strength training) require 48 hours of rest for the muscles in order to recover and adapt appropriately to the training.Large volumes of training at high intensity cause overtraining because the athlete does not have enough time between training sessions to recover from the previous training session. More likely to suffer from overtraining, leading to poor performance, decreased motivation and higher risk of injuries.How much training is too much?There are some general guidelines, but everything is always athlete specific. Individual aspects including: Stress from work or familyMedical conditionsNutritionSleepUse of recovery strategiesAll contribute to an athlete’s risk of suffering from overtraining.As a general rule - athletes should not be completing high intensity training every day. In order for physiological adaptations to occur - training intensities should be in the relevant training zones and need to only occur 3 times a week. Types of training should be examined - ensure the amount and intensity of training does not place too much stress upon the athlete. For example, a Rugby League player should not be developing their strength, power, speed, agility and body composition all at the same time. This would require a large amount of high intensity training.What do you do if you identify an over trained athlete?Reduce the amount and intensity of training sessions. May need to take a complete break from training - to recover fully from their training session. If overtraining is identified early - a change in frequency, intensity and time may be adjusted. Often overtraining is not identified until after injuries begin to occur – in this case, rehabilitation should occur and testing be done before the athlete returns to normal training and competition.How can overtraining be avoidedHave a good balance in the amount and intensity of training. Planning a training year ensuring the athlete has regular rest periods (weekly) is vital. Inclusion of recovery sessions and skills or tactical training – allows recovery from higher intensities. Monitor each athlete closely looking for the signs and symptoms of overtraining. Physiological ConsiderationsTwo focus areas:LethargyInjuryFor Injury – need to understand how it is caused at the muscular level. Every high intensity training session causes minor injuries to muscle cells - these are usually micro-tears (often felt as delayed onset muscle soreness or DOMS), and they require time to heal. These micro-tears usually stimulate the physiological adaptations that occur from training - but if they have not fully recovered before the next training session the small “injuries” are re-injured and become larger. The longer this goes on the larger the injury and this can lead to other injuries. For lethargy - the constant?low level pain wears the athlete out. The small tears also cause muscular weakness, decreasing performance and strength. As these build up over time, the muscles become constantly weak, making normal activities draining on the athlete.Nutrition – important consideration for recovery. Leads to further feelings of lethargy as there is not enough energy within the body to recover properlyHow do you identify an overtrained athlete?SIGNS OF AN OVERTRAINED ATHLETE:Frequent error in performancePoor performance (decreased endurance, strength, power, speed etc)IllnessInjuriesPoor techniqueIncreased resting heart rateExcessive thirstSYMPTOMS OF AN OVERTRAINED ATHLETE:PainLack of energy (lethargy)HeadachesCrampingLoss of appetitePsychological Considerations- Loss of motivationAn over trained athlete will lack motivation. They will be:TiredNo longer feel like trainingLose focus of their goals and no longer want to do the hard work to get there.Is different to lethargy because lethargy is about a lack of energy to train, while a lack of motivation is not wanting to train or compete.Often lethargy will lead to a lack of motivation due to the body being tired and suffering frequent or constant pain. This leads to our emotions become elevated (hence why we are grumpy when tired or hungry).How do you identify an overtrained athlete? - psychological considerationsSIGNS OF OVERTRAINING:Moody and irritableResponds poorly to criticism/on field banterGives up when competition gets hard/abandons struggles against opponentsSYMPTOMS OF OVERTRAINING:Lack of motivationDepressionSensitive to criticismConfusion during competitionCritical Question 3What are the ethical issues related to improving performanceUse of DrugsOverview The use of drugs in sport is always a hot topic – there are many people who were considered the greatest athletes of all time, who, due to the use of drugs, have now shamed the sport and their name e.g. Lance ArmstrongFor HSC PDHPE use of drugs needs to be considered from an ethical perspective, not just a performance enhancing view pointRequires you to have a general understanding of how performance enhancing drugs work and the risks associated with them, in order to justify the use of drugs is considered unethicalYou are also required to understand the role of drug testing and argue issues related to this testingThe dangers of performance enhancing drug useDangers of performance enhancing drug use are extensiveTo the athlete’s physical healthLoss of reputationLoss of sponsorship dealsLoss of incomeFor an elite athlete the dangers of performance enhancing drug use should be enough to deter them from usePhysical Dangers of performing enhancing drugsThe physical dangers of performance enhancing drugs are specific to the drugThe syllabus dictates that you know only 5 drugsHuman growth hormone= strengthAnabolic steroids= strengthErythropoietin (EPO)= aerobicDiuretics= masking drug useAlcohol= masking drug useThese five drugs are used for three purposesStrength gainsAerobic capacity Masking drug useReputation Dangers of performing enhancing drugsElite athletes regularly complete drug tests – a positive result in a drug test of an elite player often hits media pretty quickly and is wide spreadAn athlete may have spent a long time building a reputation, not just as a physically dominant athlete, but also off the field as many elite athletes are held up as role modelsA positive result in a drug test = athlete lose their reputation overnightThey will be labelled a liar, a cheat, and many other things as their career spirals downwardThis loss pf reputation will affect other aspects of their life as wellLance Armstrong has lost his stellar reputation because it was later revealed that he had been cheating. Sponsorship Dangers of performing enhancing drugsElite athlete’s often have sponsorship with leading brands in the industryThese sponsors can often bring in large amounts of income for the athlete – for some this sponsorship is what allows them to continue as a professional athleteWhen an athlete loses their reputation and begins to be seen negatively in the media – many companies who sponsor the athlete will stop their sponsorship, and often will fine the athlete for the effect the media has on their brandMany sponsorship deals have clauses that relate to negative media exposure and the use of drugs, allowing them to remove their sponsorship quickly when an athlete is caught cheating Other dangers of performing enhancing drugsAn athlete caught using drugs runs the risk of being suspended or excluded from their sportLance Armstrong was excluded from everything connected with cyclingThis results in further loss of income and can affect the entire life of the athlete, who relies on their athletic career to support themselves and their familyFor strength (Human growth hormone & Anabolic Steroids)A chemical hormone produced by the body for growth and developmentThe levels of HGH increase during periods of large growths such as in childhood and pubertyHGH levels begin to decline as a person agesHGH is used for strength and power development as well as body composition, because it stimulates muscle growthAlso stimulates fat mobilisation for use as an energy sourcePhysical dangers of HGHThe side of effects of using HGH for strength includeNerve, muscle and joint painSwellingCarpal tunnelNumb tingling skinHigh cholesterolMuscular weaknessDiabetesOsteoporosisHeart diseaseExtensive bone growthDrugs used for strengthIncreased muscle size provides additional strength for an athlete which provides an advantage over opponentsTwo must used drugs in this category areAnabolic steroids Human Growth HormoneAnabolic SteroidsAnabolic steroids are drugs that resemble testosterone, a hormone produced in the testes of males and, to a much lesser extent, in the ovaries of femalesTestosterone is partially responsible for puberty changes and controlling the development of all tissues, including muscleRaising testosterone levels can increase muscle size and strength (called the anabolic effect)Means athletes can train harder and longer, with improved recovery from training sessionsDanger of Anabolic Steroids10778616979300Others include increased acne, heart problems, hyperextension, mood swings and stunted growthHuman Growth HormoneHuman growth hormone (HGH) is a powerful anabolic hormone that occurs naturally in the bodyIt is produced by the pituitary gland in the brain and stimulates the growth of muscle, cartilage and boneIt is taken to increase muscle sizeAllows muscles to recover more quickly (train harder & longer)Increases number of red blood cells, boosts heart function and makes more energy available by stimulating breakdown of fatStrengthens connective tissue and reduces injuryDangers of HGHAcromegaly (swelling of hands and feet and a coarsened facial appearance, such as protruding jaw and eyebrow bones)Organs such as heart, liver and kidneys will undergo excessive growth (life-threatening)Cardiomyopathy (heart loses its ability to pump blood and the rhythm is irregularHyperextension and diabetesMenstrual irregularities and impotenceIncreased risk of cancer due to abnormal growth of cellsDrugs used for improving aerobic capacityEPOA naturally occurring protein hormone given out by the kidneys during low oxygen activitiesStimulates added red blood cell production which increases oxygen delivery and buffer lactic acidUsed to increase oxygen absorption, reduce fatigue and improve performance Dangers of EPOIf EPO levels are too high = too many red blood cells leads to thickening of the blood, which clogs capillaries, causing blood clotting, heart attack and strokeDue to being injected there are higher risks of contracting infectious diseases e.g. hepatitis, AIDSBlood DopingThis refers to the methods of increasing oxygen-carrying capacity of blood to boost aerobic performanceMethods includes withdrawing blood, isolating o2 cells and then re-transfusing them back into the blood362585557600-57256825000Pregnancy or Abortion DopingA woman’s body has an increase in blood volume (due to supply two people) during pregnancy and this continues for a short period after the baby is bornAlso there is a rise in testosterone meaning better oxygen delivery to muscles (blood) and increased muscle strength (testosterone)Rumours developed around 1970s & 80sTesting for abortion dopingVirtually impossible to test forThere is no ban for getting pregnant and if caught many athletes would claim the pregnancy was not for improved performanceUSSR gymnastics?The victorious USSR women’s gymnastics team on the podium at the Mexico Olympics in October 1968, just two months after Soviet tanks rolled into PragueIn 1994, one of the team, Olga, said that officials who feared losing to the Czechs in Mexico had forced gymnasts to become pregnant and then to have an abortion to produce more blood cellsDrugs used as masking agentsThe two groups of drugs used as masking agents are diuretics and alcoholA masking agent is one that hides something being usedDiureticsIncrease the rate of excretion of water from the body via urination are used by some athletes as they speed up weight loss, and may eradicate traces of banned substances from the bodyCan cause dizziness, fainting, headaches, cramps, kidney failure and heart damageFound where weight is critical; gymnastics, boxing, weightliftingAlcoholAlcohol is prohibited during competition onlyIt slows down bodily functions and is contained in many cough elixirsSome athletes have been known to take cough elixirs to mask dug abuseBenefits and limitations of drug testingBefore the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games, drug testing was purely done with urine samplesBlood samples can also be requested of individual athletes and checked using an Australian-developed testAt the 2004 Athens Olympics, the laboratory receive 2926 urine samples and 691 blood samplesIn Beijing in 2008, 5000 tests (including 1000 blood) were taken, resulting in eight positive results39 athletes didn’t arrive in Beijing because they tested positive in pre-Olympic tests 9april-August 2008)The testing proceduresBlood tests has increased ability to test for elevated levels of hormones that occur naturally within the body such as EPOAs time goes by, more and more tests are being developed by scientists to catch those using banned substancesBut as quickly as new tests are developed, new designed drugs are also being releasedIt is a continual cycle of new drugs and new tests that keep the millions of dollars pouring into their eradicationTest samples are now being kept for up to 8 years when they are takenThis enables older samples to be retested when new tests have been developedDrug testing benefits & limitations297307015060700Necessary if sporting regulators are to make any improvements in the war against drugsSome elite athletes feel the strict protocols around drug testing are an invasion of privacy, but they also believe that competition should be fair and clean of any banned substancesThis is the moral and ethical dilemma confronting the World Anti-Doping Agency and sporting associations around the worldReasons for testingReasons against testingPerformance enhancing substances allow athletes to go beyond their natural abilitiesDrugs give cheating athletes an unfair advantageThe long-term health of the athlete is put at risk by taking performance enhancing drugsDrug taking undermines the purity of the competitionActs as a deterrentFairness in celebrating real winnersClears allegationsDrug testing “hopeless”, unjust or a failureThe cat and mouse game of ‘new drug followed by new test’ is never endingGenetic engineering may not be really testableDrug tests invade the privacy of athletes, especially in the case of recreational drugsAuthorities should not have the right to police our private lives e.g. medical info for illnessesPolicies on drug testing differ from sport to sportCost of the testingRandom selection creates loop holesLength to return testUse of masking agentsUse of TechnologyHow is technology used?Through improvements in training (called training innovations) or through equipmentTraining innovationsNew training innovations develop every yearCoaches research, or in the case of elite athletes, have support staff to investigate the latest training methods and vices to improve athletic performance in power, distance and accuracy, and to prevent injury or aid in rehabilitationLactate threshold testingBody system testing (Max Vo2)Biomechanical analysisMotion analysisPerformance analysis packageUnderwater camerasSwing analysisGPS tracking system3D athlete simulationDrop in cricket pitchWind tunnel – cyclingHawk eye tennisSnicko cricketAltitude swimming pool tentsCooling vestsDual content drink bottles & carbohydrate liquidsWhat are the reasons why technology is unethical?CostStealing ideas from video analysisUnfair pressure on umpires through hawk-eyeFocus on entertainment for spectators rather than just playing (third empire)Taking away home ground advantage with video dataAccess to technologyCultural acceptance of technologyTechnology replacing the actual human ability (cheetah-foot)Changing the rules of tennis &cricket with challengesSlowing the speed of the gamePlacing athletes at heightened levels of injury or illness (not being able to access cooling vests or working harder to beat GPS tracking)Positive developments from technologymaking sport enjoyable to the public through closer competition and the thrill of extreme abilitiesincreasing revenue for big business through sponsorship, media coveragemaking sport more enjoyable for less advanced or younger athletes (e.g. by making it easier to connect with a golf ball, tennis ball, softball, etc.)bringing opportunities to physically challenged athletes through special wheelchairs, skis and prostheticsincreasing the comfort of athletes in some sports (e.g. seat design in cycling, shock absorbers on mountain bikes, riding boots for equestrians, golf buggies, etc.).Negative developments from technologyPushing to the limit could result in increased chance of injury.Higher technology costs could result in not all athletes in all countries being able to afford the new technologies.Athletes may experience increased pressure to get the edge they need through performance-enhancing drugs.Athletes may rely on technology instead of skill development.Some technology may result in a decrease in activity levels (e.g. golf buggies, ski lifts, etc.) ................
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