Principles and Practices of Journalism By Carl Hausman

[Pages:339]PrinciplesandPracticesofJournalism,Page1

Principles and Practices of Journalism By Carl Hausman

Table of Contents

Principles and Practices of Journalism ................................................................. 1

Introduction ........................................................................................................................11 MAIN FEATURES OF THE BOOK ....................................................................................................11 A Focus on Critical Thinking.................................................................................................................11 Material Reinforcing "General Knowledge" ..................................................................................11 Discussion and Analysis of Ethics ......................................................................................................11 Updates ............................................................................................................................................................12

Part 1: Basics........................................................................................................................13 Chapter1:What'sNews? ............................................................................................................. 13 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER.........................................................................................................................13 How the News Media are Alerted .......................................................................................................14 Early Coverage of the Fire.......................................................................................................................14 A Routine Story Becomes a Tragedy .................................................................................................16 What the Reporters Do with the Information They've Gathered .......................................16 Television Reports ......................................................................................................................................16 Radio Reports ...............................................................................................................................................17 Newspaper Reports ....................................................................................................................................18 Web Reports ..................................................................................................................................................19 Hard and Soft News from the Fire .....................................................................................................19 Follow-Up Reporting.................................................................................................................................19 A New Development Changes the Importance of the Story ..................................................21 Where Does the Story Develop from Here?...................................................................................21 WHY IS THIS STORY NEWS? .............................................................................................................22 Concepts that Help Define News.........................................................................................................22 NEWS AS A BUSINESS AND A COMMODITY...........................................................................24 The Question of Image versus Substance ? A Look Back.......................................................25 New Expectations of the Role of a Journalist ...............................................................................27 IN DEPTH: MISREPRESENTATION ..............................................................................................29 CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................................................................31 Chapter 2: Where Did Journalism Come From? ..................................................... 33 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER.........................................................................................................................33 THE EARLIEST FORMS OF NEWS..................................................................................................33 EARLY TRADITIONS OF THE AMERICAN PRESS ................................................................34 The Bill of Rights........................................................................................................................ 34 Amendment I ................................................................................................................................................34 Amendment II...............................................................................................................................................34 Amendment III.............................................................................................................................................34 Amendment IV .............................................................................................................................................34 Amendment V ...............................................................................................................................................35

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Amendment VI .............................................................................................................................................35 Amendment VII ...........................................................................................................................................35 Amendment VIII .........................................................................................................................................35 Amendment IX .............................................................................................................................................35 Amendment X...............................................................................................................................................35 THE PRESS FROM 1798 - 1860..........................................................................................................36 Adams and the Press .................................................................................................................................36 The Press Regains some Freedom ......................................................................................................36 Madison through Lincoln: The Shaping of the Modern Press .............................................37 Abolition, the Press, and the Run-Up to the Civil War ............................................................38 THE CIVIL WAR AND ITS AFTERMATH.....................................................................................38 Examining the Effects of Industrial Society on the Poor ........................................................39 Political Reforms Brought About by the Press .............................................................................40 World War I and the Internationalization of News ...................................................................41 World War II ? A Conflict Brought Home by the Electronic Media .................................41 The Kennedy Assassination Brings Television News Front and Center..........................42 Vietnam Brings a New Concept to War Coverage ......................................................................42 News Reporters Become the News.....................................................................................................43 Watergate ........................................................................................................................................................43 IN-DEPTH: WOULD YOU RUN BID LADEN'S DEATH PHOTO? ..................................45 CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................................................................45

Chapter 3: Where Did Media Come From?...................................................................47

INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................47

THEIMPORTANCEOFCOMMUNICATION ...................................................................... 48

THEWORLDTHATLANGUAGEBUILT ............................................................................ 49 WrittenLanguage........................................................................................................................... 49 IdeographicWriting ....................................................................................................................................50 PhonographicWriting ................................................................................................................................50 Media:LongLivingLanguage .................................................................................................... 51 MediaBegintoShapeExpression............................................................................................. 51 MediaStorageSystemsChangetheNatureofCommunication ...................................... 52

PAPER,MIGRATION,ANDTHESPREADOFCOMMONLANGUAGES ...................... 52 OldEnglish........................................................................................................................................ 52 MiddleEnglish................................................................................................................................. 53 ModernEnglishandStandardization...................................................................................... 54

MASSCOMMUNICATION:LONGDISTANCELANGUAGE ............................................ 54 TheNewMassCommunicationBecomesaThreattoEstablishedOrder ................... 55 LicensingofthePrintingPress.................................................................................................. 56 ThePrintingPressinColonialAmerica.................................................................................. 56

DEFININGMASSCOMMUNICATION .................................................................................57 IntrapersonalCommunication .................................................................................................. 57 InterpersonalCommunication .................................................................................................. 58 MassCommunication'sAttributes ........................................................................................... 58 Technological .................................................................................................................................................58 WideAudience ............................................................................................................................................... 58 HighSpeed ....................................................................................................................................................... 58

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AccessibleTechnology ...............................................................................................................................59

AnAudienceGenerallyUnknowntotheSenderortoOtherMembersoftheAudience.

.............................................................................................................................................................................. 59 AMessageGeneratorWhoisPartofanIndustry ........................................................................... 59 AnAudiencethatProvidesMeager,DelayedFeedback ............................................................... 59

HOWMASSCOMMUNICATIONCONQUEREDDISTANCEANDCHANGEDOUR VIEWOFTHEWORLD ..........................................................................................................59

EarlyAttemptstoMoveMessagesoveraDistance............................................................. 60 TheTelegraph ................................................................................................................................. 60

HowtheTelegraphChangedtheExpandingNation .....................................................................61 HowtheTelegraphChangedtheStructureandContentofNews ........................................... 61 Radio .................................................................................................................................................. 62 RadioShowsPromiseofBeingProfitable.......................................................................................... 63 Radio:TheFirstMonopoly .......................................................................................................................63

ADDINGTHEHUMANELEMENT:MASSCOMMUNICATIONENTERSTHE20TH CENTURY ..................................................................................................................................64

TheTelephone:AddingaVoicetotheTelegraph ............................................................... 64 ModernRadio:TheSumoftheWireless,theTelephone,andSoundRecording ..... 64 ALessonfromRadio:WhyWeCan'tPredicttheFutureofMedia ................................. 65 RadioBecomesaProfitableMassMedium............................................................................ 66 TheMovingImage:FilmPlusMotionSetsTheStageForTelevision............................ 66 TheAdditiveEffectofMediaandJournalismTechnologies ............................................ 67

MODERNMEDIACOMEOFAGE ......................................................................................... 68 WorldWarII:AWarBroughtintotheLivingRoom........................................................... 69 TelevisionEntersthePicture..................................................................................................... 69 ModernMediaCompleteTheCycle:Elite,Popular,AndSpecialized ........................... 70 TelevisionNetworksandtheCyclicalNatureofMedia..................................................... 71

INDEPTH:HOWTECHNOLOGYSHAPEDTHETVNETWORKS............................... 71

MEDIAANDTHEDIGITALWORLDOF"UNIMEDIA" ...................................................73 DefiningDigital ............................................................................................................................... 73 WhyDigitalTechnologyChangedEverything ...................................................................... 73

CONCLUSION ...........................................................................................................................74

Part 2: The Media of Journalism..............................................................................75 Chapter 4: Books and Publishing ..................................................................................... 75 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER.........................................................................................................................75 THE BIRTH OF PUBLISHING ............................................................................................................75 THE INVENTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTING ...................................................76 The Gutenberg Press .................................................................................................................................77 The Press Changes Society .....................................................................................................................77 The Spread Of Dissent and the Gutenberg Press........................................................................78 The Book Becomes a Target for Suppression................................................................................78 THE PRESS CHANGES AMERICA ...................................................................................................79 Common Sense and the Revolutionary War..................................................................................79 Literature Becomes an Agent of Social Change ...........................................................................80 Books as Cultural Shorthand.................................................................................................................81 Nonfiction Books Become a Mechanism for Personal Development ...............................82

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The Paperback Engineers Growth in the Publishing Industry ............................................83 Paperbacks During WWII.......................................................................................................................83 The Paperback Explosion of the 50s .................................................................................................84 HOW THE BOOK INDUSTRY OPERATES...................................................................................86 Types of Books..............................................................................................................................................87 The Organization of a Publishing House ........................................................................................90 HOW AN IDEA BECOMES A BOOK ................................................................................................91 How Authors Approach Publishers....................................................................................................92 Over-the-Transom Submissions..........................................................................................................92 Agented Submissions ................................................................................................................................92 Negotiating Advances and Contracts ................................................................................................93 The Risk Level in Publishing a New Book ......................................................................................94 EBOOKS........................................................................................................................................................... 94 CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................................................................95 Chapter 5: Newspapers.......................................................................................................... 96 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER.........................................................................................................................96 A MODERN EXAMPLE WITH HISTORICAL PRECEDENT ..............................................97 THE EVOLUTION OF NEWSPAPERS ............................................................................................98 News In Ancient Rome.............................................................................................................................99 The First Newspapers ...............................................................................................................................99 PRESS FREEDOM AND THE EARLY PAPERS....................................................................... 100 James Franklin and the New England Courant........................................................................ 101 John Peter Zenger and the New York Weekly Journal ......................................................... 101 The Legacy of Franklin and Zenger ................................................................................................ 102 PERIODS OF NEWSPAPER HISTORY........................................................................................ 103 OPERATION OF THE MODERN PAPER ................................................................................... 112 The Newspaper in Relation to Other Media............................................................................... 112 Number of Newspapers......................................................................................................................... 113 Newspaper Organization...................................................................................................................... 113 How a Newspaper is Put Together .................................................................................................. 114

Chapter 6: Magazines .................................................................................................. 117 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER...................................................................................................................... 117 DEVELOPMENT OF THE MAGAZINE ....................................................................................... 118 A Poor Early Market for Magazines................................................................................................ 118 IN DEPTH.................................................................................................................................................... 119 Magazine And Newspaper "Muckrakers" .................................................................................... 120 Literary Content In Magazines.......................................................................................................... 121 Newsmagazines......................................................................................................................................... 122 Picture Magazines.................................................................................................................................... 123 Decline Of General-Interest Magazines........................................................................................ 123 THE MOVEMENT TOWARD TIGHTER FOCUS ................................................................... 124 CATEGORIES OF MAGAZINES ...................................................................................................... 126 Trade Magazines....................................................................................................................................... 127 Newsletters.................................................................................................................................................. 128 Classification Of Delivery Systems .................................................................................................. 129 The Internal Structure Of A Magazine .......................................................................................... 130 THE ECONOMICS OF THE MAGAZINE INDUSTRY ......................................................... 132 How Advertising Is Sold ....................................................................................................................... 133 EFFECTS OF ADVERTISER PRESSURE.................................................................................... 135

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CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 136 Chapter 7: Radio and the Birth of Electronic Journalism ................................137

ABOUT THIS CHAPTER...................................................................................................................... 137 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE MAGIC MEDIUM ..................................................................... 138 Radio Finds a Voice................................................................................................................................. 139 Early Regulation ....................................................................................................................................... 140 Radio After World War I ...................................................................................................................... 140 Radio Carries a Tune .............................................................................................................................. 141 AT&T Develops Toll Broadcasting................................................................................................... 144 Exit AT&T..................................................................................................................................................... 144 Development Of The Networks......................................................................................................... 145 NBC and CBS.............................................................................................................................................. 145 NBC's Competitors .................................................................................................................................. 146 CBS .................................................................................................................................................................. 146 Sarnoff and Paley ..................................................................................................................................... 147 Advertising Comes of Age .................................................................................................................... 148 The Golden Age and Mass Entertainment .................................................................................. 149 The Hindenburg........................................................................................................................................ 150 Commentators ........................................................................................................................................... 151 Edward R. Murrow.................................................................................................................................. 151 CBS at the End of World War II ....................................................................................................... 153 Television Lowers The Boom ............................................................................................................. 153 Radio's Revival and the EPS Cycle .................................................................................................. 153 Radio's New Strategy.............................................................................................................................. 154 Rock Saves Radio ..................................................................................................................................... 154 Radio Tunes into its Audience........................................................................................................... 155 THE WORKINGS OF RADIO ............................................................................................................ 156 The Radio Wave ........................................................................................................................................ 157 Measuring the Radio Wave ................................................................................................................. 158 Amplitude Modulation .......................................................................................................................... 159 Frequency Modulation .......................................................................................................................... 160 RADIO TODAY.......................................................................................................................................... 161 How Radio Stations Get a Frequency ............................................................................................ 161 Radio Personnel........................................................................................................................................ 163 Programming ............................................................................................................................................. 163 The Real Product of Radio................................................................................................................... 166 The Magic Demographic ...................................................................................................................... 166 How Formats are Used to Capture a Demographic................................................................ 167 RADIO 2011 ................................................................................................................................................ 171 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 173 Chapter 8: Television.............................................................................................................175 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER...................................................................................................................... 175 THE DEVELOPMENT OF TELEVISION AND CABLE........................................................ 176 Early Origins............................................................................................................................................... 176 Photoconductivity in Photography.................................................................................................. 176 Mechanical Scanning ............................................................................................................................. 177 Electronic Scanning ................................................................................................................................ 177 The Dawn of Commercial TV: 1939-1950.................................................................................... 178 TV Signals Become Standardized .................................................................................................... 178 How NTSC Works .................................................................................................................................... 178

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The Cable TV Concept Appears......................................................................................................... 179 The 1950s: Evolution of the New Medium .................................................................................. 179 Color Television ........................................................................................................................................ 180 The Birth of Television News ............................................................................................................. 182 The Maturing Medium: TV from 1960-1980 ............................................................................. 184 Television News Comes Of Age In The Kennedy Assassination....................................... 184 News Becomes A Local Profit Center............................................................................................. 186 Entertainment Programming Develops Sophisticated Genres......................................... 187 THE MODERN TV AND CABLE INDUSTRY ........................................................................... 188 Modern Programming ........................................................................................................................... 188 The Impact of Cable ................................................................................................................................ 189 The Cable News Network ..................................................................................................................... 190 The Effect of Cable on Today's Programming ........................................................................... 190 Economics of the Television/Cable Industry ............................................................................. 191 The Network-Affiliate Relationship................................................................................................ 191 Syndication.................................................................................................................................................. 192 Local News: Public Service or Profit Center?............................................................................. 193 International Markets............................................................................................................................ 193 Ethical Questions ..................................................................................................................................... 194 TELEVISION 2011................................................................................................................................... 194 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 195 Chapter 9: The Internet and Merging Media............................................................196 DEVELOPMENT OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY ...................................................................... 197 Revolution #2: Calculus........................................................................................................................ 198 Revolution #3: Using Numbers to Automate a Process ....................................................... 199 THE BIRTH OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY ......................................................................... 199 The Hollerith Computer Manipulates Information................................................................ 199 The Binary System Makes Information Standardized .......................................................... 200 The TCP Protocol ..................................................................................................................................... 202 Physical Location of the Internet ..................................................................................................... 202 Defining the World Wide Web .......................................................................................................... 203 Defining Multimedia .............................................................................................................................. 204 Finally, Defining `Prototype'............................................................................................................... 204 INTEGRATION OF OLD AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES ..................................................... 204 Responsibility............................................................................................................................................. 206 Intellectual Property............................................................................................................................... 207 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 210

Part 3: Media Industries Related to Journalism.......................................... 211 Chapter 10: Advertising........................................................................................................211 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER...................................................................................................................... 211 WHERE DID ADVERTISING COME FROM? .......................................................................... 212 Advertising and the End of Exclusive Person-To-Person Selling.................................... 212 Early Ad Agencies .................................................................................................................................... 213 Radio Advertising..................................................................................................................................... 214 Television Advertising ........................................................................................................................... 215 THE WORKINGS OF THE MODERN AD AGENCY ............................................................. 216 Functions Within the Agency............................................................................................................. 217 HOW ADVERTISING STRATEGIES ARE DEVISED ........................................................... 218 Planning the Approach.......................................................................................................................... 219

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How an Advertising Strategy is Implemented........................................................................... 220 The Initial Campaign.............................................................................................................................. 220 Follow-Up .................................................................................................................................................... 220 Continual Evolution of the Campaign ........................................................................................... 221 ISSUES IN ADVERTISING................................................................................................................. 222 The Advertising Environment ........................................................................................................... 222 Promoting Products We Really Don't Need ............................................................................... 222 The Blurring of Advertising and News .......................................................................................... 223 Advertising and Politics ........................................................................................................................ 224 Intrusive Advertising.............................................................................................................................. 225 Chapter 11: Public Relations ..............................................................................................227 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER...................................................................................................................... 227 HISTORY OF PUBLIC RELATIONS.............................................................................................. 229 Press Agents................................................................................................................................................ 230 The Industry Seeks To Reform Its Image .................................................................................... 230 Growth Of Pr As A Profession............................................................................................................ 231 Bernays and the Academic Development of Public Relations........................................... 232 PR in Industry............................................................................................................................................ 232 Government Public Relations In World War I.......................................................................... 232 Founding of a PR Association............................................................................................................ 233 Government Public Relations in World War II ........................................................................ 233 PR in the Booming Post-WWII Economy.................................................................................... 233 MODERN PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTICE ............................................................................ 234 Releasing Information........................................................................................................................... 235 Creating or Reinforcing an Image ................................................................................................... 237 Directly Promoting a Product or Service...................................................................................... 237 Persuading the Public or a Particular Constituency............................................................... 237 Reaching Internal Audiences ............................................................................................................. 238 Promoting and Planning Events....................................................................................................... 238 ISSUES IN PUBLIC RELATIONS ................................................................................................... 238 The Creation of Pseudo-Events......................................................................................................... 238 Political Pseudo-Events ........................................................................................................................ 240 Publicists Managing News................................................................................................................... 241 Managing the Impact of New Technologies ............................................................................... 242 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 246

Part 4: Journalism, Society, and You ................................................................. 247 Chapter 12: Laws and Regulation ...................................................................................247 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER...................................................................................................................... 247 Constitutional Law .................................................................................................................................. 248 Statutory Law ............................................................................................................................................. 248 Administrative Law................................................................................................................................. 249 Executive Orders ...................................................................................................................................... 249 Common Law and Case Law............................................................................................................... 250 Precedent...................................................................................................................................................... 250 Judicial Review and Interpretation ................................................................................................ 251 APPLYING LAW TO JOURNALISM AND MEDIA................................................................ 252 Sedition Acts............................................................................................................................................... 252 Wartime Censorship............................................................................................................................... 253 Prior Restraint ........................................................................................................................................... 254

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Free Speech and Clear and Present Danger................................................................................ 255 The Brandenburg Decision ................................................................................................................. 257 LAWS THAT DERIVE FROM SCARCITY, PARTICULARLY SPECTRUM SPACE257 Radio Act of 1912 ...................................................................................................................................... 258 Radio Act of 1927...................................................................................................................................... 258 Communications Act of 1934 ............................................................................................................. 259 FCC Rules and Regulations................................................................................................................. 259 The Telecommunications Act of 1996............................................................................................ 260

LAWS THAT STEM FROM THE DESIRE TO PROTECT AND IMPROVE SOCIETY

........................................................................................................................................................................... 261 Decency and Obscenity ......................................................................................................................... 262 Honesty ......................................................................................................................................................... 264 LAWS THAT STEM FROM THE DESIRE TO SEEK JUSTICE ....................................... 265 Tort Law........................................................................................................................................................ 265 Libel ................................................................................................................................................................ 266 Defenses Against Libel .......................................................................................................................... 267 Privacy ........................................................................................................................................................... 270 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 271 Chapter 13: Ethics....................................................................................................................272 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER...................................................................................................................... 272 DEFINING ETHICS AND PHILOSOPHY................................................................................... 273 Philosophy ................................................................................................................................................... 273 Ethics.............................................................................................................................................................. 274 Ethics versus Morals............................................................................................................................... 274 IN DEPTH: THE HEAVY HITTERS IN ETHICS..................................................................... 274 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ETHICS AND LAW ............................................................ 281 CODES OF ETHICS ................................................................................................................................ 282 Who Uses Ethics Codes? ...................................................................................................................... 282 What Happens When There Isn't A Formal Ethics Code? .................................................. 283 From Where do these Codes Come?............................................................................................... 283 Content of the Written Ethics Codes.............................................................................................. 284 The Code of Ethics of the Society of Professional Journalists........................................... 284 The Associated Press Managing Editors Association Code of Ethics ............................ 286 What the Codes Have in Common .................................................................................................. 286 Who Enforces These Codes?............................................................................................................... 288 How Are The Codes Enforced?.......................................................................................................... 288 Consequentialist Ethics......................................................................................................................... 289 Non-Consequentialist Ethics.............................................................................................................. 289 Golden Mean Ethics................................................................................................................................ 289 Applying Ethical Reasoning to a Suicide Story ......................................................................... 290 Why Compromise Does Not Always Work.................................................................................. 291 Non-Consequentialism: Pro and Con ............................................................................................ 292 Consequentialism Pro and Con......................................................................................................... 293 Golden Mean Pro and Con .................................................................................................................. 293 The Resolution........................................................................................................................................... 294 PRIVACY ...................................................................................................................................................... 294 A Troubling Case that Resonates Years Later............................................................................ 295 Does the `Right to Privacy' Have a Foundation? ...................................................................... 296 The Public's `Right to Know'............................................................................................................... 296 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 297

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