CHAPTER 3 – THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR



LISA NOTES

STUDY UNIT 4 PERSONALITIES RECOGNISED IN TRAITS

ALSO SEE CHAPTER 16 IN TEXTBOOK

KEY CONCEPTS

elements – dimensions, factors

factor analysis – research based on the correlation of multiple traits and

factors

individual differences – explicit differences in the personality of each individual

psychophysical systems – systems comprising physical and chemical or neurological

processes as well as psychological functions

trait models – theoretical models explaining differences in people by

using the trait concept

interpersonal traits – traits describing interactive behaviour

work-related traits – traits associated with job performance

citizen behaviours – behaviours indicating loyalty to the place of employment

types/styles – combinations of traits that indicate that a person has a distinct pattern of behaviour

unique traits – traits peculiar to a person or group

surface traits – traits perceived by others

source traits – traits deeply embedded in the individual’s personality

dynamic traits – traits associated with change and motivation in people

common traits – traits present in all individuals (and used by nomothetic approaches)

personal disposition – traits and behaviour that characterise a person

cardinal trait ability traits – traits such as intelligence that foster goal-attainment

proprium – the ego or self

proprium stages – the stages of development of the self

needs – deficiencies that direct behaviour

consistency – the stability of traits

interactionism 16.1 Introduction

Describing people according to traits is the most used approach in the study of personality. Trait psychology has many applications in the work context, especially in the field of psychological assessment. The aim of the chapter is to provide an explanation of personality as seen by trait approaches.

16.2 A background to the trait approach to human nature

The trait or factor approach encompasses perspectives also referred to as dimensional, dispositional or type theories. Trait concepts refer to characteristic internal dispositions and overt behaviours that are used to describe personality structure, motivation and adjustment, as well as personality development in terms of specific and combined elements or dimensions.

Trait research has established general laws regarding human behaviour by which similarities and differences between people can be explained. It also contributes to assessment methodology in psychological disciplines. However, trait approaches remain neglected, especially in explaining human behaviour.

Factors are often used to describe combinations of traits, as most trait descriptions of personality are derived from empirical research in which factors were isolated from masses of data by using variations of the statistical techniques of factor analysis. In this way various types of models for personality have been isolated. The trait approaches are often referred to as “psychometric”, because of the emphasis on objective measurement and the quantitative analysis of the elements of personality. The main contributors to trait approaches are Allport, Cattell, Eysenck and Wiggins.

16.3 Main trait assumptions

Personality consists of certain elements, called traits, which people may have, and which direct and organise behaviour and provide the individual with an identifiable profile. A further assumption is that traits are consistent and enduring. People might have similar traits, but each person is unique.

16.4 Personality defined as traits

Traits are tendencies that people have to act, think and feel in specific ways. People with similar traits might act similarly. Allport defines personality as “the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour and thought”. Allport views traits as psychophysical systems that really exist, giving structure to personality and directing and motivating behaviour. Traits provide stability to behaviour and personality. The same trait (for example, being trusting) should elicit more or less the same type of response from various stimuli. Cattell defines personality as behaviour in specific situations.

Social constructionists are critical of trait theory and warn that people should not be type-cast or labelled. In response to this, trait psychologists indicate that their objective assessments and research are based on what people across situations, cultures and time report about themselves.

16.5 Traits, types and styles in personality structure

Traits can be expressed as single traits, or combined as factors, types or styles.

16.5.1 Traits

Trait descriptions of personality utilise specific dimensions to describe and explain characteristic ways of behaving, thinking, feeling and doing. Traits are inherited and represent learned potential or predispositions, which direct and motivate behaviour and which give structure to personality. A combination of traits can lead to a profile. Scientific and more objective measurement and trait descriptions of personality are based on one recognised theoretical model or another.

16.5.1.1 Personality as three factors

One of the most sophisticated and influential trait approaches is Eysenck’s Three-Factor Model of personality. Personality consists of three major factors:

• extraversion – introversion

• neuroticism – stability

• psychoticism – tough-mindedness.

Each of these factors is described by means of sub-factors or specific traits.

16.5.1.2 Personality as 16 factors

Cattell’s theory on personality emerged as a result of extensive factorial research on personality traits utilising various types of data on personality, such as people’s self reports, personal histories, observations and scores in psychological tests.

16.5.1.3 Personality as five factors

The Five-Factor Model arguably enjoys the most support at present as an integrative trait description that describes and studies personality. Concepts in the Five-Factor Model represent psychological knowledge from many personality theories and personality research. Each of the five factors is described by specific traits, which represent a finer analysis or personality. The Five-Factor Model has been verified by assessments on a broad range of personality questionnaires in various fields, as well as applications in fields such as psychopathology and work-related assessment. Positive relationships were found between the “Big Five” factors and three types of work performance measures, namely: job proficiency, training proficiency and personal data. Future classifications (such as for abnormal psychological syndromes and descriptions of personality disorders) will have to include integrated research based on the Five-Factor Model. This model also organises data on personality variables, which makes it easier to use other existing theories to explain such variables. The five personality factors incorporated into this model are:

• extraversion versus introversion

• agreeableness versus antagonism

• conscientiousness versus lack of direction

• neuroticism versus emotional stability

• openness to experience versus closedness.

Criticisms of the Five-Factor Model are that it is too broad and that it does not accommodate some existing personality scales.

Four additional factors that could be used to describe personality are:

• achievement

• affiliation

• locus of control

• Masculinity or femininity.

In the practice of measuring to predict behaviour it might always be better to use more factors and associated traits. For now the Five-Factor Model does well in describing personality, but not as well in explaining behaviour with regard to underlying causes, internal personality dynamics and underlying motivation.

16.5.2 Other applications of trait descriptions

It is possible to find trait descriptions for specific aspects of personality, such as motivation, leadership, self-concept and adjustment. For example, profile analysis describes and compares job profiles, people, situations and even organisations in terms of traits.

The Interpersonal Circumplex Model is used to classify interpersonal behaviours. This model is based on the assumption that personality is best expressed in interpersonal situations. The reaction of people in social situations will depend on interpersonal traits.

Wiggens distinguished eight interpersonal trait categories, which he presented as opposites on a circle (Figure 16.1 on page 300).

Another example of a criterion measure of work-related personality clusters or taxonomies is an 18-factor model on managerial performance, reduced to four main factors.

These four factors are:

• interpersonal dealings and communication

• leadership and supervision

• technical activities and mechanics of management

• useful personal behaviour and skills.

These criteria should also fit well with personality variables as measured on recognised personality tests. Technical task criteria will be better predicted by measures of ability, while more contextual activities of job performance will be better predicted by personality measures. Examples are so-called “organisational citizenship behaviours”, which refer to extra-supportive behaviours that are not always in a job description, but necessary in successful job performance.

These behaviours include:

• volunteering to carry out tasks that are not part of the job

• showing extra enthusiasm

• co-operating and helping others

• following organisational roles and policies

• supporting, defending and endorsing organisational objectives.

Traits necessary for the successful management of diversity have been identified. These include:

• understanding one’s own culture and how employees are influenced

• strong positive values

• practising and accepting cultural differences

• encouraging an open, trusting climate.

The “learning” organisation describes the way an organisation copes with transformation and changes and deals with its human-resources demands. By observing and writing down behaviours and processes in individuals, groups or organisations, characteristic traits and even repeated patterns can be identified.

16.5.3 Types and styles

Types and styles are similar in that they denote a person’s disposition to act in a specific way if he/she has certain traits or if he/she is of a certain type. Types or styles are mostly seen as a combination of traits, which result in a person having a distinct type or style. Type description, even though still used to classify and describe people, is used less often than trait concepts. In occupational practice, type and style concepts are often utilised to describe personality or behaviours. A problem with type descriptions is the tendency to label someone as a certain type, and then believe that person can only perform a certain job.

One of the earliest personality typologies has four categories:

• sanguine: optimistic in temperament

• choleric: tending to be irritable and angry

• melancholic: depressed

• phlegmatic: calm and controlled.

Sheldon described three personality types made up of interactions between body types (somatotypes) and temperament. These were:

• endomorphs

• mesomorphs

• ectomorphs.

To differentiate patterns of work involvement or patterns of stress management people are often classified as either Type-A or Type-B personalities:

• The Type-A personality is characterised by impatience, high standards of achievement, tight time schedules and competitiveness. These behaviours are often also related to cardiovascular or heart diseases.

• The Type-B personality presents a calm orientation with less emphasis on achievement and time constraints.

Typologies such as administrative, bureaucratic, expert, ideological and charismatic describe leadership types or roles. Conflict-management styles include withdrawal, smoothing, forcing, compromise and problem-solving. The eight types of roles performed within teams are chairperson, planner, initiator, monitor-evaluator, resource/information investigator, team worker/encourager, company worker and completer/finisher. Learning styles such as diverger, accommodator, assimilator and converger reflect the person’s development in the acquisition of certain skills. Control, escape and symptom management are job-related coping styles often used in stress research.

16.6 Personality expressed in different types of trait

Traits not only describe personality, but also specific issues such as values, interests, motives, attitudes and abilities. Allport famously said that in some respects all people are alike, in some respects some people are similar, and in some respects every individual is unique.

16.6.1 General traits in most people

Common traits are general to most people within a given culture. Cattell refers to common traits as source traits. Surface traits refer to clusters of less overt responses or behaviours.

16.6.2 Unique traits in each individual

Unique traits are peculiar to individuals. A person’s “true personality” refers to the actual neurophysiological structure in that person. Personal traits manifest uniquely in each individual. A “cardinal trait” refers to a dominant characteristic a person may have, such as being ambitious.

16.7 Traits in personality development

Researchers do not believe that the adult personality is absolutely determined by events during childhood, but that people are free to develop their personalities according to their goals and motivations. However, they acknowledge the important formative influence of parents in learning experiences.

Biological environmental factors are important for the development of those traits that are the building blocks for all aspects of personality and human behaviour.

“Propium” is the term for ego or self. Personality develops through seven propium stages. These ego development stages are:

• a sense of bodily self

• continuing self-identity development

• expansion of self-esteem

• extension of the self

• self-image evaluation

• self as a rational coper

• the self as a propriate striver.

The adult is an autonomous being with the self-image and motivation to rationally create a lifestyle. A mature adult is open to all experiences, not a slave of the past. He/she is unselfish and realistic. This adult will behave functionally autonomously, which refers to behaviour that is appropriate in terms of the situation.

Spranger's six value types illustrate the development of various value orientations and are used in career counselling.

16.8 Traits and personality dynamics (motivation)

The word “dynamics” refers to processes and factors in the motivation, change, and adjustment of personality. Trait concepts are used to explain people’s behaviour motivation. A person’s behaviour is explained in terms of the strength of a trait, and for this reason traits are portrayed in personality-test profiles. Extremely high or low scores may indicate problems, where the individual will have to learn to behave differently.

Motivation in children is based on immediate and reactive mechanisms, arising from basic needs. In adults, motivation is based on propriate striving, that is behaviour initiated by the individual. “Functional autonomy” implies that behaviour learned for a specific reason is persisted with, even when the original motive no longer applies. The concept of propriate functional autonomy indicates that people select the motives they like and that suit their self-concept.

People suffering from anxiety can seldom be functionally autonomous, because their behaviours are based on immediate gratification and tension reduction, termed “deficiency needs”. The mature adult may be motivated by deficiency needs, such as hunger or uncertainty. However the adult also has the ability to put these needs aside in order to achieve long-term goals and values. These are called growth needs or propriate needs.

Behaviours that have a motive, such as habits, addictions and automatic responses are termed “perseverative functional autonomy”.

Dynamic traits describe and explain behaviour motivation and interests. There are two dynamic traits:

• Ergs describe the basic, permanent, initiating and goal-directed energy of all behaviour, like drives or instincts. Examples are curiosity, gregariousness, sex, self-assertion, security, protection, disgust, appeal, self-submission and anger.

• Sentiments are learned or environmentally moulded traits that direct and motivate behaviour, such as interest. They concern our central life interests, such as work, family and nation. Each person, through the combination of sentiments, develops a self-sentiment, which really represents the self-concept.

Attitudes refer to people’s interests, emotions and behaviour towards things, situations and persons. Temperament and ability traits will determine how a person advances in work and towards goals. People are motivated by needs, which are aroused by cognitive and emotional motives. The need for achievement is the desire for excellence, to perform well in tasks, to overcome obstacles and to improve on previous performance levels.

16.9 Psychological adjustment

Traits in general are used to explain adjustment or maladjustment. The quality of adult maturity is dependent on how the proprium has developed in all the stages during childhood.

Functional autonomous, psychologically healthy or mature people have the following traits or characteristics:

• future-directed behaviour

• the ability to extend their sense of self to other people and activities

• the maintenance of positive relationships with others, showing tolerance, consideration and empathy

• the manifestation of emotional security in their behaviours as they have achieved self-acceptance

• self-insight

• a realistic perception of reality and their own competencies.

16.10 Consistency of personality

The accepted definition of personality emphasises enduring patterns of behaviour and consistency.

16.10.1 Consistency via trait consistency in people

Traits provide stability and consistency to personality. Trait approaches tend to align this consistency with hereditary or biological factors. Personality factors are good predictors of occupational behaviour.

16.10.2 Consistency within and across situations

Another explanation for the level of consistency in personality measures is called “situationism”, which means that the situation in which a person operates influences the person more than personality itself. With respect to situationism, most research, however, indicates that situations generally do not contribute more to the accurate predictions of behaviour than personality does.

16.10.3 Consistency from person-situation interaction

Consistency of personality is explained by interactionism. Interactionism states that personality and the situation in collaboration contribute to personality consistency and both should be taken into account in behaviour predictions. Different personalities (or types of trait) may react differently in similar situations. Traits do not apply in all situations to the same extent. A person may be assertive in a one-on-one situation but submissive in a group situation. People learn appropriate behaviours for situations and will tend to behave consistently in certain situations, which results in consistency across situations. Consistency over a long time is a controversial issue with respect to personality traits, as personality fluctuations also occur.

16.11 Summary and conclusion

Personality traits describe and predict personality through more objective and accurate assessment. Personality variables are represented by the Five-Factor Model, methods of personality assessment, research on personality traits and trait approaches.

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