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Power and Authority Summary(1919-1946)Survey:● An overview of the peace treaties which ended World War I and their consequences:TreatyYearCountriesWhatVersaillesSigned: 28th June 1919 Effective: 10th January 1920BritainFranceUSItalyGerman army reduced to 100, 000 men and conscription abolished. Forbidden to produce heavy guns, tanks or use of poison gas. Alsace and Lorraine returned to France. Lost 13% of land from 1914 borders. Coal resources given to France and rich coal mines taken under international control. Had to pay back Allies for what they spent during war. War guilt clause 231, Germany had to accept responsibility for starting the war.Saint-GermainSigned: 10th September 1919 Effective: 16th 1920AustriaAllied powersRegistered breakup of the Habsburg empire, recognising the independence of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes and Ceding eastern Galicia, Trento, southern Carinthia (Austria and Sopron (Hungary)). Covenant of League of Nations was integrally included in the treaty and the union of Austria with Germany was expressly forbidden without the consent of the Council of LeagueNeuillySigned: 27th November 1919 Effective: 9th August 1920BulgariaAllied powersPeace treaty, Bulgaria was forced to code lands to Yugoslavia and Greece (depriving it of an outlet to the Aegean), involving the transfer of some 300, 000 people; reduce its army to 20, 000 men; and to pay reparations, 75% of which were later remittedTrianonSigned: 4th June 1920HungaryAllied powersHungary was shorn of two-thirds of its former territory and two-thirds of its inhabitants. Czechoslovakia was given to Slovakia, sub-Carpathian Ruthenia, region of Press burg. Austria and Italy received some land. Hungary armed forces restricted to 35, 000 menSevresAugust 10th 1920AlliesOttoman TurkeyAbolished the Ottoman Empire and obliged Turkey to renounce all rights over Arab, Asia and North Africa. Also provided for an independent Armenia, autonomous Kurdistan, and for Greek presence is eastern Thrace and on the Anatolian west coast, as well as Greek control over the Aegean islands. Turkish rejected the treaty and it was replaced by the treaty of Lausanne in 1923Reactions to Treaties:-Government had no choice but to accept- military couldn’t survive an invasion of Germany-Chancellor Scheidemann said Germany shouldn’t accept the treaty-resigned rather than sign the treaty (22 June)-Shock, anger and emotional outbursts-Allied blockade starved Germany- 70 000 dead before June 1919- “Stab in back” theory- keep honour in military as Berlin wasn’t taken, shifted blame-28 June- Germany signs Treaty of Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors-Long term bitter resentment between France and Germany-Weakened faith for the democratic system-Couldn’t make reparation payments due to economic provisions of the treatyWilson’s 14 Points:Open covenants of peace, openly arrived atFreedom of the seasThe removal so far as possible of all economic barriersThe reduction of national armaments to the lowest point consistent with domestic safetyImpartial adjustment of all colonial claimsThe evacuation of all Russian territoryThe evacuation and restoration of BelgiumThe liberation of France and return to her of Alsace and LorraineReadjustment of the frontiers of Italy to conform to clearly recognisable lines of nationalityThe peoples of Austria-Hungary should be accorded the freest opportunity of autonomous developmentEvacuation of occupation forces from Romania, Serbia and Montenegro; Serbia should be accorded free and secure access to the seaAutonomous development for the non-Turkish peoples of the Ottoman empire; free passage of the Dardanelles to the ships and commerce of all nationsAn independent Poland to be established, with free and secure access to the seaA general association of nations to be formed to guarantee to its members political independence and territorial integrity (the genesis of the League of Nations)Clemenceau (French PM) Stance:-Rejected 14 Points-Wanted to severely restrict Germany’s economy and military-Restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to French-Heavy Reparations-Creation of ‘buffer state’ towards west of RuhrLloyd George (British PM) Stance:-Supported Wilson’s idealism-Didn’t want Germany to be treated too harshly for it may become resentful but the British wanted Germany punished-Wanted to soften French demands-Wanted creation of Danzig, the ‘free city’Wilson (US President) Stance:-Little understanding of US politics- ‘Theological idealist’-Objected Clemenceau’s terms-Believed peace can be achieved through his 14 points-Believed Germany should pay reparations-Wanted establishment of League of NationsFocus of study:● The rise of dictatorships after World War I:– The conditions that enabled dictators to rise to power in the interwar period-Post-WWI turmoil & increased political, economic & social instability saw strikes, civil war, coupe attempts, restlessness and distrust of democratic governments which led to the growth of nationalism, paramilitary groups, fascism, communism and socialism. Many countries see the establishment of new governments or leadership.The anger was focused towards the Allied Powers- Britain and France, as a reaction to the de-stabilising influence of WWI and to the damage that war wrought on the certainties, order and ideas of the 19th. The USA was able to avoid much of this anger and removed itself from any real blame- by returning to their isolationist foreign policy. They set about providing financial support to many European countries so they could begin to rebuild. In 1929, this financial support would draw Europe into economic catastrophe- the Great Depression. By 1939, three-fifths of European countries were run by authoritarian governments.The Treaty of Versailles did not do what it had set out to do- it weakened, punished and humiliated Germany and its allies, however it also destabilised Europe’s economies. This significantly influenced the rise of extreme right and left political parties, as citizens favoured political parties and leaders who sought to set the wrongs of the Versailles Treaty (and other treaties) right. Many were more than willing to follow these dictators, who ultimately reorganised society along military lines, as civilian governments were perceived as being weak and unable to deal with the political, economic and social instability of the inter-war years.In Russia, the Bolshevik revolution of March 1917 led to Lenin establishing a Soviet government in November 1917, led by a council of soldiers, peasants and workers. Jan 1924 Lenin’s death saw the emergence of a new communist leader Joseph Stalin, who gained complete control by 1929. He set out to ‘Stalinise’ society and establish a ‘totalitarian’ government through campaigns involving the mobilising of the masses, the construction of new machinery and the deliberate use of finely calibrated police terror as an apparatus of control. Stalin reorganised the economy into a system of forced collectivisation- centralising all means of production- agricultural & industrial. The introduction of successive Five-Year Plans were intended to improve the economy and industrial capacity, whilst remaining true to the principles of socialism. Stalin’s desire to turn Russia into the powerhouse of Europe came at a huge cost, civilians (estimate 5-7 million) starved during the Terror Famine of 1932-33, dissenters were arrested and 1936 saw the beginning of the Great Purge to eliminate all political rivals who were either executed or sent to an unknown fate in labour camps in Siberia. A cult of personality was created.Oct 1922- Mussolini is named Italian Prime Minister- introduces Fascism & an aggressive foreign policy that aimed to rebuild Italy’s reputation. Disappointment and angered over the size of its gains in the 1919 peace settlement Mussolini set out to make the Mediterranean an Italian lake and build up a second Roman Empire, he wanted Italy to be taken seriously. Italy invaded Abyssinia in Oct 1935, supported the nationalist led civil war in Spain and formed a strong relationship with Germany’s Nazi Party with the signing of the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936.September 1931, Japanese troops attack Mukden, Manchuria. China’s appeal to the League of Nations for assistance is met with reluctance as many member countries are consumed by their own domestic issues, notably the impact of the Great Depression and the reluctance of citizens to fight a war, particularly one so far away. February 1933 see the League of Nations receive the Lytton Commission report on Manchuria and censures Japan for breaking international law. In response to the League Japan announces her withdrawal.In 1936, the Spanish civil war broke out between Republican (supported by socialists, communists, left-wing groups & Russia) and Nationalist forces (supported by landowners, the church, fascists of Spain, Italy and Germany). This war sought to strengthen the bond between Italy and Germany with the signing of the Rome-Berlin Axis cementing a strong alliance.By 1937 Japanese militarists had almost full control over the government’s decision making and launch a full-scale war on China. The intention is to establish its own sphere of influence in the Asian-Pacific. By this stage, they form an alliance with Germany and Italy, who share in their nationalist ideology and desire for expansion.Instability in Southern Europe (old Balkan States) and the Middle East, the result of dishonoured WWI promises and secret agreements between Britain and France, fuelled the rise of nationalist groups in Turkey, Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Israel and Iraq.– An overview of the features of the dictatorships that emerged in Russia, Italy, Japan-RussiaJoseph Stalin:-18th December 1878-5th March 1953- Stalin became a member of the Bolshevik party which in 1917 seized power of Russia-In 1924 he became leader of the Communist Party and eventually became dictator of the Soviet Union-Stalin died in 1953 as the result of a strokeRussia suffered from the WWI because of its economic isolation from 1917 Prior to the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, Russian society has been dominated by a few extremely wealthy, landowning aristocratic families. However, over two-thirds of the population was made up of poor peasants. This social division and order were overthrown with the removal of Tsar Nicolas II in 1917 and the assassination of his whole family in 1918The period that followed were primarily influenced by:The impact of the political revolution that ended the autocratic rule of the TsarThe consequences of the seizure of power by the Bolshevik Party (later known as the Communist Party)The rise of Stalin’s dictatorshipThe rapid transformation of the Russian economy and social structure throughout the rapid industrialisation and collectivisation of all land under government controlJoseph Stalin came to power after the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924 and after a brief power struggle with Leon Trotsky, who was expelled and fled in exileStalin based his authority on two claims: that he was Lenin’s chosen successor and a loyal servant of the communist party, and he claimed to be the new prophet of Marxist ideologyStalin utilised his position as the General Secretary of the Communist Party to gain support as he could offer party members better jobs, housing and improve their quality of life in patron-client system and created a ‘cult of personality’Communist Party controlled Soviet Press, implemented Stalin’s name into the national anthem. In 1938, Stalin rewrote the history of the Communist Party in order to depict himself as a hero, further utilising the arts to reinforce this imagePrior to 1927, peasants were independent and had access to food supplies as they could harvest the produce on their own small landholdingsFrom 1927, peasant land was increasingly brought under direct government control through the so-called ‘collectivisation initiative’, where individual farms were consolidated into collective landholdings. In 1928, more than 97% of agricultural land in the Soviet Union was under private peasant controlIn less than a decade, 93% of land had been collectivised, these collective farms being known as kolkhoz with an aim to solve the crisis in the agricultural industry that arose from the 1920s, the plan ultimately failedWWII placed further strains on agricultural production. In 1946, several Russian provinces suffered a severe drought which resulted in a famine that is estimated to have killed over one million people. Stalin blamed wealthier peasants, who he called kulaks, for the failure of his agricultural plan and declared them traitor who were subject to arrest and either exile, imprisonment or executionFrom the 1930s, special prison camps, called gulags were increasingly used as instruments to punish opponents of the Stalinist regimeStalin utilised patronage in order to provide rewardsFear was installed through purges, specifically the 1937 and 1938 mass purgesEnemy political parties and members of the ‘Old Bolsheviks’ were further purged, with 98 of the 139 members of the Central Committee of the Communist Party being purged following the 1934 electionMajor communist figures were further executed under Stalin, such as Leon Trotsky who fled the nation and was assassinated in August of 1940Under Stalin the Soviet Union was also modernised through collectivisation of land and Five-Year Plans that focused on industrialisation and economic gainLiterary rates increased and electricity and transport developed substantiallyItalyBenito Mussolini:-29th July 1883-18th April 1945-Italian politician and journalist who was the leader of the National Fascist Party-Ruled Italy from 1922 until 1943 as prime minister -Constitutionally led until 1925 as he dropped democracy and established a dictatorship-Captured and executed by the Italian communist partyItaly was largely disrupted by WWI, despite being on the winning side, and faced economic uncertainty and unemployment throughout the 1920s and the Great DepressionThe focus of Mussolini’s fascism was the assertion of nationalism and promoted conservative, anti-communist ideas similar to Nazi powers. However, unlike Nazism matters in regard to race and antisemitism were not expressed by ItalyMussolini was the first example of fascism within EuropeDemocracy failed in Italy due to its inability to establish strong roots in the society. Many people were excluded from voting and of those who were able to vote the majority were illiterate. In 1919 voting was extended to all males over the age of 21 which installed fear from the conservatives, particularly the police, government and the elite. The fear of democracy was evident in the 1919 voting system changed to proportional representationBy the end of 1919 the Italian economy was fragile and there were more than 2 million unemployed men in Italy, the currency plummeted, inflation rose and the cost of living roseThe Fascist party was founded by Mussolini in 1919, numbers in the party grew rapidly in response to disillusionment with democracy and high unemployment rates. Fascist policies were vague and focused around nationalistic propagandaIn February of 1921 the Fascist party had 100000 membersIn October 1922 Mussolini led the infamous March on Rome which gained wide-spread attention, following this King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy asked Mussolini to form a new government, this first government was a coalition with three of parties Fascism was accepted by the Catholic Church and was positively received by the Italian people and monarchIn 1923 voting changes were made that gave fascists control of the Council of Deputies, the Italian parliamentFrom 1925-1926, executive powers were increased and critics would lose their citizenship. Fascism became more controlling and individual freedoms and the freedom of the press were restrictedJapanHirohito:-19th April 1901-7th January 1989-124th Emperor of Japan 1926-1989-Headed imperial expansion and heavy militarism during WWII-Died of cancerHideki Tojo (1884-1948) became the Prime Minister of Japan in October of 1941 shortly before the Japanese attack on Pearl HarborTojo did not begin as a dictator, however gradually assumed the roles of Minister for War, Armaments, Education and Chief of the Imperial Army General StaffAs a dictator he promoted those personally loyal to him and would exile those who weren’t, such as General Tomoyuki Yamashita who had won dramatic victories during WWIITojo developed a reputation as being ‘the razor’ due to being considered sharp and ruthless and being a product of the samurai traditionTojo’s rise to power began during the factional power struggle within the Imperial Japanese Army that took place in the 20s and 30sJapan was highly impacted by the Great Depression, with the downturn of global markets, tariffs and trade restrictions hurting the Japanese economy. The nation’s population was growing at an alarming rate and put stress on the nations limited resources and food supplyConsequently, Japan began to acquire territory and exploit the food supplies of weaker nations, such as China and KoreaMilitary expansion became the focus of Japan’s domestic policy There was a divide within the military, that answered to the Emperor. Two primary military factions were the Kodo Ha: generals that wanted to remove all civilian politicians and stage an army revolution, and the Tosei Ha: that believed that the army should play a leading role in Japanese politics but opposed the idea of removing civilian influence and challenging established status. Tojo was a member of the Tosei HaTojo was chosen to take command of the Japanese military police, the Kempeitai, in 1933 in order to combat radical nationalists in the Kodo HaUnlike other dictatorships, Japan was not led by a single figure as Tojo still owed loyalty to the army and the Emperor Hirohito● The Nazi regime to 1939:– The rise of the Nazi party and Hitler in Germany and the collapse of the Weimar Republic-Weimar SuccessesGustav Stresemann contributed to the stabilisation of Germany by establishing the Dawes Plan in 1924. This involved the USA agreeing to lend money to Germany in order for them to pay reparations.In 1929 a new currency was established called the Reichsmark, economic recovery began. The Young Plan further extended the German reparations payment over another 59 years, allowing for the nation to alleviate financial stress.1924-1929 the Weimar appeared to be successful as economy was stabilised, housing and employment increased. Berlin was considered the pleasure capitol of Europe and support for extreme political groups decreased.Impact of Treaties on the WeimarClause of Treaty of VersaillesSettlementGrievancesMilitary-German army reduced to 100, 000 soldiers-No tanks or air force allowed-U-boats prohibited and Navy restricted The honour of the German military is destroyed; a nation who thought they were seeking an honourable peace is crippled and humiliatedEconomic-Germany must accept responsibility for starting the war (Clause 231)-Pay for the entire cost of the reparations bill, ?6.6 billion-Belgium and France to be given machinery and infrastructure-Coal and timber- 8 million tons each year to be given to FranceThe Germans are forced to admit they are solely responsible for causing the war. Most Allied Generals and leaders did not believe this. To add insult to injury, Germany is forced to pay massive and unlimited costs for the damage caused by both sides during the war, which equates to millions. Economically, the German people are crippledTerritory and ColoniesGermany lost significant territory to Poland, including an area once known as East Prussia. The Rhineland in Western Germany was demilitarised. Germany was to give up claim to all of their overseas colonies and possessions in Europe. These included the coal-rich Saar region and Alsace-Lorraine. They also lost colonies in Africa and the PacificGermany is humiliated and loses many of the areas under their control which has the capacity to assist them to pay the massive reparations bill imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. Germany is forbidden to unite with Austria, their German-speaking neighbourWar CriminalsAs part of the War Guilt Clause Article 231, a list of Germans responsible for the war was made; it included Kaiser Wilhelm II and his chief generals. They were to be arrested and tried. This never eventuated, and the Kaiser left for exile in HollandNot only would Germany be solely responsible for the war but also its leaders were to be labelled as war criminalsLeague of NationsA League of Nations was to be established. All the nations involved in the Paris Peace Conference were to join and other nations would follow. The aim was to prevent wars from starting by collective securityGermany is not admitted as a member of the League of Nations despite repeated requests at the Paris Peace Conference. Only in 1926 was Germany accepted into the League of NationsIssues facing the Weimar RepublicPoliticalEconomicSocial-1918-1919: Rapid change from Monarch to Democratic Republic-1919 Socialist led Revolution in Berlin-Constitution allowed President to decide Chancellor, but President elections only held every 7 years, whereas Reichstag elections to be held every 4 years-President allowed to dismiss Reichstag-Communist uprising suppressed by Freikorps-Five Coalition government in 5 years: could not agree on economic or domestic policy-Allied influence: Did not want a Communist Germany nor a Monarchist Germany-Elbert and Goerner Part reassured army dominance/influence-Kapp Putsch: attempted coup March 1920-1921 Repayments to Allies begin-Richest land taken from German control-12% of German population lost-Weimar Constitution was embedded on a social welfare system, including unemployment benefits-High unemployment-Attempt to establish a new currency, Rentenmark-End of eight-hour day-Strikes affected most industries throughout the 1920’s-14% of land lost-100% of colonial possession lost-1923 Hyperinflation begins-1927 Provisional Work Hours Law: limited work hours or provided penalty rates overtime-1927 Unemployment Insurance Act: national insurance for unemployment-Pay increases for lower levels of the civil service-Wall Street Crash 1929-The Ruhr Crisis 1923, economy struggled after disarmament of Ruhr-May 1919 Munich is conquered by von Epp’s Freikorps-Both left- and right-wing parties developed private police/armed forces-12% of German population lost-Weimar Constitutions was embedded on a social welfare system, including unemployment benefits-High unemployment-New Republican Flag-Guilt clause reinforces popular ‘stab in the back’ mythGerman Political PartiesLeftRightSPD- LeftFounded in 1875, this party was the main creator of the Weimar RepublicDVP- Centre rightA moderate conservative party, under Stresemann’s leadership it became committed to the Weimar system and moderate social reformKPD- LeftA revolutionary Marxist party committed to a soviet-style system DNVP- RightThe main conservative partyDDPLiberal, middle-class partyNSDAP(Nazi)Racialist grouping partyZentrum- Starts centre leftZentrum- Moves centre rightCreated to protect the interest pf the Catholic ChurchThe Rise of the Nazi Party24th-29th October 1933-Great Depression strikes USA, Germany hit particularly hard as a consequence of a large number of US loans.1930s -Nazi party makes election gains, in September 107 seats were secured.-Hindenburg implements first of 60 Emergency Decrees.-Henrick Bruning becomes Chancellor.1930-32- German economy continues to worsen.-NSDAP continues to build electoral success, from 2.6% of votes in 1928 to 37.3% in 1931.-Support for the party broadens from rural, small working-class villages to agricultural towns, urban working class and traditionalists. -Franz von Papen replaces Burning as Chancellor but does not have support of Army to help rule by decree.-Hindenburg forces Von Papen to resign and appoints Kurt von Schleicher as chancellor.-German people began to take the Nazi party seriously considering attitudes towards money from big businesses and the anti-communist rhetoric.-Goebbels the propaganda machine demonstrates the Nazi’s capability to compete with larger political parties.-March 1932 election for president- von Hindenburg- 19359000 votes, Thalman (communist) 3706655 votes and Hitler 13418000 votes.-January 30th 1933 Hitler is made Chancellor.The Hitler Myth"Hitler/Fuhrer Myth" that describes two key points in?Nazi ideology that depict?Hitler?as a demagogue?figure and as a mighty defender. In the demagogue aspect Hitler is presented as a figure that embodies and shapes strength and the German people, giving him a mandate to rule. As a defender, he is depicted as defending Germany against its enemies and redressing the imbalance imposed by the?Treaty of Versailles. These were essential elements of?propaganda?of the time and helped to 'plaster over' early cracks in the Nazi Regime's facade, though by no means de-fusing all tensions in Germany at that time.The myth of Hitler as the saviour of Germany from conspiracies directed against it by the Soviet Union and the West—especially France—was an extremely powerful tool in binding together the German people in loyalty and submission. The German people were left embittered by the ineffective and unstable party politics of?Weimar?Germany which had failed to rescue its people from the humiliation administered by Europe at the close of?WWI.The myth was lent much credence by Hitler's huge successes in the regeneration of Germany's economy over just a few years, recovering it from what seemed like unredeemable circumstances. In 1932, one year before Hitler's rise to power, unemployment had been at over five and a half million, but by 1938 Germany was producing at record levels, and unemployment was below 200,000 and real wages were up for the first time since authoritarianism.Hitler was regarded only to condone lawful rational action, uncompromising and ruthless action against the enemies of the peopleThe Enabling ActThe Law to Remedy the Distress of the People and the Reich of March 24, 1933, is also known as the Enabling Act. It became the cornerstone of Adolf Hitler's dictatorship by allowing him to enact laws, including ones that violated the?Weimar Constitution, without approval of either parliament or Reich President von Hindenburg.Since the passage of this law depended upon a two-thirds majority vote in parliament, Hitler and the Nazi Party used intimidation and persecution to ensure the outcome they desired. They prevented all 81 Communists and 26 of the 120 Social Democrats from taking their seats, detaining them in so-called protective detention in Nazi-controlled?camps. In addition, they stationed SA and SS members in the chamber to intimidate the remaining representatives and guarantee their compliance. In the end, the law passed with more than the required two-thirds majority, with only Social Democrats voting against it.The Weimar Constitution Article 48Embedded within the Weimar Constitution was an article that encompassed the right/left political tension and would be fundamental to?Hitler’s rise to power. This was Article 48, which stated that “If public security and order are seriously disturbed or endangered within the German Reich, the President of the Reich may take measures necessary for their restoration, intervening if need be with the assistance of the armed forces.” It also allowed the President to suspend civil liberties guaranteed in the Weimar Constitution.It allowed the President to declare a state of emergency in Germany in times of national danger and to rule as a dictator for short periods of time. The intent was to offer an opportunity for a strong executive leader to take decisive action in times of crisis without navigating what could be a slower legislative process. It was, however, a fatal flaw written into the founding document of the Weimar Republic. This is not to say that it was always abused. President Friedrich Ebert used Article 48 sixty-three times in 1923–24 alone to deal with critical economic dangers facing Germany. Yet, each time he returned his dictatorial powers after a short period time.– The initial consolidation of Nazi power 1933–1934-InternalChancellor 30th of January 1933Reichstag Fire 27th February 1933, Fire Decree followedEnabling Act 23rd March 1933Article 48- weak constitution, allowed dictatorial powers- up to 4 years electionProtentional Oppositions- SA, Night of the Long Knives, consolidation achieved, death of Hindenburg, chancellor/president becomes Fuhrer Achievement of political controlNationalUse of terror, repression and propagandaTerror- SS and GestapoRepression- laws and 25-point planPropaganda- Fuhrer Myth, Mein KampfGlobalBased within foreign policyOn 25-point plan, Mein Kampf, Anti-Semitic ideology, racial policyImplementation- diplomatic, violent, international agreements, ignoring of treaty of VersaillesDiplomatic- Anschluss with Austria/Alliances with MussoliniViolent- Kristallnacht 1938/Concentration CampsInternational agreements- Nazi-Sino/Nazi-Soviet/Munich AgreementIgnoring of Treaty of Versailles- Increase in Military (Airforce/Navy/Treaties)Night of the Long KnivesNight of the Long Knives, in German history, purge of Nazi?leaders by Hitler on June 30, 1934. Fearing that the paramilitary?SA had become too powerful, Hitler ordered his elite?SS guards to murder the organization’s leaders, including Ernst Rohm. Also killed that night were hundreds of other perceived opponents of Hitler.Reichstag FireReichstag fire, burning of the Reichstag (parliament) building in Berlin, on the night of February 27, 1933, a key event in the establishment of the Nazi dictatorship and widely believed to have been contrived by the newly formed Nazi government itself to turn public opinion against its opponents and to assume emergency powers. Adolf Hitler had secured the chancellorship after the elections of November 1932, but his Nazi Party had not won an overall majority. He therefore obtained Cabinet consent to hold new elections on March 5, 1933.Kristallnacht:Kristallnacht, (German: “Crystal Night”), also called?Night of Broken Glass?or?November Pogroms, the night of November 9–10, 1938, when German?Nazis attacked Jewish persons and property. The name?Kristallnacht?refers ironically to the litter of broken glass left in the streets after these pogroms. The violence continued during the day of November 10, and in some places acts of violence continued for several more days.The pretext for the pogroms was the shooting in Paris on November 7 of the German diplomat?Ernst vom Rath by a Polish-Jewish student, Herschel Grynszpan. News of Rath’s death on November 9 reached?Hitler in?Munich, where he was celebrating the anniversary of the abortive 1923?Beer Hall Push, There, Minister of?Propaganda?Goebbels, after conferring with Hitler, harangued a gathering of old storm troopers, urging violent reprisals staged to appear as “spontaneous demonstrations.” Telephone orders from Munich triggered pogroms throughout Germany, which then included?Austria.In two days and nights, more than 1,000 synagogues were burned or otherwise damaged. Rioters ransacked and looted about 7,500 Jewish businesses, killed at least 91 Jews, and vandalized Jewish hospitals, homes, schools, and cemeteries. The attackers were often neighbours. Some 30,000 Jewish males aged 16 to 60 were arrested. To accommodate so many new prisoners, the?concentration camps?at?Dachau,?Buchenwald,?and?Sachsenhausen?were expanded.– The nature of Nazi ideology –Political IdeologyNationalism- Believed in holding up the ideals of a great and powerful German nation that was superior to others.Rejection of Internationalism- Abolishment of Treaty of Versailles and rejection of the League of Nations. The internationalist ideology accompanying the treaty was rejected. Germany focused on their domestic interests and rejected efforts for diplomacy and cooperation.Fuhrerprinzip- Hitler being the centre of politics. Believed that as Fuhrer, Hitler was the supreme ruler who encapsulated the nation’s spirit and controlled all areas of the regime.Foreign Policy- Rejection of international agreements and treaties, only favouring with nations for strategy and protection of Germany’s interests (Rome-Berlin Axis and Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact). Lebensraum.Economic IdeologyAutarky- the belief that the Nazi nation should be entirely economically self-sufficient. The economic rejection of internationalism, Nazi Party wanted to restore their economy to the point where it was self-sufficient.Military IdeologyLebensraum- ‘living safe’, the German nation and Aryan race been to expand in order to exercise its superiority. Military ideology was expansionist- they aimed to take over, or annex other countries and incorporate that territory into their nation. In order for this to be fulfilled, the military must be extended, highly trained and equipped with military, evident in Anschluss.Social/Racial IdeologySocial Darwinism- promoted an evolutionary view of race, saw the Aryan race as the most evolved and superior of all races. Jewish race was considered low on the evolutionary scale, Darwinism used to validate and legitimise their hatred of the Jews. Validated Ghettoisation, the clearing and extermination to remove inferior minority groups from the population. Propaganda used to promote ideas of ethnic cleansing. Further used to promote the unity of all racially pure Germans as the people’s community of Germany. TermsAnti-Semitism- Hatred if Jews, became the most significant part of Nazi racist thinking for Hitler the ‘master race’ was the pure Aryan (people of Northern Europe) and the Germans represented the highest caste and the Jews the lowestFuhrerprinzip- The leadership principle Hitler upheld the idea of a one-party state, built on all powerful leadersGleichschalting- Bringing into line or co-ordinationVolksgemeinschaft- ‘A people’s community- Nazism stressed the development of a harmonious, socially unified and racially pure community. It did not support Marxism and communismLebensraum- ‘Living space’- Hitler’s aim to create an empire and to make Germany into a great power by establishing a Germany supremacy over the eastern lands in EuropeLebensborn- ‘Spring’ fountain of life- founded by Himmler and overseen by the SS- to promote doctrines of racial purityNacht and Nobel- Night and fog- Name given to a decree by Hitler in December 1941- to seize and person thought to be dangerous ‘They should vanish into nacht and nobel’Mein KampfWritten by Hitler in 1923-1924. Expressed anti-Semitic ideas. Hitler divides humans into categories based on physical appearance, establishing higher and lower orders. Germanic humans, or Aryan, with fair skin, blond hair and blue eyes are declared the supreme form of the human, or master race in both appearance and culture. Nazi philosophy is stated to not believe in equality and that it recognises that some individuals are inherently inferior. Jews, the Slavic people, the Czechs, Poles, Russians and Romani are explicitly stated to be inferior. The Jews are stated to be engaged in a conspiracy to keep this master race from assuming its rightful position as the rulers of the world, primarily through economic control. Jews were said to be responsible for the German loss of WWI, modern art, pornography and prostitution. 75% of Communists were believed to be Jewish, with Hitler having a distain for Communists and Russians as a consequence of this. The concept of Lebensraum is described. After Hitler became Chancellor millions of copies were sold and it became a common gift and further became a part of German school curriculum. “The mightiest counterpart to the Aryan is represented by the Jew.”25 Point PlanThe?NSDAP 25 points manifesto?is a 25-point plan written by?Anton Drexler and edited by?Hitler for the?Nationalist Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP), Nazi Party, when it was founded in 1920. The program of the new movement was summed up in a few guiding principles, twenty-five in all. They were devised to give, primarily to the man of the people, a rough picture of the movement's aims. They are in a sense a political creed, which on the one hand recruits for the movement and on the other is suited to unite and weld together by a commonly recognized obligation those who have been recruited.4.?Only those who are our fellow countrymen can become citizens. Only those who have German blood, regardless of creed, can be our countrymen. Hence no Jew can be a countryman.?– The role of prominent individuals in the Nazi state-Adolf Hitler:-April 20th, 1889-April 30th, 1945-Chancellor of Germany as of 1933 and Fuhrer 1934-1945-WWI frontline-Joined and became leader of the Nazi part in 1921-Committed suicide at the end of WWIIPaul von Hindenburg:-October 2nd, 1847-August 2nd, 1934-General in Franco-German war and WWI marshal-Antirepublican-Leader of Weimar Republic 1925-1934-Directed 1918 German withdrawal and suppressed left-radical risingHeinrich Bruning:-November 26th, 1885-March 30th, 1970-Commander of a machine gun company during WWI, after war became a business manager of League of Trade Unions-1929 Legislative leader-1930-1932 Foreign minister and chancellorFranz von Papen:-October 29th, 1879-May 2nd, 1969-Soldier and military attaché WWI-1921-1932 deputy in the Prussian Landtag-1932 chancellor of Germany, helped HitlerKurt von Schleicher:-April 7th, 1882-June 30th, 1934-A major general in charge of an office in the Reichswehr ministry-Weimar defence minister-Chancellor 1932-Jan 1933, just before HitlerJoseph Goebbels:-October 29th, 1897-May 1st, 1945-Minister of propaganda-Served as chancellor for one day before committing suicide at the end of WWIIHeinrich Himmler:-October 7th, 1900-May 23rd, 1945-Nazi politician, police administration, military commander-Committed suicide after being captured by allies in his attempted escapeHerman Goering:-January 12th, 1893-October 13th, 1946-Nazi leader and primary architect of the Nazi police station-Sentenced to be hung for war crimes at Nuremberg trial, but took poison on the night of the trial insteadReinhard Heydrich:-March 7th, 1904-June 4th, 1942-Nazi German official, Himmler’s chief lieutenant-Died shortly after his car was bombed by two Czech agentsMartin Bormann:-June 17th, 1900-May 2nd, 1945-Party leader for Nazi party, Hitler’s closest lieutenant-Head of Nazi press in Thuringia -From 1928 held posts in the high command of the SA. Became chief of staff and Fuhrer deputy-Disappeared after Hitler died, died/committed suicide. Was convicted at Nuremburg although presumed already deadAdolf Eichmann:-March 19th, 1906-May 31st, 1962-High ranking German Military official-Hanged by the State of Israel after fleeing and hiding in ArgentinaRudolf Hess:- April 26th, 1894-August 17th, 1987-German Nazi leader, deputy-In 1941 secretly flew to Great Britain to negotiate peace treaty-Was tried at Nuremberg and given life sentenceErnst Rohm:-November 28th, 1887-July 1st, 1934-German army officer and chief organiser of SA, feared as rival-Hitler decided to purge him in 1933 and then shot him without trialJoachim von Ribbentrop:-April 30th, 1893-October 16th, 1946-German diplomat, foreign minister under the Nazi regime and chief treaty negotiator-Was hung at Nuremberg on four major accountsAlbert Speer:-March 19th, 1905-September 1st, 1981-German architect and Nazi official-Died of stroke after 20 years in prison-Minister of armaments and war production– The various methods used by the Nazi regime to exercise control, including laws, censorship, repression, terror, propaganda, cult of personality-Laws-Nuremberg LawsNurnberg Laws, two race-based measures depriving Jews of rights, designed by?Hitler and approved by the?Nazi Party at a convention in Nurnberg on September 15, 1935. One, the German: “Law of the Reich Citizen”, deprived Jews of German?citizenship, designating them “subjects of the state.” The other, the?“Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour”, usually called simply the “Blood Protection Law”, forbade?marriage or sexual relations between Jews and “citizens of German or kindred blood.” These measures were among the first of the racist Nazi laws that culminated in the?Holocaust.Under these laws, Jews could not fly the German flag and were forbidden “to employ in domestic service female subjects of German or kindred blood who are under the age of 45 years.” The first supplementary decree of November 14, 1935—one of 13 ordinances elaborating these laws—defined Jews as persons with at least one Jewish grandparent and declared explicitly that “a?Jew cannot be a citizen of the Reich. He cannot exercise the right to vote; he cannot occupy public office.” The other enactments completed the process of Jewish segregation. Before long Jewish passports were stamped with a red “J” (for?Jude; “Jew”), and Jews were compelled to adopt “Jewish” names. Jewish?communities?were deprived of their legal status by the decree of March 28, 1938, and steps were taken to exclude Jews completely from the practice of medicine.28th February- Reichstag Fire Decree. Restricted the press, the rights of civilians and allowed police to imprison opponentsCensorshipThe Nazi Propaganda Ministry, directed by Dr. Joseph Goebbels, took control of all forms of communication in Germany: newspapers, magazines, books, public meetings, and rallies, art, music, movies, and radio. Viewpoints in any way threatening to Nazi beliefs or to the regime were censored or eliminated from all media. Apposing media outlets were supressed and the news was controlled by Nazi ran papers, such as ‘Dur Stürmer’ and ‘V?lkischer Beobachter’. Almost all Modernist art, such as?Impressionism and?Expressionism, was considered?degenerate art?by the Nazi regime, and much modern music such as?Jazz?and?Swing?was also barred as?degenerate music. Jewish composers like?Mendelsohn?and?Schoenberg?were also banned.During the spring of 1933, Nazi student organizations, professors, and librarians made up long lists of books they thought should not be read by Germans. Then, on the night of May 10, 1933, Nazis raided libraries and bookstores across Germany. They marched by torchlight in night time parades, sang chants, and threw books into huge bonfires. On that night more than 25,000 books were burned. Some were works of Jewish writers, including Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud. Most of the books were by non-Jewish writers, including such famous Americans as Jack London, Ernest Hemingway, and Sinclair Lewis, whose ideas the Nazis viewed as different from their own and therefore not to be read. Hundreds of thousands of people in the United States protested the book burnings, a clear violation of freedom of speech, in public rallies in New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, and St. Louis.Schools also played an important role in spreading Nazi ideas. While some books were removed from classrooms by censors, other textbooks, newly written, were brought in to teach students blind obedience to the party, love for Hitler, and antisemitism. After-school meetings of the Hitler Youth and the League of German Girls trained children to be faithful to the Nazi party. In school and out, young people celebrated such occasions as Adolf Hitler's birthday and the anniversary of his taking power.RepressionAchieved through Policy such as Gleichschalting- the process of Nazification by which Hitler successfully established a system of totalitarian control and coordination over all aspects of German society. Particularly cultural control, indoctrination and elimination of various groups1. Civil Liberties:Decree for Protection of People and State (Feb 1933)Special political courts (March 1933)Concentration Camps (March 1933)People’s Court (April 1934)Nuremberg Laws (September 1935)2. Government:Communist banned (February 1933)Last free election (March 1933)Coordination of State (April 1933)Civil Service Laws (April 1933)All parties except Nazis banned (July 1933)Reconstruction of states (January 1934)Chancellor and President combined (August 1934)3. Institutions:Burning of un-Germany books (May 1933+many other dates)Education ‘Nazified’ (April 1934)Night of the Long Knives (June 1934)Oath of allegiance to Hitler (August 1934)Hitler commander in chief (August 1934)4. Economy:Trade Unions abolished (May 1933)Compulsory cartels introduced (July 1933)Labour Front created (October 1933)Business and trade associations under state control (February 1934)The Reichssicherheitshauptant (Reich Central Bureau for security) set up under Himmler’s direction, it exercised tight control of all security organisations which enforced the repressive Nazi laws and regulationsTerrorOrgans of State Terror:SA-Nazi Para-Military forceFought the Nazis street battlesRan the camps 1933-34Real power ended after 30th June 1934SS-Began as Hitler bodyguardLed by Himmler 1929Himmler emphasised its elite characterRacially pureIn 1930s key police functionsRan the camps from 1934Gestapo-Set up in November 1933First under Goering than under HitlerResponsible for internal securityActed free of judicial restraint Concentration Camps-Camps set up from 1933- DachauUncontrolled brutalityInmates depersonalisedAimed at political opponentsLater the socially undesirables e.g. Homosexuals, Jews, criminals, people with disabilities, Roma-SintiPropagandaFollowing the?Nazi?seizure of power in 1933, Hitler established a Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda headed by Joseph Goebbels. The Ministry's aim was to ensure that the Nazi message was successfully communicated through art, music, theatre, films, books, radio, educational materials, and the press.There were several audiences for Nazi propaganda. Germans were reminded of the struggle against foreign enemies and Jewish subversion. During periods preceding?legislation?or executive measures against Jews, propaganda campaigns created an atmosphere tolerant of violence against Jews, particularly in 1935 (before the?Nuremberg Laws?of September) and in 1938 (prior to the barrage of antisemitic economic legislation following?Kristallnacht). Propaganda also encouraged passivity and acceptance of the impending measures against Jews, as these appeared to depict the Nazi government as stepping in and “restoring order.”Real and perceived discrimination against ethnic Germans in east European nations which had gained territory at Germany's expense following?WWI, such as Czechoslovakia and Poland, was the subject of Nazi propaganda. This propaganda sought to elicit political loyalty and so-called race consciousness among the ethnic German populations. It also sought to mislead foreign governments—including the European Great Powers—that Nazi Germany was making understandable and fair demands for concessions and annexations.After the?invasion of the Soviet Union, Nazi propaganda stressed to both civilians at home and to soldiers, police officers, and non-German auxiliaries serving in occupied territory themes linking Soviet Communism to European Jewry, presenting Germany as the defender of “Western” culture against the “Judeo-Bolshevik threat, and painting an apocalyptic picture of what would happen if the Soviets won the war. This was particularly the case after the catastrophic German defeat at Stalingrad in February 1943. These themes may have been instrumental in inducing Nazi and non-Nazi Germans as well as local collaborators to fight on until the very end.Films in particular played an important role in disseminating racial antisemitism, the superiority of German military power, and the intrinsic evil of the enemies as defined by Nazi ideology. Nazi films portrayed Jews as "subhuman" creatures infiltrating Aryan society. For example, The Eternal Jew (1940), directed by Fritz Hippler, portrayed Jews as wandering cultural parasites, consumed by sex and money. Some films, such as?The Triumph of the Will?(1935) by?Leni Riefenstahl, glorified Hitler and the National Socialist movement.Newspapers in Germany, above all?Der Stürmer?(The Attacker), printed cartoons that used antisemitic caricatures to depict Jews. After the Germans began?World War II?with the?invasion of Poland?in September 1939, the Nazi regime employed propaganda to impress upon German civilians and soldiers that the Jews were not only subhuman, but also dangerous enemies of the German Reich. The regime aimed to elicit support, or at least acquiescence, for policies aimed at removing Jews permanently from areas of German settlement.Radio, rallies, sport, youth movements, press, posters, sculptures, architecture, schools, film paintings, literature, social policies all used as propaganda.Cult of PersonalityThe Fuhrer/Hitler Myth. Hitler, Fuhrer ("leader"), was referenced by?Nazi propaganda?in a number of honorary titles (Supreme Judge of the German People,?First Soldier of the German Reich,?First Worker of the New Germany,?Greatest Military Commander of All Time,?Military Leader of Europe,?High Protector of the Holy Mountain, etc.). Numerous works in popular music and literature featured Adolf Hitler prominently. Hitler was usually depicted as a heroic, god-like figure, loved, feared and respected by the German people. A personality cult was built around the Führer. Hitler’s portraits and photographs were displayed everywhere in Germany. “Heil Hitler!” (“Hail Hitler!”) became legally obligatory as a common greeting, as did the Hitler salute of the right arm fully thrust forward with the palm facing downward.The SS and the SASAThe SA was founded in Munich by Hitler in 1921 out of various roughneck elements that had attached themselves to the fledgling Nazi movement. It drew its early membership largely from the Freikorps (Free Corps), armed freebooter groups, made up largely of ex-soldiers, that battled leftists in the streets in the early days of the Weimar Republic.From January 1931 it was headed by Ernst Rohm, who harboured radical anticapitalistic notions and dreamed of building the SA into Germany’s?main military force. Under Rohm SA membership, swelled from the ranks of the?Great Depression unemployed, grew to 400,000 by 1932 and to perhaps 2,000,000—20 times the size of the regular army—by the time that Hitler came to power in 1933.During the early days of the Nazi regime, the SA carried out unchecked street violence against Jews and Nazi opponents. But it was eyed with suspicion by the regular army and by the wealthy industrialists, two groups whose support Hitler was trying to secure. Against Hitler’s expressed wishes, Rohm continued to press for a “second Nazi revolution” of a socialist character, and he hoped to merge the regular army with the SA under his own leadership.After the Night of the Long Knives the SA, reduced in strength, continued to exist but ceased to play a major political role in Nazi affairs. From 1939 it was in charge of training all able-bodied men for Home Guard units.SSSS, abbreviation of?Schutzstaffel (German: “Protective Echelon”), the black-uniformed elite corps and self-described “political soldiers” of the Nazi Part. Founded by Hitler?in April 1925 as a small personal bodyguard, the SS grew with the success of the Nazi movement and, gathering immense?police and military powers, became virtually a state within a state.From 1929 until its dissolution in 1945, the SS was headed by Himmler, who built up the SS from fewer than 300 members to more than 50,000 by the time the Nazis came to power in 1933. Himmler, a?racist fanatic, screened applicants for their supposed physical perfection and racial purity but recruited members from all ranks of German society.When Hitler, with SS help,?purged the SA?in 1934 and reduced it to political impotence, the SS became an independent group responsible, via Himmler, to Hitler alone.?By 1939 the SS, now numbering about 250,000 men, had become a massive and labyrinthian?bureaucracy, divided mainly into two groups: the?Allgemeine-SS (General SS) and the Waffen-SS (Armed SS).The Allgemeine-SS dealt mainly with police and “racial” matters. The Waffen-SS was made up of three subgroups: the Leibstandarte, Hitler’s personal bodyguard; the?Totenkopfverb?nde (Death’s-Head Battalions), which administered the concentration camps?and a vast empire of slave labour drawn from the Jews and the populations of the occupied territories; and the?Verfügungstruppen (Disposition Troops), which swelled to 39 divisions in?WWII and which, serving as elite combat troops alongside the regular army, gained a reputation as fanatical fighters.GestapoThe official secret police of Nazi Germany that was established by Herman Goring in April 1933. Led the raiding of trade unions and communist establishments.EinstazgruppenEinsatzgruppen "deployment groups") were?SS paramilitary?death squads that were responsible for mass killings, primarily by shooting that were established in 1939. The?Einsatzgruppen?were involved in the murder of much of the?intelligentsia, including members of the?priesthood, and cultural elite of Poland, and had an integral role in the implementation of the so-called "Final Solution?to the?Jewish Question " in territories conquered by Nazi Germany. Almost all of the people they killed were civilians, beginning with the intelligentsia and swiftly progressing to Soviet?political commissars,?Jews, and?Romani people?as well as actual or alleged?partisans?throughout Eastern Europe.– The impact of the Nazi regime on life in Germany, including cultural expression, religion, workers, youth, women, minorities including Jews-Cultural ExpressionGerman citizens could not express opposing political beliefs in fear of persecution. Citizens could not participate in the reading of banned literature, films and music. Those from minority groups were restricted and oppressed heavily. Jews, Romani, homosexuals and communists, amongst various other groups, had to stop cultural practices in attempts to disguise themselves. media was restricted in terms of cultural discourse that could be displayed. See notes on Censorship. ReligionArticle 24 of the Nazi Party program demanded “liberty for all religious denominations in the State so far as they are not a danger to the moral feelings of the German race. The party stands for positive Christianity.” Positive Christianity in 1937 became National Socialism as that was perceived to be Gods will. Catholic schools, youth organisations, priests and nuns were restricted and persecuted.The Roman Catholic Church- In 1933, Hitler declared that he would respect the churches and hoped to improve relations with the Vatican and on the 20th of July signed a concordat with the Vatican which guaranteed the freedom of the Catholic religion. This was almost immediately broken as the Catholic Youth League was dissolved, arresting and charging thousands of Catholic priests, nuns and lay leaders on trumped-up charges, suppressing scores of Catholic publications and the Gestapo’s violation of the sanctity of the confessional. On March 14th 1937, Pope Pius XI issued an encyclical that attacked the Nazi government.Protestant Church- The Protestants were divided amongst Germany into over 30 churches. Some Protestant churches supported the Nazi movement, such as the German Christians’ Faith Movement. Others opposed the Nazification of the Protestant churches and rejected Nazi racial ideologies. By late 1938, the majority of Protestant clergy took an oath that bound themselves legally and morally to obey the commands of Hitler.The New/National Reich Church- Established in July 1933. In 1934 a Confessional Church Pastor claimed that they were the legal Church of Germany and consequently they were arrested and their funds were confiscated. The Reich Church had the power to control all churches within the Reich, orators were to speak in church (not priests or pastors), the Bible was no longer to be published, Mein Kampf was to replace it as the most important sacred document, there are to be no crucifixes or pictures of saints in the Church, on the alters there is to be nothing but Mein Kampf and a sword, the Christian cross must be removed and replaced by the swastika.Christianity- Hitler banned state-employment teachers from participating in voluntary religious classes and parents were encouraged to remove their children from religious schools. The SS was heavily anti-Christian with officers and men being encouraged to leave the churchWorkers1st May 1922, the regime declared a national holiday on the traditional day of workers’ celebrations. On May 2nd the SA and the SS men took over trade union offices and prosperities, closed down their newspapers, plundered their assets and marched hundreds of union members into concentration camps. The German Labour Front (DAF) was established, it was compulsory to join, Jews were ineligible. Strikes were forbidden and wages remained low, the party often demanded for voluntary contributions.The workbook was introduced in 1935, it was a record of. Workers skills and employment, the book reduced workers freedoms as an individual could not get a job without it. The June 1938 Decree on the Duty of Service that people could be directed to work anywhere in the country, works had some compensations and had security of employment. The Kraft durch Freude was created in 1938 and provided workers with sporting, educational courses, cheap holidays and entertainment, with the Berlin Orchestra visiting factories to give concerts. Attendance of trips in 1934 were at 2120751, whereas after the KdF the number was at 6811277 in 1938, 10 million workers took a holiday in general that year. Money confiscated from Trade Unions was used in order fund the KdF and leisure activities as the Nazi’s calculated that the average working had 3740 hours of leisure each year.The DAF introduced the ‘peoples’ car, or the Volkswagen in August 1938. The car was cheap, mass-produced and targeted towards everyday people. Workers would make weekly payments for their car which would be given after four years of payments, the scheme came to nothing following the war.YouthThe Hitler Youth- The concept formed as early as 1922. In March 1931, Baldur von Schirach was appointed leader of the Hitler Youth group and carried out reforms of the movement as membership steadily increased. Other youth groups either shut down and banned or merged with the Hitler Youth. In December 1936 membership was made legally compulsory for German boys aged 15-18, in 1939 7.2 million people.Little Fellows- 6 to 10-year-old boys.Young People- 10 to 14-year-old boys. Expected to engage in tests of endurance. They were taught map and compass reading and were taught the meaning and purpose of Nazism and their role in the Reich. They were awarded their ‘Blood and Honour’ dagger to mark their entry into the Hitler Youth.Hitler Youth- 14 to 18-year-old boys. Emphasis on physical activity, hiking and camping trips. Members were expected to be able to run 60 metres in 12 seconds and jump 2.75 metres. They were taught toughness and self-discipline, and loyalty and obedience to superiors. They were expected to know the words of Nazi songs and pledge themselves to Hitler. They would participate in community-based activities, march in rallies and hand out electoral material.German Young People- 10 to 14-year-old girls.League of German Maidens- 14 to 18-year-old girls. Girls were expected to devote themselves to physical fitness through camping and hiking trips and to prepare for their future role as German wives and mothers. By 1935, over 1.5 million girls were enrolled in the League of German maidens. Faith and Beauty- Women aged 18 and over. Girls received instruction in aspects of motherhood and were conditioned to accept the Nazi image and the role of women in German society. Emphasis on training in domestic skills, sewing, cooking and physical grace.Education- Up until 1933 Germany had developed the best education system in the world. The aim of the Nazi education system was indoctrination, education was separated by gender. Girls did domestic courses, no foreign languages and only basic maths and science. More demanding levels of mathematics and science were taught to boys, with sports. Physical activity received great attention as it was perceived to keep mothers fit and inspire toughness in boys. Biology was emphasised with ‘Science of the Races’ being crucial to the curriculum. History courses were revised and textbooks rewritten to focus on nationalism and militarism. Mein Kampf became a set text. Religious education was optional then later abolished. Jewish teachers and those who challenged the change of Nazism were removed. In 1936 32 per cent of the teaching profession were members of the party. Jewish children and teachers were removed from schools. The National Political Training Institutes was set up to prepare for the future Nazi leaders. Carefully selected schools were sent to the Adolf Hitler Schools to study a specialised curriculum that included political and racial studies. Standard of education decreased in Germany as did enrolments of females in universities, with numbers being at 20000 in 1933 to 5000 by 1939.WomenDuring the Weimar Republic there were attempts to advance the position of women within German society as women were given equality with men in the constitution and female employment was 400 per cent greater than in the United States.This changed with the rise of the Nazi party as Hitler believed that everyone played a crucial and fixed role in the German community, women were seen to be weaker and inferior. Women were excluded from political life as in 1921 a Nazi Party resolution banned women from leadership positions with the party. Women only accounted for 6 per cent of part membership. Married women were excluded from the workforce as 800000 left the labour market between 1933 and 1935. Only single women were permitted to work, Women were forbidden to practice certain professions, only unmarried women over 35 could hold permanent positions in civil service and they could not serve in juries as it was believed they were swayed by emotions. The German Women’s League was set up to define and encourage the new role of women within the Reich. ‘Children, Kitchen and Church’ was a common slogan depicted in posters that involved images of Aryan families. In school, girls were taught that their future role was one of motherhood and taking care of their husbands. Since WWI the German birth rate had been decreasing, the Nazi party endeavoured to change this as an ideal family was depicted as one with at least four children. They were known as kinderreich and they received concessions such as reduced rail fares, gas and electricity bills. The 1934 Law for the Promotion of Marriage allowed genetically healthy married couples to receive a loan of 1000 Reichsmarks provided the woman gave up their job and their husband received an income. One quarter of the loan would be cancelled upon the birth of each child. Childless couples and single men paid higher taxes. Mothers were awarded a Mother’s Cross on the 12th of August each year, bronze to mothers with four children, silver for six and gold for eight or more. Protection of German Blood and Honour made it illegal for Germans to marry Jews. The birth rate increased from 14.7 births per thousand in 1933 to 20.4 births in 1939. Despite attempts the average family had two children in the 1930s.Lebensborn ‘Giving a child to the Fuhrer’- Abortions were illegal and birth control was actively discouraged, family planning centres were closed and the stigma of illegitimacy was lessened. In 1936 Lebensborn was introduced set up homes for unmarried racially pure mothers. The children born were usually fostered out to German couples.JewsAnti-Semitism was less prominent in Germany than other neighbouring nations. Under Weimar Jews were perceived as equal, inly 1 per cent of the half a million German population was Jewish. The Nazi’s embraced the V?lkish movement of the late 19th century, which was a collection of nationalist and racist artistic and philosopher groups. Vilification, Discrimination, Separation and Extermination are said by Richard Overy to be the four distinct phases of Jewish exclusion. Propaganda played a crucial role in promoting anti-Semitism, they were considered traitors that threatened racial purity, the union of Germany and were said to have lost the war. Goebbels, the minister of propaganda, produced a number of anti-Semitic films such as Jud Suss (1940) and the Eternal Jew (1940) which vilified Jews. Der Sturmer (The Attacker) was a newspaper that promoted anti-Semitic ideology, with over 700000 copies circulating during the 1930s. They further created material for children, such as the Poisonous Mushroom (1938).YearEvent1933-Boycott of Jewish businesses throughout the Reich-March 23rd- First concentration camp, Dachau, is established-April 1st- First official boycott of Jewish shops, lawyers and doctors-April 7th- Law for the Restoration of a Professional Civil Service permitted the dismissal of non-Aryans from government employment. On 30th June, it was extended to include individuals married to Jews-April 7th- Law Concerning Admission to the Legal Profession forbade non-Aryans from practising law-April 22nd- Law Concerning Admission to the Medical Profession prohibited non-Aryan doctors from working in hospitals-April 25th- Law Against the Overcrowding of German Schools restricted Jewish enrolment in high schools, technical institutions and universities-July 14th- Law for the Prevention of Diseased Progeny meant the involuntary sterilisation of more than 300 000 Germans with physical or mental disabilities -October 4th- The Editor’s Law prohibited Jews from working as journalists-Aryans only policy adopted in German sporting clubs-Reich Chamber of Culture established, Jews were gradually excluded from the cultural life of the nation1934-July 22nd- Jews were forbidden to take legal examinations-December 8th- Jews were forbidden to take pharmaceutical examinations1935-In summer Juden Verboten (no Jews) signs increased nationally-May 21st- Military Service Law forbade Jews from joining the German army-September 15th- Nuremberg Laws, Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honour prohibited marriage between Jews and non-Jews and branded any extramarital sexual relations between the two groups as a criminal and punishable offence-Reich Citizenship Law meant Jews, gypsies and black Germans were no longer considered German citizens and were not afforded the right to vote. These two laws laid the foundation for future persecution 1936-August- The Olympic Games were held in Berlin; Anti-Semitic activity was deliberately reduced for the duration of the Games-Jews were still excluded from activities and professions 1937-June 12th- Secret directives from the SS leader Heydrich provided for ‘protective custody’ for all ‘defilers of race’-July 16th- Buchenwald concentration camp opens1938-The process of excluding Jews from economic life began; all Jewish wealth exceeding 5000 marks had to be registered- ‘June Action’ led to 1500 Jews with any form of police record (summary offences included) were arrested and sent to concentration camps-April 22nd- Decree Against the Camouflage of Jewish Firms banned Jewish businesses from changing their names-July 17th- All Jews required to formally add Israel or Sarah to their names-August 17th- Male Jews forced to add Israel and female Jews to add Sara to their names-September 12th- Jews banned from all German cultural and entertainment activities-September 30th- Cancellation of Jewish doctor qualification-October 3rd- Enforced closure and sale of all Jewish businesses to Germans as part of the process of Aryanisation-October 5th- All Jewish passports to be stamped with a J. Polish Jews living in Germany expelled-November 9th- Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass): the destruction of Jewish synagogues and property across much of Germany; 20, 000 male Jews were arrested; the Jewish community was fined one billion Reichsmarks and was required to pay for the cost of the destruction (30 billion Reichsmarks)-November 12th- Regulation for the Elimination of Jews from Economic Life in Germany transferred all Jewish businesses to Aryans-November 15th- All Jewish students excluded from German schools and universities and all Jews prohibited entry to theatres and sports facilities-December 3rd- Jewish businesses and shops closed and forced to sell for a fraction of their value1939-January- Jews were required to surrender their driver’s licenses and they were not permitted to travel in certain zones of major cities-February 21st- Jewish forced to hand in all gold and silver objects-September 1st- Outbreak of WWII, Jews have an 8pm winter curfew and 9pm in summer-September 23rd- Radios confiscated from all Jews-Jews forbidden to appear out of doors after 8pm-Jews were forbidden to own wireless sets1941-July 31st- Heydrich appointed to carry out the Final Solution-September 1st- Jews forced to wear the Star of David in public-September 23rd- First experiments with gassing are made in Auschwitz-October 14th- Deportation of German Jews begins1942-January 20th- Wannsee Conference on Nazi Final Solution of the Jewish Question-June 1st- Treblinka death camp opens-July 28th- Jewish resistance organisation established in the Warsaw ghetto1943-January 18th- Warsaw uprising launched against deportations-May 16th- Liquidation of the Warsaw ghetto-October 20th- United Nations War Crimes Commission established1944-May 15th- 476000 Jews are deported from Hungary to Auschwitz-November 24th- Himmler orders destruction of Auschwitz crematoria as Nazis try to hide evidence of the death camps1945-January 17th- Soviet troops liberate Warsaw-April 11th- American troops liberate Bergen-Belsen death camp-April 30th- Hitler commits suicide-November 22nd- Nuremberg War Crimes Tribunal commencesOther MinoritiesRomani, homosexuals, prisoners of war, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Poles, African, Czech, communists, mentally ill, the disabled.The mentally ill and handicapped- Between 1939 and 1945 such people were killed in secrecy and deception. People in institutions and hospitals were selected by doctors and killed. The program began in October 1939 with the killing 5000 mentally and physically handicapped children, once the war began people were collected from institutions and transported to facilities where they would be killed using pure carbon monoxide gas. A public protest occurred in 1941 in response to the euthanasia, however 100000 physical or mentally impaired Germans had been killed. The killing momentarily paused however, they resumed in August 1942 and would be killed by lethal injection, 275000 handicapped and mentally ill people were killed by the end of the war.Concentration CampsThe term refers to a camp in which people are detained or confined, usually under harsh conditions and without regard to legal norms of arrest and imprisonment. The first concentration camps were established in January 1933, shortly after Hitler became chancellor. The SS and police would incarcerate real and perceived political opponents of Nazi policy. The SS established larger camps in Oranienburg, north of Berlin, Esterwegen, near Hamburg, Dachau, northwest of Munich and Lichtenburg, in Saxony. Berlin’s Columbia Haus facilitated prisoners under investigation by the Gestapo.By the 1939 German invasion of Poland there were six concentration camps in the Greater German Reich; Dachau (1933), Sachsenhausen (1936), Buchenwald (1937), Flossenburg in Bavaria (1937), Mauthausen near Linz (1938), and Ravensbruck the women’s camp in Berlin (1939). Camps became sites where SS authorities could kill targeted groups. They also were holding centres for a rapidly expanding pool of forced laborers deployed on SS construction and military production projects. Prisoners were undernourished and mistreated.Between 1933 and 1945, Nazi Germany established about 20000 camps to imprison its many victims, they included forced-labour camps, transit camps, killing centres. Prisoners included communists, socialists, social democrats, Jews, Roma, Jehovah’s Witnesses, homosexuals and persons accused of asocial behaviour. From 1933 concentration camps were not subject to review by any judicial or administrative authorities.In 1936 Himmler placed the Gestapo under the command of Reinhard Heydrich with Heinrich Muller becoming the chief of operations.During the Second World War there were 45,000 members of the Gestapo. However, it is estimated they also employed 160,000 agents and informers. When the German Army occupied countries they were accompanied by the Gestapo. When on foreign duties they wore civilian clothes or SS uniforms. They were responsible for rounding up communists, partisans and Jews and others who were considered to be a threat to German rule. The Gestapo quickly developed a reputation for using brutal interrogation methods in order to obtain confessions. At the Nuremberg War Crimes Trial the Gestapo was indicted for crimes against humanity. By this time most of its leaders were dead or like Heinrich Muller, had escaped capture by assuming another identity.– Opposition to the Nazi regime-Edelweiss Pirates- Opposition to Nazi youth groups. Created in the late 1930s made up of working-class youths from the industrial area of western Germany, they formed gangs that engaged in non-conformist action, including provoking and fighting the Hitler Youth.Swing Movement- Mainly from middle-class and urban backgrounds, rejected conformity in Nazi state. Wore English-style clothes, embraced swing and jazz music and refused to accept the Nazi ideal of the People’s Community.The Catholic Arch Bishop of Munster- Von Galen, led a successful campaign to end euthanasia of mentally and physically disabled people.Catholic Priests- Some opposed Hitler, the Pope attacked Hitler in 1937.The White Rose Group- Formed by Munich students. They published anti-Nazi leaflets but were discovered and executed in 1943.Social Democratic Party paramilitary wing- Called the Reichsbanner, sabotaged railway lines and acted as spires.Swing groups- Young people who rejected Nazi values, drank alcohol and danced to jazz. More violent groups were called the Edelweiss Pirates, they often engaged in violence with Nazis and promoted anti-Nazi slogans. In 1944 12 Pirates were hung by Gestapo.Various Protestant Pastors- Led by Martin Niemoller, rejected Nazi involvement in the Church. Niemoller was held in contempt from 1937-1945. Another pastor named Detrick Bonhoeffer, took part in a 1944 bomb plot and was executed.Kreisau Circle- 1944 group of intellectuals and army offices that planned to bomb Hitler. The bomb exploded yet Hitler survived and 5000 people were consequently executed.● The search for peace and security in the world:– An overview of the search for peace and security 1919–1946-Post WWI, the search for peace focused on collective security, prevention of war and disarmament. These attempts were not only demonstrated through the development of the League of Nations, but also in other agreements.London Naval TreatyIn 1930, Great Britain, the US, Japan, France and Italy came to an agreement on the regulation of submarine warfare and a five-year suspension on the construction of capital ships.The Geneva Disarmament ConferenceIn 1932, Germany attempted to gain military equality. Many nations were hesitant to agree with their demands. On October 14th 1933, after Hitler became chancellor he withdrew from the conference.The Locarno Treaty1925, German attempt to create good relations with foreign nations. Discussion of disarmament. The Five-Power Treaty on capital ships occurred, the Four-Power Treaty replaced the Anglo-Japanese Treaty and the Nine-Power Treaty was signed by nine nations. These treaties served to maintain a status-quo by recognising each nations interests in the Pacific.The Geneva Naval ConferenceThe nations from the Five-Power Treaty, Japan, Great Britain, France, Italy and the US met to discuss extending the agreement to include a new form of vessel. There was disagreement in terms of tonnage or vessel numbers and further on whether light or heavy cruisers should be the form.Kellogg-Briand PactSigned on the 27th of August 1928 by almost every country in the world, meaning that each nation condemned resource to war as an instrument of national policy.Neutrality ActsAttempts to preserve peace and their own nations security. Occurred between many nations. Included non-aggression pacts.Isolationist PolicyAdopted by several nations such as American and Japan. Attempt to remove nation from possible conflicts.AppeasementTo yield or concede to the warlike demands of a nation, group, person, etc. in a conciliatory effort, sometimes at the expense of justice or other principles. Appeasement was seen differently during the 1930s. During the 1920s, Germany was weak and any appeasement-style concessions made to the country were made from positions of strength. This changed during the 1930s, as international realities changed, the Great Depression struck and the guilt as a result of the Treaty of Versailles resulted in Britain seeing appeasement as the only logical policy option.-As Warsaw, Poland fell to Nazi powers on the 28th of September 1939, it was evident that the search for peace had failed.Moscow Declaration, TehranThe US, UK and SU, signed an agreement in mid 1944 which aimed to launch collect offensives against German powers.The United Nations was established following WWII, Nuremberg Trials occurred– The ambitions of Germany in Europe and Japan in the Asia-Pacific-Germany- Establish racial supremacy throughout Europe. Spread racial and political ideologies. Expansionist policies, Lebensraum. Aimed to create room for the mass German race, remove inferior populations, create space for forced labour and collect extensive resources. Aimed for military expansion. Establish nationalism. Aimed for European power and rejected internationalismJapan- Further led by nationalistic values which spurred as a result of Japan feeling unequally treated by Western colonial powers, similar to Nazi feelings of rejection as a consequence of Versailles. Aim of expansion (1931 Manchuria), nation low on resources and wanted to expand their sphere of influences and access of resources- evident in Manchuria invasion. Both Germany and Japan rejected internationalism, evident in LoN withdrawal. 1940 Tripartite Pact between Germany, Japan and Italy. Aimed for Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere, self-sufficient coalition of Asian nations led by Japan.– The intentions and authority of the League of Nations and the UN-The League of Nations- Came from Woodrow Wilson’s 14-point plan. The League was designed to resolve international disputes, administer world justice and avoid future conflict. It consisted of an Assembly, where each member nation had a vote, a Secretariat and a Council which was compromised of the permanent members Britain, France, Italy and Japan. To achieve its purpose, the League relied on the concept of collective security, which detailed that if a member nation was attacked, the League would treat the attack as one on themselves. Punishment on member nations was through military force, economic and trade sanctions. The League promoted ideas of universal disarmament. The League of Nations had various weaknesses. The country whose president created the concept, Woodrow Wilson (America), of the League refused to join and followed its isolationist policy. Several countries, such as Germany and Russia, were not permitted to join the League until later dates, thus excluding powerful nations and limiting their support. The most powerful nations in the League were Britain and France, however, both nations militaries had suffered as a result of WWI. The lack of powerful military nations in the League limited their ability to enforce sanctions as there was no threatening force behind the League and they further could not interfere with nations not a part of the League. Additionally, all League decisions had to be unanimous which made decision making difficult.The United Nations- Agreed upon at Moscow in October 1943. Four bodies were proposed; a General Assembly, involving all member states that have equal say, Security Council, involving 5 permanent members (China, US, UK, France, Soviet Union), an International Court of Justice and Secretariat. Since then the International Criminal Court and the Economic Social Council had been added. After WWII up to 75 million deaths had occurred including the genocide of 6 million Jews, the UN aimed to address war crimes (crimes against humanity/international crimes) and create an international form of justice. Forty-six nations were originally invited to the 1945 original conference, with these nations declaring war on Germany and Japan and subscribing to the UN Declaration of the 1st of January 1942. There have been no wars on the scale of WWI and WWII since the establishment of the UN. The UN had various successes including organising an armistice to end the Korean War (1950-53), issues a ceasefire to end the 1991 Gulf War and 800 global heritage sites were listed under the World Heritage Convention in 1972. The Charter of the United Nations was signed on the 26th of June 1945, with the primary purpose of the organisation being to end war and promote peace and justice for all humankind came into existence on 24th October 1945. Security council has power to approve peacekeeping missions, issue ceasefire orders, impose sanctions and to determine the existence of threat to peace and authorise force to combat threats to peace.Main priorities included: Achieving international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, humanitarian character and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion. Maintain world-wide peace, promote and foster friendly relations among nations, assist nations to work together and improve lives of the disadvantaged and to act as a centre for harmonising the nations of actions.● Timeline:YearEvent1914-1916-Stalemate on the Western Front this causing large loss of life-German superiority on the Western Front. This not occurring again1917-Germany resumes unrestricted submarine warfare-Russian Revolution leads to provisional Government. Internal conflict. Change of government structure and ideologies-Tsar Nicholas II abdicates-April- Lenin calls for end of war-USA declares war against Germany. USA goes against isolation policy. Later temporarily resume isolation and do not become League of Nations members-October- Bolsheviks seize power and Peace Decree1918-March- Germany and Russia sign Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Leads to loss of land-Ludendorff launches operation Michael. Last attempt to demonstrate superiority -August- Allies launch counter offensive. Demonstration of combined allied power. Lesson for future conflict-September- Allies attack the Hindenburg Line-October- Ludendorff resigns. Realisation of eventual German defeat. Lesson learnt for future-November- Kaiser William II abdicates. Armistice demonstrates Germany’s vulnerability. Treaty dictated by the victors-Germany signs armistice. End of WWI1920-League of Nations created-February 24th- 25 Point Plan 1923-Ruhr Crisis, after disarmament of the Ruhr region the economy began to collapse. German population was encouraged to strike in response to Belgium occupation, this resulted in hyperinflation-8th November- Munich/Beer Hall Putsch, short rebellion led to Hitler’s arrest, he served 9 months rather than 5 years. During his time in prison Mein Kampf was written1930-Nazis made election gains as September secured 107 seats-Hindenburg implements first 60 Emergency Decrees-Heinrich Bruning becomes chancellor1930-1932-Economy continues to worsen-NSDPA continues to build its electoral success. From 2.6% in 1928 to 37.3% in 1932-Supports- base broadens from rural, small working, lower class villages to agricultural towns, urban working class and old traditionalists-Franz von Papen replaces Bruning as chancellor but does not have the support of the army to help rule by decree-Hindenburg forces Von Papen to resign. Appoints Kurt von Schleicher as chancellor-German people begin to take the Nazis seriously. Money from big business linked to the anti-communist rhetoric-Hitler’s propaganda machines, under Goebbels, demonstrates it is capable of competing with the larger political parties-March 1932- Election for president: Von Hindenburg 19359000, Thalman(communist) 3706655, Hitler 134180001933-Von Schleicher resigns as Chancellor. Hindenburg calls on Hitler believing they could control him like a puppet-30th of January- Hitler announced as Chancellor. His power limited by von Papen being Vice-Chancellor and a few Nazis were appointed in key positions-27th February- Reichstag Fire. Hitler publicly blamed a Dutch Communist. Hitler further declared Germany to be under a state of emergency-28th February- Reichstag Fire Decree. Restricted the press, the rights of civilians and allowed police to imprison opponents-February 28th- Decree for the Protection of the People of the Reich-24th March- Hindenburg passes the Enabling Act which gives the Chancellor, Hitler, full dictational power. Article 48-Communist Party is the first to be banned then the other parties fall as a result of Hitler not being controlled like a ‘puppet’-March 5th, 1933- Last democratic election. KPD- 81 seats, SPD- 120, Centre- 73, NSDAP- 288 44.9%, Minorities 85. From coalition government with National Party who won 8%-April 1st- National boycott of Jewish businesses-April 7th- Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service-May 2nd- Abolition of trade unions-May 10th- Book burning-May-June- Concentration camps set up to house political prisoners, 30000 imprisoned by end of June 1933-July 14th- All opposition political parties abolished in Germany-July 20th- Concordat signed with Catholic Church. Continuation of Nazi Party growth and sustaining of current policies-24th-29th of October- Great depression strikes USA which impacts Germany1934-January- Law for the Reconstruction of the Reich, governments of the German states are abolished-June 30th- Night of the Long Knives-August 2nd- Hindenburg dies-August 3rd- sees the end of the Weimar Republic as Hitler assumes the offices of both Chancellor and President given the title of Fuhrer INCLUDEPICTURE "" \* MERGEFORMATINET ................
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