Building Construction (2nd Edition)-All Numbers
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 1 - Building Construction & The Fire Service
"By the Numbers"
▪ Life span of a building may be 50 to 100 years or more.
▪ Model building codes usually have 5 major construction classifications: Fire-resistive, Non-combustible, Masonry (ordinary), Heavy Timber, and Wood Frame.
▪ Each model building code classification is divided into 1, 2, or 3 subclassifications.
▪ Wood Frame has 2 subclassifications based on whether plaster or gypsum board protects the wood frame.
▪ The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that the intensity of thermal radiation is a function of the 4th power of the absolute temperature of the thermal radiation source (T4).
▪ A temperature of 70oF is approximately 530o (294oK) in the absolute temperature scale.
▪ Laws of physics state that as the distance from a source of heat is doubled, the thermal radiation level is reduced 4 times.
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 2 - Design Principles
"By the Numbers"
▪ America's most prominent 20th century architect, Frank Lloyd Wright, called buildings "machines for living".
▪ 20th century modernist, Le Corbusier's design philosophy was "less is more".
▪ Mies van der Rohe introduced buildings with very clean rectangular lines in the early 1960s.
▪ The 3 model building codes UBC, Standard Building Code, & BOCA) are working together to create a single code package called the International Building Code (IBC).
▪ In the future, the IBC/IFC will be ran by the International Code Council, composed of representative from the 3 model code groups.
▪ A commonly adopted bulding code is the NFPA Life Safety Code® (NPFA 101).
▪ The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 requires public facilities to be accessible to those who qualify as inpaired due to vision, speech, hearing, neuromuscular, learning, or mental illness.
▪ Drinking fountains must have a spout no more than 36" above the floor under ADA guidelines.
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Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 3 - Building Classifications
"By the Numbers"
▪ Test furnace procedures are described in NFPA 251, Standard methods of Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials, and in the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E-119 Standard.
[pic]
▪ Primary points of failure for a fire resistance test include: failure to support an applied load, temperature increase of 250oF above ambient on the unexposed side, passage of heat/flame sufficient to ignite cotton, excessive temperature on steel members, or point temperature increase.
▪ Fire resistance ratings are expressed in several intervals such as 20 minutes, 45 minutes, or 1, 2, 3, or 4 hours.
▪ Building materials can be classified in 2 general categories: fire-resistant or non-fire-resistant, OR combustible or non-combustible.
▪ The most commonly used test for determining combustibility is ASTM E136, Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials in a Vertical Tube Furnace of 750oC.
▪ NFPA 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction, details the requirements for building classifications and subclassifications.
|3-Digit Building Classification Codes |
|1st Digit |Fire resistance rating of exterior bearing walls |
|2nd Digit |Fire resistance rating of structural frames or columns |
|3rd Digit |Fire resistance rating of floor construction |
▪ The Uniform Building CodeTM has 1 classification under Type I and 3 classifications under Type II.
▪ Most codes will NOT allow a wood frame school (Type V-A construction) to be more than 1 story in height.
|Type I Construction Fire Resistance Ratings |
|Bearing walls, columns, beams |3 to 4 hours |
|Floors |2 to 3 hours |
|Roofs |1 to 2 hours |
|5 Major Building Classifications |
|Type |Alternate Name(s) |Description/Details |
|I |Fire-resistive |Partitions that separate occupancies usually have a fire resistance of 1 to 2 hours |
| | |Less likely to collapse |
| | |Usually permit the use of combustible materials such as interior finishes, roof coverings, exterior |
| | |veneers/trim, nailing strips, windows/doors, and roof structures and platforms. |
| | |Contents of building contributes most of the fuel for a fire |
| | |Does NOT provide total fire protection |
| | |2 most common construction methods: reinforced concrete or protected steel frame |
|II |Non-combustible |Types are Protected & Unprotected (most common) |
| | |3 subclassifications (3rd subclass has NO fire resistance) |
| | |Materials other than steel can be used (ie-concrete block, glass, aluminum) |
| | |Unprotected steel buildings will NOT provide structural stability under fire conditions |
|III |Exterior protected |Usually has exterior walls of masonry & partially or wholly combustible internal members |
| |(Masonry) |Combustible materials are protected by insulating materials such as plaster or gypsum |
| |(Ordinary) |Smaller dimension wood than Type IV |
| | |2" x 10" joists for floor construction are common |
| | |Combustible concealed spaces between floor & ceiling joists & between studs in partition walls |
| | |The structure itself contributes fuel to a fire |
| | |Unlike Type I & II, a significant fire can result in a vacant Type III building |
| | |Exterior masonry walls may collapse if internal combustible members fail |
|IV |Heavy Timber |External walls usually masonry with combustible internal members |
| | |Beams, columns, floors, & roofs made of solid or laminated wood of greater dimension than Type III |
| | |Concealed spaces are not permitted between structural members |
| | |Use extensively in factories, mills, & warehouses in the 19th century, rarely used today |
| | |Primary fire hazard: massive structural members & contents of building |
| | |If members are NOT involved in a prolonged fire, the charring can be sandblasted away and members may continue|
| | |to be used |
| | |Exterior masonry walls may collapse if internal combustible members fail |
| | |Minimum 6" x 10" joists for floor construction |
|V |Wood Frame |All major structural components permitted to be combustible |
| | |Primary method of construction is using a wood frame to provide primary structural support |
| | |Obtaining 1 hour fire resistance for structural members is attained by covering them with plaster or |
| | |fire-rated gypsum |
| | |Combustible concealed voids are more extensive than Type III |
| | |Can become totally involved & be completely destroyed |
| | |Codes require cetain height & spacing limits for wood frame |
| | |Usually constructed using the light-frame method developed 150 years ago by George Washington Snow |
| | |(engineer/lumber dealer) |
| | |Light-frame construction replaced the use of heavy timber wood framing |
| | |Variation of Type V is brick veneer (relies on wood frame for structural support) |
| | |Brick veneer adds little to fire resistance except some possible reduction in communication of fire between |
| | |buildings |
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 4 - The Way Buildings are Built-Structural Principles
"By the Numbers"
Understanding of many of the equations in this chapter can be found by looking at the calculations of different loads found in the chapter.
▪ Kinetic energy while a gas is in motion:
E = 1/2mv2
E=energy
m=mass
v=velocity
▪ Equation for increase of force due to velocity of wind:
p=Cv2
p=static pressure
C=0.00256 (a constant)
v=velocity
|In the Midwestern states, maximum wind velocity is calculated at 70 mph |[pic] |
|(100 mph in coastal areas). | |
▪ Seismic forces may be 3-dimensional and are dynamic in nature.
▪ Earthquakes usually last less than 1 minute.
[pic]
▪ Forces of gravity have 2 classes: live and dead loads.
▪ Water has a density of about 62.4 lbs. per cubic foot (psf).
▪ Snow load calculated for a roof is commonly 20 to 30 pounds per square foot.
▪ 6 inches of water on a roof will add an additional live load of 30 psf.
|Minimum Live Load Uniform Weight Distribution |
|Occupancy Type |Minimum psf |
|Hospital Rooms |40 psf |
|Offices |50 psf |
|Library Reading Rooms |60 psf |
|Retail Stores |75 psf |
|School Corridors |80 psf |
|Light Manufacturing |100 psf |
|Library Stack Rooms |150 psf |
▪ The failure point of structural steel is about 36,000 psi.
▪ Standard truss shapes can span distances of 22 to 70 feet.
▪ Space frames are structures that are developed in 3 dimensions and are economical like 2 dimension trusses.
▪ Space frames are 3 dimensional truss structures.
▪ Stud-wall frame construction typically uses 2x4 inch wood studs.
▪ Stud spacing for stud wall frame construction typically is 12 to 16 inches but may be as much as 24 inches.
▪ Dividing the yeild/failure point of a material by 2 would give you a safety factor of 2.
▪ 4x4 inch wood is the minimum dimensions for wood used in post and beam construction.
▪ Shell structures are 3 dimensional that have a thickness that is small compared to other dimensions.
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 5 - Building Materials
"By the Numbers"
▪ No commonly use material can withstand 10,000oF.
▪ Allowable compressive strength parallel to wood grain varies from 325 to 1,850 psi for commercial grades, with a variance of a factor of 6.
▪ Most structural lumber has a moisture content of 19% or less.
▪ To be considered solid lumber, boards must have nominal thickness of 2 inches, dimensional lumber must have nominal thickness of 2 to 4 inches, and timbers must have a nominal thickness of 5 inches.
▪ Dimensional lumber is available in lengths from 8 to 16 feet, in 2 feet increments.
▪ Solid lumber members used for rafters can be found in lengths up to 24 feet.
▪ Laminated members are produced in depths from 3 to 75 inches and lengths up to 100 feet.
▪ The 3 types of non-veneered wood panels are oriented strand board, wafer board, and particle board.
▪ Oriented strand board uses long strand-like wood particles, with strands in the same direction, that are compressed and glued into 3 to 5 layers.
▪ A span rating of 32/16 indicates that a panel may be used as roof sheathing on rafters spaced 32 inches apart or as subflooring on joints 16 inches apart.
▪ Structural panels can be as small as 4 feet in width.
|Wood Ignition Temperatures |
|Wood Type (0.10 ounces, 2 1/2 inches long) |Self-Ignition Temperature |
|Western Red Cedar |378oF |
|Paper Birch |399oF |
|White Pine |406oF |
|White Oak |410oF |
|Long Leaf Pine |428oF |
|Heat of Combustion Values |
|Substance |Btu per Pound |
|Corrugated Fiber Carton (dry) |5,970 Btu |
|Wrapping Paper (dry) |7,106 Btu |
|Newspaper (dry) |7,883 Btu |
|Wood Shavings (dry) |8,248 Btu |
|Wood Sawdust-Oak (dry) |8,493 Btu |
|Wood Bark-Fir (dry) |9,496 Btu |
|Wood Sawdust-Pine (dry) |9,676 Btu |
▪ The 2 methods of fire-retardant treatment for wood are pressure impregnation and surface coating.
▪ The design strength of fire-retardant structural lumber is 10% to 20% less than nontreated lumber.
▪ Some building codes may permit use of 4 feet of fire-retardant treated plywood as a party wall separation.
▪ Temperatures between roof covering and roof sheathing can reach 170oF due to solar radiation.
▪ Degradation of roofs using fire retardant treated plywood can occur after 3 to 5 years.
▪ Bricks are manufactured by firing them in a kiln at temperatures up to 2,400oF, which turns them into a ceramic material.
▪ The most common size of hollow concrete block used is 8" x 8" x 16".
▪ A brick wall 8 inches thick and 4 x 4 feet would weight about 1,267 pounds.
▪ Mortar is available in 5 basic types with strengths ranging from 75 psi to 2,500 psi.
▪ Concrete cured at or above 100oF will not reach its proper strength.
▪ Normal design strength of concrete is normally reached after 28 days.
▪ Ultimate compressive strength of concrete varies from 2,500 psi to 6,000 psi.
▪ Common structural steel has less than 3/10 of 1% carbon, while cast iron has 3 to 4% carbon.
|Structural Steel Types |
|Steel Type |ASTM Number |
|Structural Steel |ASTM A36 |
|Structural Steel (42,000 psi minimum yield point) |ASTM A529 |
|High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Maganese Vanadium Steel |ASTM A441 |
|High-Strength Low-Alloy Columbian-Vanadium Structural Steel |ASTM A572 |
|High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel |ASTM A242 |
|High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel (50,000 psi minimum yield point) |ASTM A588 |
|Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel |A514 7 |
▪ Rolling of steel consist of repeatedly passing ingots of steel heated to 2,200oF between large rollers.
▪ The most commonly used structural steel is ASTM A36.
▪ In terms of stress and strain, ASTM A36 structural steel undergoes pronounced deformation at 36,000 psi, called the yield point, and breakage at the "ultimate" stress point.
▪ Bridge Strands have strengths as high as 300,000 psi, but have very little ductility.
▪ At 1,000oF, the yield point of steel will drop from 36,000 psi to 18,000 psi.
▪ At 1,200oF, the yield point of steel will drop 10,000 psi which is a 72% loss of strength.
▪ Steel has a density of about 490 lbs./ft2.
▪ A steel beam 20 foot long which is heated uniformly to 1,000oF will expand about 1.4 inches.
▪ A steel column encased in 3 inches of concrete with a siliceous aggregate would have a fire resistance of 4 hours.
▪ Spray-on coatings for steel protection have densities ranging from 12 to 40 lbs./ft2.
▪ Intumescent coatings are applied a fraction of an inch thick and provide up to 3 hours fire resistance.
▪ Aluminum has a melting point of 1,220oF.
▪ Tempered glass is about 4 times stronger than ordinary (annealed) glass.
▪ Laminated glass consists of 2 layers of glass with a transparent layer of vinyl bonded in the center.
▪ Glass blocks are typically available in sizes from 6x6 to 8x8 inches with a thickness of 3 or 4 inches.
▪ Wired glass is produced in a thickness of 1/4 inch.
▪ The maximum allowable area for a 1/4 inch piece of wired glass is 1,296 square inches and would provide a 45 minute fire rating if set in a listed fire door or window (for a 90 minute rating, maximum allowable area is 100 square inches).
▪ A 45 minute rating for a fire-rated glass panel can be attained for panels as large as 3,325 sq. inches.
▪ Fire-rated glass blocks are available in ratings of 45, 60, and 90 minutes for use in window assemblies.
▪ An alternative to using fire-rated glass where required is to install special deflecting sprinklers in combination with heat-strengthened or tempered glass in which the sprinkler wets the entire surface of the glass (provides up to 2 hour fire rating).
▪ Special deflecting sprinklers and protected glass panels used for fire resistance is limited to 13 feet in height with a 36 inch high pony wall being required at the base of the glazing.
▪ Gypsum board consists of calcined gypsum, starch, water, and other additives sandwiched between 2 paper faces.
▪ Gyspum board thicknesses range from 1/4 to 3/4 inch.
▪ 1 inch gypsum is only used as coreboard.
▪ Gypsum board can provide an assembly fire-resistance rating from 1 to 4 hours.
▪ The 2 major types of plastic are thermosetting and thermoplastic.
▪ There are 2 major types of plastic that are divided into 20 to 30 major groups.
▪ In 1980, 60 billion lbs. of plastic was produced.
▪ Even plastics with low flammability are subject to deterioration and may evolve toxic gases at temperatures above 500oF.
▪ Foam plastics used as building materials must be separated from the interior of the building with 1/2 inch gypsum or equivalent, by building code.
▪ Automatic sprinklers are required in addition to a thermal barrier (1/2 inch gypsum) when foam plastic with a thickness of greater than 4 inches is used.
▪ Per 1993 edition of BOCA National Building Code, if the separation distance of a combustible exterior veneer is less than 5 feet, the material is limited to 10% of the wall surface and resist a radiant energy source of 12.5 kW/m2 (separation of 25 feet is 3.5 kW/m2)
▪ Fabric roofs weigh about 2 lbs./ft2.
▪ For thermal insulation of membrane structures, 2 layers of fabric can be used several inches apart (air space acts as thermal barrier).
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 6 - Foundations
"By the Numbers"
▪ Foundations are divided into 2 types: Shallow and Deep.
▪ High-rise structures require foundations that extend 100 feet or more.
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 7 - Structural Systems
"By the Numbers"
▪ Reinforced concrete of protected steel framing are found in Type I fire-resistive buildings.
▪ Use of unprotected steel results in a Type II building classification (non-combustible).
▪ Wood an masonry together are found in ordinary construction Type II and mill construction Type IV.
▪ 3 methods are used to reinforce concrete: ordinary, PRE-tensioned, and POST-tensioned.
▪ Standard size reinforcing bars vary from 0.375" to 2.257".
▪ 2 methods of prestressing concrete are PRE-tensioning and POST-tensioning.
▪ Flat slab concrete varies from 6 to 12 inches thick.
▪ Reinforcing steel is placed in the bottom of waffle construction formwork to provide reinforcement in 2 directions (AKA 2-way slabs).
▪ Precast concrete was not common until after World War II.
▪ Precast solid slabs are used for short spans up to 30 feet.
▪ Precast tee-slabs are used for spans up to 120 feet.
▪ Precast units may have a cement topping up to 1 1/2 inch thick.
▪ Concrete structural systems can have fire-resistance ratings from 1 to 4 hours.
▪ Steel trusses are frequently used in 3 dimensional space frames.
▪ 2 common basic steel trusses are the open-web joint and joist girder.
▪ Open-web steel joists are made with depths up to 6 feet and spans up to 144 feet (2 foot or less depth and 40 foot span is most common).
▪ Top and bottom chords of open-web steel joists can be made from 2 angles, 2 bars, or a tee-shaped member with diagonal members being flat bars continuous round bar (AKA bar joint) welded to top and bottom chords.
▪ Steel rigid frames with inclined roof members are widely used for 1 story industrial buildings and farm buildings.
▪ Steel rigid frames usually span 40 to 200 feet.
▪ 1 story rigid frame structures must be braced diagonally to prevent lateral deflection.
▪ Steel arches can span in excess of 300 feet.
▪ Steel wire strengths can be as high as 300,000 psi.
▪ Steel columns used for structural support should not have a slenderness ratio less than 120.
▪ Cast iron was frequently used for interior columns in the 19th Century.
▪ Thickness of masonry walls varies from a minimum 6 inches, up to several feet.
▪ NON-reinforced masonry walls are usually limited to 6 stories in height.
▪ Steel or concrete structural frame is more economical than masonry bearing walls when the building is more than 2 to 3 stories in height.
▪ Reinforced masonry bearing walls can be as high as 20 stories and only 10 inches thick.
▪ The simplest brick wall consists of 1 wythe.
▪ Parallel wythes of bricks can be bonded together using a "header course" every 6th course, or by using corrosion-resistant metal ties to bond wythes together.
▪ Grout can be used to fill cavities between 2 adjacent wythes of a brick wall or within the openings of concrete block for reinforcement.
▪ Parapets project 1 to 3 feet or more above the roof and usually have NO lateral support.
▪ Walls made of fire-rated concrete masonry units or bricks can have 2 to 4 hours of fire resistance.
▪ The 2 types of wood framing systems most frequently encountered are timber framing and light wood framing.
▪ Due to basic strength limitations of wood, it is usually not economical to use wood frames in buildings over 3 stories in height.
▪ Until water-powered saws were developed 2 centuries ago, producing individual wood boards was slow and laborious.
▪ In heavy timber designs, columns are NOT less than 8 x 8 inches, and beams (except roof beams) are NOT less than 6 x 10 inches.
▪ Heavy timbers cut from a single log are usually NOT available in lengths greater than 20 feet.
▪ Posts in post & beam construction are usually 4 x 4 or 6 x 6 inches and space 4 to 12 foot apart.
▪ Light wood framing uses 2 inch nominal lumber such as 2 x 4 or 2 x 8 inch members.
▪ The 2 basic types of light wood framing are balloon frame and platform frame.
▪ Platform framing has double 2 x 4 inch members (AKA plates) laid horizontally along the top of the studs on each floor which act as fire stops.
▪ Brick veneers must be tied to a wall at intervals of 16 inches.
▪ Weep holes in brick veneers are 2 feet on center.
▪ An air space of approximately 1 inch exists between a brick veneer and its supporting wall.
▪ A rule of thumb to determine whether a brick wall is load-bearing is a bearing wall will have a header course every 6th course.
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 8 - Floors & Ceilings
"By the Numbers"
Photos in this chapter give a greater understanding of the spacing requirements.
|SPAN BETWEEN SUPPORTS FOR HOLLOW-CORE SLABS |
|Slab Thickness |Span Range |
|6" |14-22 feet |
|8" |20-32 feet |
|10" |24-40 feet |
|12" |30-44 feet |
|3 methods in which steel members can support floors include open web joists (bar joists)|[pic] |
|or trusses, steel beams, and light gauge steel joists. |[pic] |
|A common floor design is lightweight concrete with minimum thickness of 2 inches, | |
|supported by corrugated steel decking on open web joists. | |
|3 categories of open web joists are Standard, Long Span, and Deep Long Span. | |
|Standard open web joists are 8 to 30 inches deep and span up to 60 feet. | |
▪ Steel joists have depths of 6 to 12 inches and are spaced 16 to 48 inches apart (depending on span and load supported).
▪ Standard concrete weighs about 150 pounds per cubic foot, while lightweight concrete weighs about 90 pounds per cubic foot.
▪ Floor decking in Type IV construction is a minimum 3 inch thick plank (tongue & groove cut) with 1 inch finish flooring and is supported by 6 x 10 inch beams.
▪ Floor decking in ordinary masonry and wood frame construction is plywood or nominal 1 inch board subfloor covered by 2 x 6 inch to 2 x 14 inch joists, spaced 12 to 24 inches on center.
▪ [pic]
|NFPA 253, Critical Radiant Flux of Floor Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Source, |[pic] |
|covers flammability limits of floor coverings. | |
|The floor covering sample used in critical radiant flux testing is 10 x 42 inches. | |
|NFPA 101, Life Safety Code, uses 2 classifications for floor coverings: Class I - | |
|minimum flux of 0.43, and Class II - minimum flux of 0.19. | |
|Floor coverings in stairways, exit passageways, and exit corridors in institutional | |
|occupancies are limited to Class I coverings by BOCA national building code. | |
▪ Floor assemblies may be required to have fire resistance ratings of 1, 2, or 3 hours.
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 9 - Walls
"By the Numbers"
▪ Free-standing fire walls must be able to resist lateral loads of at least 5 pounds per square foor per NFPA 221.
▪ Fire walls are usually required to have a fire resistance of 4 hours.
▪ Parapets are continuations of fire walls, up and above combustible roofs, usually 18 to 36 inches.
▪ Fire walls with 4 hour fire resistance frequently have 3 hour fire doors on each side of the wall.
▪ If HVAC ducts penetrate a fire wall with a fire resistance of 2 hours or greater, the ducts must have fire dampers (on 4 hour fire walls, two 3 hour dampers are required).
▪ A 1 hour fire resistant fire partition, used for separating adjacent apartment units, can be made of 5/8 inch fire-rated gypsum applied to both sides of 2 1/2 inch steel studs.
▪ Enclosure walls have 1 or 2 hours fire resistance, depending on building height, and are usually NON-load-bearing.
▪ Movable partitions are usually NOT fire-resistive, however, partitions with 1 to 2 hours fire resistance are available.
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 10 - Roofs
"By The Numbers"
|Roofs are broadly categorized into 3 categories: flat, pitched, and curved. |[pic] |
|The simplest pitched roof is the shed roof which only slopes in 1 direction. | |
|Gable roofs have 2 inclined surfaces that meet at their high side to form a "ridge". | |
|Hip roofs slope in 4 directions and have a degree of slope similar to gable roofs. | |
|Gambrel roofs slope in 2 directions but with a break in the slope on each side. | |
|Mansard roofs have a break in the slope on all 4 sides. | |
|Butterfly roofs slope in 2 directions and resemble 2 shed roofs that meet at their low | |
|eaves. | |
|When the area to be enclosed by a roof is circular, a done roof can be used (ie-an arch |[pic] |
|rotated 360 degrees). | |
|Lamella arches are special arched roofs constructed of short pieces of wood (AKA |[pic] |
|lamellas), varying from 2 x 6 to 3 x 16 inches and 8 to 14 feet in length. | |
▪ Geodesic domes are created using spherical triangulation (triangles arranged in 3 dimensions).
|Wood rafters vary from 2 x 4 to 2 x 12 inches, and are spaced 12 to|[pic][pic] |
|24 inches, depending on span and live loads. | |
|In trusses that use gang nail type gusset plates, individual |[pic] |
|members are wood 2 x 4s or 2 x 6s, spaces 2 to 4 feet apart. | |
|Multiple member wood trusses use "splice plates" to produce heavier|[pic] |
|wood trusses, and may be up to 5 members thick and spaced 8 feet | |
|apart. | |
▪ Rigid frames are frequently encountered in 1 story buildings.
▪ 1/2 inch plywood roof decking can be placed on supports spaced 24 inches on center.
▪ Wood plank roof decking has a minimum 1 inch nominal thickness.
▪ Corrugated steel roof decking is usually 22 gauge minimum thickness, with depths from 1 1/2 to 7 inches.
▪ Wood nailing strips may be placed at 3 foot intervals in cast-in-place concrete for securing to the structural frame.
|Vapor barriers are needed when outdoor temperature is below 40oF, and indoor humidity is 45% or |[pic] |
|greater at 68oF. | |
▪ The 3 categories of flat roof membranes include built-up, elastomeric-plastomeric, and fluid-applied.
▪ Built-up roof membranes have several layers (usually 4) of roofing felt saturated with a bituminous material such as tar or asphalt.
▪ Rolls of roofing felt are usually 3 feet wide.
▪ Built-up roofs usually last 20 years.
▪ Elastomeric-plastomeric membranes are thin sheets (0.032 to 0.120 inches) applied with adhesives, gravel ballasts, or fasteners, in a single layer, and can be extremely flammable.
▪ The most common size of asphalt shingle is 12 x 36 inches.
▪ Slate may be produced in sheets as thin as 1/16 inch, up to 1 1/2 inch thick.
|Only 1/3 of the length of wood shingles are exposed to weather once in place. |[pic] |
▪ Testing procedures for fire hazards of roof coverings are contained in NFPA 256, Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Roof Coverings, and in ASTM E-108.
▪ NFPA 256 fire tests for roof coverings ONLY simulates fire originating OUTSIDE a building.
▪ Test samples for roof coverings are attached to a wooden deck measuring 3 feet 4 inches x 4 feet x 4 inches.
▪ NFPA 256 contains 6 test procedures: Intermittent flame exposure, Flame spread, Burning brand, Flying brand, Rain, and Weathering tests, with individual tests repeated 2 to 15 times.
▪ A 2nd roof called a "rain roof" can be installed over a deteriorated roof.
▪ Unit type smoke and heat vents are small area hatchways (4 feet minimum in either direction is typical) with single- or double-leaf metal lids.
▪ NFPA 204M, Guide for Smoke & Heat Venting, determines the size and spacing of smoke and heat vents based on rate-of-heat release, ceiling height, and spacing of curtain boards.
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 11 - Door & Window Assemblies
"By the Numbers"
▪ Overhead doors can consist of a single leaf, or 2 or more sections.
▪ Revolving doors have 3 or 4 sections, or wings, that rotate in a circular frame.
▪ By code, revolving door wings must collapse with 130 pounds of force.
▪ Common styles of swinging doors include ledge & brace, flush, 2 panel, louvered, and French.
▪ Solid-core doors have an interior core of laminated blocks (wood, particle board or mineral composition), and are covered with 2 or 3 layers of surface materials (usually plywood).
▪ Standard solid-core doors are 1 3/4 or 1 3/8 inch thick.
▪ Hollow-metal doors can be panel or flush-type and are normally 1 3/4 inch thick.
▪ Heavy corrugated steel doors have 1 or 2 corrugated sheets supported by a steel frame.
▪ Fire doors are rated in hours (4, 3, 1 1/2, 1, 3/4, 1/2, & 1/3 hours).
|FIRE DOOR OPENING CLASSIFICATIONS |
|Classification |Opening Type |
|A |Fire walls |
|B |Vertical shafts or 2 hour rated partitions |
|C |Between rooms & corridors with 1 hour fire resistance or less |
|D |Exterior walls subject to severe fire exposure from outside the building |
|E |Exterior walls subject to moderate to light fire exposure from outside the building |
▪ Class B fire doors may be called Class B (1 1/2) doors (old designation).
▪ 1/2 and 1/3 hour fire doors are primarily used in smoke barriers and corridor openings.
▪ Codes may permit a 1 1/2 hour fire door in a 2 hour stairwell.
▪ Codes may require two 3 hour fire doors to protect a 4 hour fire wall opening.
▪ Fire doors are tested in accordance with NFPA 252, Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Door Assemblies, and by ASTM E-152.
▪ Intermittent passage of flame is permitted during a fire door test after the first 30 minutes of the test.
▪ Fire doors (except 1/3 hour rated doors) are subjected to a hose stream following a fire door test and must remain in place to pass.
▪ Fire doors have hinges for every 30 inches of height of the door.
▪ Overhead-rolling fire doors are commonly used in industrial occupancies on 1 or both sides of a wall.
▪ Swinging fire doors have ratings from 3 hours to 20 minutes.
|GLASS PANEL REQUIREMENTS FOR FIRE DOORS |
|Hourly Rating |Panel Size |
|Over 3 hours |NO glass panels |
|1, 1 1/2, & 3 hours |Up to 100 square inches |
|3/4 hour |NOT to exceed 1,296 square inches |
|1/2 & 1/3 hour |Up to maximum area tested |
▪ Louvers may be used in fire doors rated up to 1 1/2 hours, but louvers must close automatically (usually by fusible link).
▪ A complete window consists of a frame, 1 or more sashes, and necessary hardware.
▪ Windows that have 2 sashes that can move past each other are called "double-hung" windows (common in residences).
▪ Casement windows have a side-hinged sash which usually swings OUTward, and may contain 1 or 2 openable sashes (full ventilation possible).
▪ Horizontal-sliding windows have 2 or more sashes with at least 1 movable sash.
▪ In a 3 sash horizontal-sliding window, the middle sash is usually fixed.
▪ Awning windows have 1 or more TOP-hinged, OUTward-swinging sashes.
▪ Jalousie windows have a large number of narrow overlapping, OUTward-swinging, glass sections (each about 4 inches wide).
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 12 - Interior Finish
"By the Numbers"
▪ The 4 ways interior finish combustibility affects fire behavior include flame spread over surfaces, rate of fire growth to flashover, fire intensity, and smoke & toxic gases produced.
▪ Paint and wallpaper which is NOT thicker than 1/28 inch is NOT considered an "interior finish" by codes.
|[pic] |
▪ The Steiner Tunnel Test, identified in ASTM E-84, UL 753, and NFPA 255, is the most common method for evaluating surface burning characteristics of interior finishes.
▪ The Steiner Tunnel horizontal furnace is 25 feet long, 17 5/8 inches wide, and 12 inches high.
▪ The gas burner in the Steiner Tunnel produces a 4 1/2 foot flame at about 5,000 Btus per minute and is ran for 10 minutes during the test.
▪ The Steiner Tunnel has 19 windows.
▪ Flame travel of a material in the Steiner Tunnel is compared to asbestos cement (flame spread of 0) and to red oak (flame spread of 100).
|FLAME SPREAD RATINGS |
|Material |Rating |
|Asbestos Cement |0 |
|Gypsum Wallboard |10-15 |
|Mineral Acoustical Tile |15-25 |
|Treated Douglas Fir Plywood |15-60 |
|Red Oak |100 |
|Walnut-faced Plywood |260-515 |
|Veneered Woods |515 |
▪ Building codes use 3 classifications for interior finishes, based on flame spread rating
A - 0 to 25 B - 26 to 75 C - 76 to 200
▪ Maximum flame spread rating for interior finishes, by building code, is 200.
▪ Smoke developed ratings are based on red oak, which is given a smoke developed rating of 100.
▪ Building codes limit the maximum smoke developed rating to 450oF.
▪ Fire retardant coatings must be applied at a specified rate (square feet per gallon), and may require more than 1 coat.
|"Corner Tests" consist of a ceiling and 2 intersecting side walls in which the ceiling and |[pic] |
|walls are covered with the test material to simulate more realistic field conditions. |[pic] |
|NFPA 265, Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Room Fire Growth Contribution of | |
|Textile Wall Coverings, uses room-size enclosures to test textile wall coverings. | |
|Textile wall covering tests (NFPA 265), consist of test material applied to upper portions of| |
|2 enclosing walls, and is subjected to 2 different size gas flames. | |
|NFPA 265 textile wall covering tests are either "satisfactory" or "NON-satisfactory", and are| |
|NOT given a numerical rating. | |
|Acceptability of NFPA 265 textile wall covering tests is based on whether flame travels to | |
|the edges of the test sample, whether flame droplets fall to the test chamber floor, whether | |
|flashover occurs, and whether the heat release rate reaches 300 kW. | |
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 13 - Building Services & Subsystems
"By the Numbers"
▪ Most elevator regulations are based on ASME and ANSI A17.1, Safety Code for Elevators, published by ASME.
▪ Elevators consist of a car or platform that moves in guide rails, and serves 2 or more landings.
▪ The 2 most common power sources for elevators are hydraulic and electric.
▪ Hydraulic elevators are slowed/stopped by controlling fluid flow back into the hydraulic reservoir.
▪ The practical upper limit of hydraulic elevators is about 6 stories.
▪ Drum-type elevators have practical height limitations, while traction-type (most common in buildings over 6 stories) do NOT.
▪ Traction elevators can have up to a 500 volt power supply, with drive motors being either AC or DC current.
▪ Hoistways are made of fire-resistive materials and usually have fire-rated doors with 1 or 2 hour ratings.
▪ In high-rises, hoistways may be enclosed on 3 sides with poured concrete, and block on side of the wall that faces the elevator door.
▪ The 2 common types of hoistways are single, multiple, and blind.
▪ Single hoistways contain only 1 elevator.
▪ Multiple hoistways contain more than 1 elevator in a COMMON shaft.
▪ Multiple hoistways are limited to 4 cars per shaft by code.
▪ In SINGLE blind hoistways, access doors are provided for rescue (every 3 floors).
▪ The 3 types of passenger car doors are single-slide, 2-speed, and center-opening.
▪ 2-speed elevator doors consist of 2 panels with 1 panel located behind the other.
▪ 2-speed elevator door panels move horizontally in the same direction and reach the open position simultaneously.
▪ Center-opening elevator doors are most common, and consist of 2 panels meeting in the center of the opening.
▪ 2-speed and center-opening elevator doors have a "relating cable" connecting the 2 panels.
▪ Vertical b-part doors are used on freight elevators and consist of 2 panels which close from top and bottom and meet in the center.
▪ Hoistway doors and hardware will be listed and labeled for fire resistance (most common - 1 1/2 hours).
▪ Phase I operation is a mandatory provision which recalls all elevators in the event of a fire.
▪ Phase I recall of elevators (non-stop) to the terminal floor can be actuated manually by keyed switch or by automatically by signals from smoke detector, water flow, or fire alarm devices.
▪ If an alarm originates in the lobby, Phase I may bring elevators to a designated level (usually 2 floors ABOVE the lobby).
▪ Phase I opens doors and keeps them open upon stopping at the "recall" floor.
▪ Phase I DISABLES emergency stop and floor selection buttons.
▪ Phase II, equipped on ALL new elevators, allows overriding of the Phase I recall feature.
|Typically, Phase II requires inserting a key into a 3-position switch within the elevator car. |[pic] |
|Under Phase II operation, floor select buttons are OPERABLE (call buttons on floors INoperable), doors are OPERABLE | |
|(only from within car), electric eyes are INoperable, and emergency stop button is OPERABLE. | |
▪ Moving stairs (AKA escalators) are stairways with electrically-powered steps which move continuously in 1 direction (usually 90 or 120 feet per minute).
|Sprinkler draft curtains for escalators consist of an 18 inch draft stop and row of automatic |[pic] |
|sprinklers outside of the draft stop. | |
▪ Stairs which are NOT a means of egress typically connect no more than 2 levels, and are called "access" or "convenience" stairs.
▪ Return stairs have 1 or more intermediate landings between floors and reverse direction at the landing (common in modern construction).
|Scissor stairs are 2 separate sets of stairs constructed in a common shaft. |[pic] |
|When 2 sets of scissor stairs in a common shaft are separated by a fire-rated barrier, they meet | |
|requirements for 2 "separate" exits. | |
▪ Circular stairs are often found as "grand" or "convenience" stairs serving only 2 levels.
▪ The minimum width of the "run" for circular stairs is usually 10 inches.
▪ The differential of both riser heights and tread widths is often limited to 3/8 inch.
▪ Folding stairs are usually made of wood and consist of a main section that hinges from the frame, and 2 articulating sections.
▪ Protected stairs are enclosed with fire-rated construction, usually 1 or 2 hour rating, depending on building code, building height, and construction type.
▪ Protected stairs generally serve more than 2 stories.
▪ Open exterior stairs typically have at least 2 adjacent sides open to natural ventilation.
▪ Use of "UNprotected stairs" is typically allowed by codes when stairs connect only 2 adjacent floors above basement level (AKA "access" or "convenience" stairs).
▪ Access ("convenience") stairs can be used as part of an exit system in 2 story buildings.
▪ A single grease exhaust duct serves only 1 exhaust "hood", while "manifold" exhaust ducts serve more than 1 hood.
▪ Single grease exhausts typically have 1 fire suppression system for the entire system, while manifold exhausts use a system for EACH hood.
▪ Most codes require HVAC systems over a certain capacity (usually 2,000 CFM), to have internal duct smoke detection to automatically shut down the system.
▪ HIGH voltage is 600 volts or MORE, while LOW voltage is LESS than 600 volts.
▪ The 2 most common methods of cooling transformers is with air and oil.
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 14 - Underground Facilities & Other Considerations
"By the Numbers"
|Underground buildings are defined as by some codes as one in which the lowest level is 30 feet below the main|[pic] |
|exit that serves that level. | |
|ALL underground buildings more than 30 feet underground require sprinklers, by code. | |
|Fires exceeding 4 hours, which is the typical maximum available fire protection, are a serious threat in | |
|underground structures. | |
|ALL underground buildings more than 30 feet underground require sprinklers, by code. | |
▪ An atrium can extend 30 stories or more through a building.
▪ Basic code requirements for atriums include 1 hour fire-rated enclosure OR glass along with sprinklers.
▪ The requirement of 1 hour fire-rated enclosure for an atrium is sometimes eliminated for atriums up to 3 stories in height, if certain conditions are met (ie-smoke exhaust).
▪ Codes usually require malls to be a minimum 20 to 30 feet in width.
▪ When malls have more than 1 level, multiple openings between levels are typical.
▪ Individual stores in malls are usually required to have 1 hour fire-resistive partitions (does NOT apply to store "fronts").
▪ An ordinary 8 inch thick masonry wall 10 feet high normally can NOT resist internal pressure more than 0.5 psig.
▪ Containment and venting are the 2 general methods of reducing structural damage from a DEFLAGRATion.
▪ The "Containment" method (usually expensive) protects buildings by containing the pressure of a DEFLAGRATion, which may be as high as 10 times atmospheric pressure.
▪ Explosion vent panels should NOT weight more than 3 pounds per square foot, so they can operate at a speed faster than the internal pressure rise.
▪ INTERIOR pressure of 0.15 psi will exert a force of 21.6 pounds per square foot.
▪ Storage racks can vary from 2 or 3 tiers with a total height of 12 to 80 feet.
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 15 - Building Fire Protection Systems
"By the Numbers"
▪ Some large occupancies will require 2,500 gpm fire pumps with diesel engines, and on-site water storage.
▪ The tallest building in the US, the Sears Tower, has 10 fire pumps ranging from 750 to 1,500 gpm, 2 to 4 standpipe risers at various floors, and a fire protection system divided into 7 zones.
▪ Buildings can be designed with smoke control zones, which may include more than 1 floor, or divisions of a single floor.
Building Construction (2nd Edition)
Chapter 16 - Buildings Under Construction
"By the Numbers"
▪ A 1 story mercantile building of several thousand square feet can be completed in a few weeks, while a high-rise can take as long as 3 years.
▪ Frequent construction site visits by 1st-due fire companies are necessary for construction project familiarity.
▪ 100 pound propane cylinders are common on construction sites (BLEVE hazard).
▪ 2 standpipe risers may be required during high-rise construction so that 1 may remain in place while the other is extended.
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