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Physics

for CSEC? Examinations 3rd Edition

Alec Farley and Clarence Trotz Series Editor: Dr Mike Taylor

CSEC? is a registered trade mark of the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC). PHYSICS FOR CSEC? EXAMINATIONS THIRD EDITION is an independent publication and has not been authorised, sponsored, or otherwise approved by CXC.

Macmillan Education 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW A division of Macmillan Publishers Limited

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ISBN 978-0-230-47947-0 AER

Text ? Alec Farley & Clarence Trotz 2014 Design and illustration ? Macmillan Publishers Limited 2014 The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988.

This edition published 2014 First edition published 2007

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Contents

Series preface

vii

About this book

viii

Introduction: Measurement

1 Section A: Mechanics

51

1 Physical Quantities and Units

2 4 Galileo Galilei and the Simple Pendulum

52

Introduction

2

Galileo Galilei ? what was his contribution to scientific

Physical quantities

2

methodology?

53

Units for fundamental quantities

3

What is a `simple' pendulum?

53

Multiple and sub-multiple units

4

Chapter summary

62

Derived quantities

6

Answers to ITQs

62

Units named after famous scientists

6

Examination-style questions

63

Chapter summary Answers to ITQs Examination-style questions

9 5 Combining and Resolving Vectors

64

9 9

Scalars and vectors Resolving a vector into two components

64 72

2 Precision, Accuracy and Significance

10

Chapter summary

73

Introduction

10

Answers to ITQs

74

What is meant by `a satisfactory result'?

11

Examination-style questions

74

Precision Degree of significance of a result of a calculation

11 14

6

Forces How various forces are produced

75 75

Types of instruments found in physics How do errors arise? Applying limits of error of measurement Determining the degree of significance in the result of using a formula Spreading the error The meaning of a mean (or average)

Chapter summary Answers to ITQs Examination-style questions

14 17 18

20 21 22 23 24 24

Contact forces and non-contact forces Gravitational force The magnitude of a gravitational force Mechanical forces Non-contact forces Magnetic forces Elastic forces Nuclear forces

Chapter summary Answers to ITQs

76 78 79 81 82 83 83 84 84 85

3 Acquiring Experimental Skills

26

Examination-style questions

85

Introduction to experimental skills Experimental errors Carrying out practical activities

26 27

7

30

Moments and Levers Coplanar forces Equilibrium

87 87 88

Experimentation

32

Examples of possible experiments for testing practical

skills

36

Finding the position of a centre of mass The lever principle applied in machines Stability

95 97 100

Criteria for the assessment of practical skills

39

Practical activity to practice and to assess manipulation

and measurement (M/M) skills

41

Chapter summary Answers to ITQs Examination-style questions

101 102 103

Activity to assess planning and designing (P/D) skills 43

Issues involved in assessing analysis and interpretation

8 Motion in a Straight Line

104

(A/I) skills

47

Galileo and Newton

104

Chapter summary

47

The relationship between `distance?time' graphs

Answers to ITQs

48

and speed

105

Examination-style questions

48

Dynamics and Newton's laws of motion

112

Testing Newton's laws by experiment

117

Chapter summary

122

Answers to ITQs

122

Examination-style questions

123

iii

9 Energy, Work and Power Introduction The meaning of energy Types of potential energy Kinetic energy The principle (or law) of conservation of energy Frictional force and energy Power Efficiency Energy sources Chapter summary Answers to ITQs Examination-style questions

10 Pressure and Archimedes' Principle Introduction Pressure Pressure due to solids Pressure due to liquids at rest Archimedes' principle Application of Archimedes' principle to sinking and floating Chapter summary Answers to ITQs Examination-style questions

Section B: Kinetic Theory and Thermal Physics

11 The Kinetic Model of Matter Particles of matter The Kinetic Theory of matter Evidence for the Kinetic Theory Applying the Kinetic Theory Change of state Chapter summary Answers to ITQs Examination-style questions

12 Temperature and its Measurement Thermometers are everywhere What is temperature? Measurement of temperature Thermometers in practice Chapter summary Answers to ITQs Examination-style questions

13 Measuring Heat Energy The Caloric Theory of heat Experiments on the nature of heat Heat as energy transfer Specific heat capacity Specific latent heat The importance of specific heat capacity and latent heat Chapter summary Answers to ITQs Examination-style questions

iv

126 126 127 129 132 133 134 135 138 141 142 143 144

145 146 146 147 149 156

159 162 163 164

166

168 168 169 169 172 174 180 181 182

183 183 184 186 190 193 194 194

195 196 196 198 198 204

209 210 210 211

14 Methods of Heat Transfer

213

More ways than one!

213

Methods of heat transfer

214

Absorbers, reflectors and radiators of electromagnetic

(radiant) energy

218

Practical applications of heat transfer methods

220

Chapter summary

223

Answers to ITQs

224

Examination-style questions

224

15 The Behaviour of Gases

226

Putting gases to work

226

Boyle's law

227

Charles' law

231

The pressure law

232

The general gas equation

234

Chapter summary

235

Answers to ITQs

236

Examination-style questions

236

Section C: Waves and Light

239

16 What Are Waves and How Are They Produced?

240

Introduction

240

How are waves produced?

241

Transverse and longitudinal waves

243

Waves in a ripple tank

245

What happens when a wave travels through a medium? 246

Matter waves and electromagnetic waves

249

Chapter summary

250

Answers to ITQs

251

Examination-style questions

251

17 Wave Characteristics

252

Introduction

252

Frequency and period

253

Phase and wavelength

254

Displacement and amplitude

256

Wavefronts

257

Wave speed

258

Chapter summary

259

Answers to ITQs

260

Examination-style questions

261

18 Sound as Wave Motion

263

Introduction

264

Production and propagation of sound waves

264

Reflection of sound

269

Refraction of sound

270

Interference of sound waves

273

Diffraction of sound

276

Pitch and loudness of sound

279

The audible range

279

Ultrasound

279

Chapter summary

281

Answers to ITQs

281

Examination-style questions

282

19 Electromagnetic Waves

283

Introduction

284

How are electromagnetic waves produced?

284

The nature of electromagnetic waves

284

Electromagnetic spectra

286

The complete electromagnetic spectrum

286

Special properties and uses of electromagnetic waves 288

General properties of electromagnetic radiation

291

Chapter summary

292

Answers to ITQs

293

Examination-style questions

293

20 Light

295

Introduction

296

Rival theories of light ? a touch of history

296

Current theory of light: wave?particle duality

297

Use of the photon in modern technology

297

Light behaving like a wave: Young's slits

298

Light travels in straight lines

300

Eclipses of the Sun and the Moon

302

The pinhole camera

303

Chapter summary

305

Answers to ITQs

306

Examination-style questions

306

21 Reflection of Light

307

Introduction

307

The laws of reflection

308

Locating the image formed by a plane mirror

309

Features of the image formed by a plane mirror

312

Some uses of plane mirrors in physics

316

Chapter summary

316

Answers to ITQs

316

Examination-style questions

317

22 Refraction of Light and its Relation to Colour

318

Introduction

319

The laws of refraction

320

Tracing the path of light rays through rectangular blocks

and triangular prisms

321

The reversibility principle

323

The refractive index: comparing refraction in transparent

media

325

Finding the refractive index of a glass block by experiment

327

Critical angle for two transparent media in contact 329

Total internal reflection

330

The 90??45??45? prism

331

Total internal reflection in optical fibres

332

Dispersion of white light

333

Newton and colour

335

Producing a pure spectrum

326

Recombining the colours of the light spectrum

337

The colours of objects

338

Chapter summary

338

Answers to ITQs

340

Examination-style questions

340

23 Lenses

342

Lenses: what are they and how do they work?

343

The shapes of lenses

343

Lens terminology

346

How to locate (find the position of) a virtual image

354

Constructing ray diagrams

355

Construction of ray diagrams for diverging lenses

358

The differences between images produced by converging

and diverging lenses

359

Solving lens problems using a scale construction

362

The lens equation (lens formula)

365

Chapter summary

367

Answers to ITQs

368

Examination-style questions

368

Section D: Electricity and Magnetism 369

24 Electrostatics

370

Static and current electricity

371

Static electric charge

371

Electron theory of charging and conduction

373

Methods of charging and discharging

375

Detecting and estimating charge

377

Distribution of charge on the surface of a conductor 378

Electric fields

379

Storing electric charge

380

Chapter summary

381

Answers to ITQs

382

Examination-style questions

382

25 Current Electricity

384

Safety first

385

A simple invention that revolutionised the world!

385

Electric current and charge

386

Alternating and direct current

387

Energy and electric circuits

388

Describing electrical circuits

390

Setting up a d.c. electrical circuit

395

Chapter summary

396

Answers to ITQs

397

Examination-style questions

397

26 More about Electrical Circuits

399

Introduction

400

Series circuits

400

Voltage (potential difference, or p.d.) in

series circuits

401

Resistance in series circuits

401

Parallel circuits

403

Combined series and parallel circuits

406

Current?voltage relationships

407

Determining current?voltage relationships

408

Energy and power in an electric circuit

412

Chapter summary

412

Answers to ITQs

413

Examination-style questions

414

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