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What is the appropriate number of words in a set for the most effective recall in intentional learning?Graduation ThesisPresented tothe Faculty of the Department ofEnglish Language and LiteratureNotre Dame Seishin University In Partial Fulfillmentof the Requirement for the DegreeBachelor of Arts byMiki Terai2018Contents AbstractChapter One: Introduction1.1Introduction11.2What is memory?21.2.2 Kinds of memory31.2.3 Episodic memory61.2.4 Semantic memory61.2.5 Procedural memory71.2.6 Implicit memory71.2.7 Priming71.3 Forgetting81.3.1 Forgetting81.4The use of memory in learning words effectively111.4.1 Learning types111.4.2 Word Card Method, Wordlist Method111.5 Mnemonics121.6Previous research on the learning of word in sets141.7 Research Questions161.8Conclusion17Chapter Two: The experiment2.1Introduction182.2The experiments182.2.1Introduction to the experiment 182.2.2Method181) Subjects182) Test design183) Procedure232.2.3Results231) The test data232) The questionnaire data252.3 Summary26Chapter 3: Discussion 3.1Introduction273.2Summary of the results from Chapter Two273.3Discussion of tests273.4Answering the research questions283.4.1 Research question 1283.4.2 Research question 2283.5Implications293.6.Limitations of the Experiments293.7.Further research303.8.Conclusion30References31Appendices33AbstractPeople learn some information; numbers, faces, forms every day, and they say or write the information. However, they cannot remember all the information, and may forget it. This thesis discusses what the appropriate number of words in a set for the most effective recall is, by using the wordlist learning as an experimental tool.In the first part of Chapter One, we described what is generally said about memory, forgetting and knowledge; the kinds of memory, the relationship between memory and forgetting, knowledge and so on.In Chapter Two, we explained the process and the result of a test and questionnaire. To examine the best set size, Notre Dame Seishin University and Okayama University students were asked to take a test to memorize a wordlist and they answered the questionnaire by using their memory. Then we compared the scores of the tests. In Chapter Three, we discussed the results of the tests and the questionnaire in the detail. We found out it that the students have the ability memorize many things at one time, but they have limitation for that. Also, the research questions were answered. We found out the most effective set size for intentional learning was 9 words per set and 4 times for remembering the 36 words. As we saw in Chapter One frequent review can help retention, but over time, we still tend to forget what we have learned. In order to store new words in Long-term Memory, learners should memorize new words connecting the words with something. Chapter One : Introduction to Human Memory 1.1 IntroductionToday, the world is becoming more globalized. Many people learn languages. When people learn the new language, they have to remember many words. If the word is unfamiliar, it is difficult to memorize it soon. One of the important roles of brain is to memorize. Memory is very difficult to understand. People have things to memorize, but they sometimes cannot memorize. So, how long does it stay in memory? What kinds of things can we memorize easily or become difficult? At first, we will find out what researchers say memory is. Here is a definition.“The use of a single term might seem to suggest that memory is a unitary system, albeit a complicated one such as the heart or the liver. It is not one system but many. The systems range in storage duration from fractions of a second up to a lifetime and in storage capacity from tiny buffer stores to the long-term memory system that appears to far exceed in capacity and flexibility the largest available computer.” (Baddeley, 1990 p.4).People can memorize a lot of things but they also forget them. They can also, memorize something for a long time but forget something rapidly too. For example, people will not forget their family name, boyfriend’s name. because these are called “long term memories”. On the other hand, it is difficult to remember unknown items, like friends’ phone number. People easily forget it. It is generally called “weak memories”. Basically, Squire (1980) divided memory into three types; sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, so we will see in the next section about that.1.2 What is memory?1.2.1 Models of memory Psychologists distinguish between three necessary stages in the learning and memory process: encoding, storage, and retrieval (Melton, 1963). Encoding is defined as the initial learning of information; storage refers to keeping information over time; retrieval is the skill to access information when we need it. For example, when someone tells us their name at a party, you have to encode their names while you associate their name with their faces. Then you need to maintain the information over time. If you see them a week later, you need to recognize their face and have it serve as a signal to retrieve their names. Successful acts of remembering require that three stages all be functioning.Figure1; Stages of memory1510665635000The multistore of model of memory was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) and is a structure model (Figure 2). They proposed that memory consisted of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Information passes from store to store in a straight way, and has been described as an information processing model with an input, process and output.Figure 2: Multi Store Model- Atkinson & Shiffrin1.2.2 Kinds of memoryThis subsection is based on Atkinson & Shiffrin.Memory is our ability to encode, store, retain and recall. The classification is the difference between storage time, sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory.Sensory memorySensory memory is an ability to retain impressions of sensory information like sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. It is ultra-short-term memory and decays or degrades very quickly, typically in the region of 200 milliseconds after the perception of an item, and certainly less than a second.Short-term Memory (Working memory)Working memory involves an ability to remember and process a lot of information at the same time, for example when we look at a telephone book or call someone. We remember a telephone number as we dial, but after the call we forget it. Thus, working memory holds a small amount of information for a short term. Miller (1956) said the only a small amount information (7±2 words/ chunks) stays in working memory for about 20 seconds. More recent researchers say it is 5±7 items but recently research suggests it might be 4-6.Long term memory(LTM)This is a memory we keep for the long term, for example when children try to remember their home telephone number for the first time. At first, they forget it very quickly but they will repeat it again and again, and eventually they will not forget it forever.Another classification concerns types of LTM. LTM is divided into two types: declarative memory and procedural (non-declarative) memory. It is called sometimes explicit memory and implicit memory. Declarative memories are memories which we can say/ tell what they are. There are two types: episodic memory (e.g.: stories, experiences) and semantic memory (e.g.: the memory of meanings, understandings, and other concept-based knowledge). Procedural memory consists of processes or skills which we can’t always say/ tell what they are. It is divided into two types: procedural memory and priming memory.Figure 3: Types of Human Memory: Diagram by Luke Mastin1.2.3 Episodic memoryEpisodic memory receives and stores information about temporally dated episodes or events, and temporal-spatial relations among these events.Some examples of episodic memory:The first time you traveled by airplaneYour first day at a new jobThe movie you saw on your first date with your wifeTulving (1972) noted that semantic and episodic memories differ in how they operate and the types of information they process. Also he observed that forming a new episodic memory is affected by information in semantic memory. 1.2.4 Semantic memorySemantic memory is the memory necessary for the use of language. It is structured record of facts, meanings, concepts and knowledge.Some examples of semantic memory:Knowing that grass is greenRemembering what a dog isKnowing how to use the phone“If a person possesses some semantic memory information, he obviously must have learned it, either directly or indirectly, at an earlier time, but he need not possess any mnemonic information about the episode of such learning,” (Tulving,1972).1.2.5 Procedural memoryProcedural memory is a type of long-term memory of how to perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things. Some examples of tasks dependent upon procedural memory:Playing pianoSwimmingDriving carThis memory is the memory that the body remembers rather than the mind. It’s not a specific memory you can recall, but rather the memorizing and automatizing of the process. Language use is a procedural memory as well.1.2.6 Implicit memory Implicit memory is sometimes referred to as unconscious memory or automatic memory. Implicit memory uses past experiences to remember things without thinking about them. Examples of implicit memoriesPerforming simple cooking tasks, like boiling water for pastaTaking a familiar route each day, such as going to school or the store where you shop frequentlyButtoning a shirt1.2.7 PrimingPriming means primary things has an effect on the following things. For example, when people hear “teacher”, they recall “student” or when people see the words “app_e”, they should understand that “l” is left out. It may be “l” not “r”, but people already know the word “apple”, so their brain interprets it as such.Differences between implicit and explicit memoryImplicit memory differs from explicit memory, and also called declarative memory, which involves a conscious attempt to retrieve memories of past events. While implicit memory requires little if any effort to recall, explicit memory requires a more concerted effort to bring memories to the surface. While most people can tick off the days of the week from the time they are in grade school — which is implicit memory — it takes explicit memory to recall that you have a dentist appointment next Tuesday.Examples of explicit memory:Knowing that when the Civil War startedRemembering your trip to Canada last summerRecalling the events of Tohoku disaster 1.3 Forgetting 1.3.1 ForgettingOur brain is designed not to remember but to forget. Working memory works well when the learner has a strong will and feels a great impact from the input.Figure 4: The Ebbinghaus Forgetting CurveThe figure is proposed by Ebbinghaus (1885). He studied how words were remembered, and how long they stayed in our memory. As we can see from Figure 4, most forgetting happens immediately after we learned it. The learners forget things very quickly at first, and gradually forget less per day. The speed slows down. To retain this knowledge, they need to re-learn it. It is called ‘rehearsal’. If people don’t use the knowledge, and see again, they will forget soon. When the learners really want to get some new words, they have to meet them again and again.Savara (2010) has shown that reviewing at regular intervals does increase retention and that over time, less frequent review is needed.We can see this in Figure 5. It shows we should review what we learned once after two weeks, or twice – after 2 weeks, and then after a month.Figure 5: The Forgetting Curve777240635000As we can see, the frequent review can help retention, but over time, we still tend to forget what we have learned. This is why reviewing and cramming for exams can caused problems in the short term. It leads us to forget everything after we had quickly learned something.We can say knowledge has relation to memory, so we also show about knowledge.Knowledge is defined in the Oxford English dictionary as... 1. Special skills people get through experiences or educational. Theoretical or practical understanding about a subject.2. Facts and information3. Recognition through people get through facts or situations.1.4 The use of memory in learning words effectivelyPrevious research into vocabulary learning methods1.4.1 Learning types - Intentional learning and Incidental learningThere are two ways to learn a second language.One view is intentional study. It means committing to memory thousands of words (their meanings, sounds, and spellings) and some of grammar rules by plan or intention. The other is incidental study. It involves the picking up of the words and structures, by engaging in a variety of communicative activities, especially reading and listening activities, while which learner’s attention is focused on the meaning rather than on the form of language (Hulstijn, 2003). It means much of the burden of intentional learning can be taken off the shoulders of the language learner by processes of incidental learning.1.4.2 Word Card Method, Wordlist MethodFukuda (2010) mentioned that there were some benefits of word card learning below.Learners can memorize the words in random order by shuffling the cards. Learners can memorize the words in various sequences incidentally (Nation, 2001).Learners can classify the words as memorized words or not, so that they intensively learn words they have not memorized (Nakata, 2008).On the other hand, he also noted the good point of the wordlist method is that learners can see the unknown words all together. However, the weak point is the word order is in serial order, so as we remember the list order, the retrieval practice effect often happens (Baddeley, 1997). Mnemonics1.5 MnemonicsMnemonic devices are methods to aid memory. The word Mnemonic originated from the ancient Greek word uvnuocikos (mnemonikos) which means “memory”. It is a type of intentional learning and helps us retain and recall larger pieces of information. Mnemonics improves memory, and helps to store information in long term memory to make it easier to recall because our brain has evolved to code and interpret complex information such as images, colors, positions, emotions, and languages. Miller (1967) showed that mnemonics increases recall. In this experiment mnemonics were taught to learners in advance as it takes only 15-20 seconds to memorize the mnemonic that will help learners remember. The test was given 2-3 weeks later, and the learners who used mnemonics increased their test score up to 77%. There are many types of mnemonics. It is difficult to show all mnemonics, but here are some examples.Music mnemonicsPeople can remember lyrics. Music can used to help students recall important details for main ideas and many learners have made songs out of information when a list of items must be learned. For example: some children learn the ABC's by singing the "ABC" song. Other children learn all the states in alphabetical order using the "50 Nifty United States" song.Name MnemonicsIn a Name Mnemonic, each of the initial letter is used to make a name of a person or thing. For example: ROY G. BIV = colors of the spectrum (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet.)Names of Expressions MnemonicsThis is the most popularly used mnemonic. To make an Expression or Word mnemonic, the first letter of each item in a list is arranged to form a phrase or word. For example: The 7 coordinating conjunctions are For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So = FANBOYSSpelling MnemonicsHere is an example of a spelling mnemonic: A principal at a school is your pal, and a principle you believe or follow is a rule. Another example: to spell Mississippi, many learners combine a Rhythm Mnemonic with a Spelling mnemonic: M-iss-iss-ipp-i.1.6 Previous research on the learning of word in setsThere is little evidence to support set size standards. Gordon (2003) showed that learning rates decrease above a set size of about 6-9. In EFL it is standard to ask students to learn in sets no larger than 12, with a common number being 8-10 (personal communication, Waring 2017).Nation (2000) proposed that learning related words at the same time makes learning them more difficult. We can avoid this difficulty if related words are learned separately, as they are when learning from normal language use. Nation recommended we should learn words of related meanings together so that learners can see the distinctions between them and gain a reasonably complete coverage of a defined area of meaning. We do should not teach opposites (e.g., hot-cold, long-short, old-young), and lexical sets (e.g., banana-orange-apple). Of course, we have good points to learn in set.The justification of doing this way? requires less learning to learn words in a set (Neuner, 1992); ? is easier to retrieve related words from memory; ? helps learners see how knowledge can be organized (Dunbar, 1992);? reflects the way such information is stored in the brain; and? makes the meaning of words clearer by seeing how they relate to and are different from other words in the set.However a growing body of research indicates that this way of presenting new vocabulary is making learning much more difficult than it should be.According to this research, it takes longer to learn words that relate to each other in certain ways than it takes to learn words that are unrelated to each other or that are related to each other in a kind of story line. Nation noted that learning related words in sets is not a good idea for initial learning. As learners’ knowledge becomes more established, seeing related words in sets can have a more positive effect.1.7 Research QuestionsWe have seen what memory and forgetting is, and the differences of kinds of memory and knowledge. However, the students may not know how much unknown information they can memorize, and what is the optimal size when learning new semantic information such as words. The experiment in this thesis will try to discover the most appropriate number of words in a set for the most effective recall.1. What set size is best for the intentional learning of wordlists?2. What do the subjects think about the variables in the experiment? 1.8 ConclusionIn this chapter, we have looked at the types of memory. There are several views about working memory span. Miller (1956) said 7±2 things are memorized at one time in adult average. In Chapter Two, we will examine to see how many words in a set leads to the most effective recall.Chapter 2: The Experiment2.1 IntroductionIn this chapter, we will find out the best memorizing sizes and sets for subjects.2.2 The (experiment / questionnaire)2.2.1 Introduction to the experimentThe experiment was designed to find out the appropriate number of words in a set for the most effective recall. The appropriate number will be determined by data from the test and comparing the immediate test with the delay test. Also we examined the correlation between effective memorization and memorizing preference by comparing with their test score.2.2.2 Method1) Subjects45 third or fourth grade students in Notre Dame Seishin University and Okayama University participated in this experiment. The students of Notre Dame Seishin University had studied English for more than eight years, and their major was English linguistics or literature.2) Test design In this experiment, three set sizes for memorizing methods were tested. The first was 6 sets of 6 words 6 (totaling 36 words). The second was the same 36 words tested as 4 sets of 9 words, and the same 36 words tested as the third set was 3 sets of 12 words. The aim was to see whether students learned better in bigger or smaller set. In the 6 set method, everybody memorized 6 verbs at one time, each followed by quizzes about the world, which acted as distractors. All questions were designed by the researcher. First, they were asked to memorize 6 verbs that they hadn’t know with Japanese translations by google form as much as they want to use time. After that, they were asked to do quizzes about the world. This is the break time without English, and on the next page, they were asked to write the 6 verbs with Japanese translation. Here is an example.Please learn these words.Render ～の状態にするDilute 希薄 (化)するConfound 混乱させるOverlap 重なるPlease go to next page if you finished memorizing these words.Please do these quizzes.Q. Which is the biggest country in the world?Russia United statesCanadaEtc…Test A The instructions were “Please write the Japanese words for these English words. (Please DO NOT use like dictionary and internet because want to know exactly what you remember.) If you don’t know the answer, please write “I don’t know.” Here are two examples*Dilute __________________Confound __________________9bPlease learn these words.Dilute 希薄化するInhibit 抑制するDecay 腐敗するAudit 監査するDissolve 溶けるUndermine 徐々に弱らせるAccelerate 加速するMediate 仲介するSwell 腫れるPlease do these quizzes.Q. Where is the country the most visit to Japan?ChinaUnited statesKoreaEtc…In the 9 set method, everybody memorized 9 verbs at one time, each followed by quizzes about the world, which acted as distractors. All questions were designed by the researcher. First, they were asked to memorize 9 verbs that they hadn’t know with Japanese translations by Google Forms as much as they want to use time. After that, they were asked to do quizzes about the world. This is the break time without English, and on the next page, they were asked to write the 9 verbs with Japanese translation. Here is an example.Test B The instructions given were “Please write the Japanese words for these English words. (Please DO NOT use like dictionary and internet because want to know exactly what you remember.) If you don’t know the answer, please write “I don’t know.” Here are two examples*Audit ___________________Dissolve ____________________In the 12 set method, everybody memorized 12 verbs at one time, each followed by quizzes about the world, which acted as distractors. All questions were designed by the researcher. First, they were asked to memorize 12 verbs that they hadn’t know with Japanese translations by google form as much as they want to use time. After that, they were asked to do quizzes about the world. This is the break time without English, and on the next page, they were asked to write the 12 verbs with Japanese translation. Here is an example.12cPlease learn these words.Inhibit 抑制するDissolve 溶けるMediate仲介するAllocate割り当てるDeceive欺くInterfere干渉するDegrade (人に)敬意をもたずに接するPrecipitate引き起こすTranscribe～を文字に起こすManipulate操るFlip 素早く (さっと)動くWeave 織るPlease do these quizzes.Which country is the best GNI per a person?QatarSwitzerlandNorwayEtcTest C The instructions given were “Please write the Japanese words for these English words. (Please DO NOT use like dictionary and internet because want to know exactly what you remember.) If you do not know the answer, please write “I don’t know.” Here are two examples*Mediate ______________________Allocate _______________________In the end of the test, the questionnaire was designed to figure out their interest and consciousness and memorizing.Here is the questionnaire.1. Please answer the questions below.2. How many words did you know before take this test?Almost ManyA little Almost never3. This test was…EasyDifficult4. Remembering 6/9/12 words at one time is Too muchPerfectToo little 5. If you have any comments about this test, please write here.3) ProcedureThe students were asked to write their names on the test. There was no time limit. Most of the students did this test in about 30 minutes. The student could not use their dictionaries and go back to the previous page. All the data were collected by Google forms. The questions appear in the Appendix.2.2.3 Results1) The test dataThe data for all subjects in the three conditions is shown in Table 1.Table 1: Data for all the subjects in the three conditions6 Times9 Times12 TimesMean23.2028.9623.68Standard Deviation10.345.925.43n=15n=14n=14The data shows us that the mean score across the six times for learning wordlists was 23.20 (s.d. 10.34) and nine times for learning wordlists was 28.96 (5.92) and twelve times for learning wordlists was 23.68 (5.43). From Table 1, we can see the highest score is the 9 set method, on the other hand, the lowest score is the 6 set method.However, two subjects in the 6 times group had significantly lower scores that the others. The suspicion is that they gave up or did not try and therefore their data have been removed. Table 2 shows the revised data.Table 2: Data for all the subjects except the outliers6 Times9 Times12 TimesMean25.9628.9623.68Standard Deviation8.125.925.43n=13n=14n=14The data shows us that the mean score across the 6 times for learning wordlists was 25.96 (s.d. 8.12) and 9 times for learning wordlists was 28.96 (5.92) and 12 times for learning wordlists was 23.68 (5.43) From table 2, we can see the highest score is the 9 set method, on the other hand, the lowest score is the 12 set method.2) The questionnaire dataAlso the subjects were asked how they thought about the tests.Table 3: How many words did you know before take this test?6912TotalA few810102865%A lot11025%None 6341330%43Many subjects answered that they didn’t knew most of the words.Table 4: This test was…6912TotalDifficult1212133786%Easy321614%43Many subjects answered that this test was difficult. Table 5: Remembering 6/9/12 words at one time is…Opinion6912TotalToo little 10012%perfect7682149%Too many words7862149%432.3 SummaryIn this chapter, we have looked at the experiment conducted to determine the rate of learning words using list of words. From this experiment, we could know many things. From the questionnaire, we could know about that few subjects tend to forget the meaning of words, while doing other tasks such as doing the distractors. Chapter 3: Discussion3.1 IntroductionIn Chapter One, we learned about human memory. In Chapter Two, we looked at the appropriate set of words by using wordlists, by asking NDSU students and Okayama University students to take tests. In this chapter, we would like to analyze the results of the test and described, and limitations of the research will be started.3.2 Summary of the results from Chapter TwoIn Chapter Two, we looked at the results for the questionnaire and the test. All the subjects took a test one time with the wordlists which the researcher made and decided what they should do. The retention scores by the 9 words set method were highest in all of tests, even though 57.1% people felt it was too much to remember 9 words at one time. It is the highest percentage of the three set sizes. The result means the learners thought it had been enough to remember 9 words and 4 sets at one time. 3.3 Discussion of testsIn this section, we will discuss the results of the test in detail. As we saw in the previous research on the learning of word in sets, the common number was 8-10 in this test. The subjects prefer to use the method of 9 word sets, because it was the most effective amount to remember by using wordlist. The subjects of using 6 word sets method, they had only 6 words at one time in one set, but have to learn 6 times, so they felt it was too long. Compared to that, the subject using the 12 word set method, they had to learn 3 times, but felt it was too many words to remember at one time. Also if they thought that they had could remember the meaning of words, while doing distractors, they would forget some information. Also, in this test, 85% of the subjects answered this test was difficult, and 65% of the subjects answered that they did not know the most of words, and 30% of the subjects did not know any of the words selected. It means it was very hard for them to remember the new word at one time. 3.4 Research questionsWe will now answer the research questions one by one.3.4.1. What set size is best for intentional learning of wordlists?The most effective set size was 9 words per set and 4 times for remembering the 36 words. As we saw in Chapter One frequent review can help retention, but over time, we still tend to forget what we have learned. In order to store new words in LTM, learners should memorize new words connecting the words with something.3.4.2. What do the subjects think about the variables in the experiment?Most subjects answered it was difficult. Some subjects left the comment that it is take a long time to remember. Also some of the subjects mentioned it is easy to forget the meaning of words after the distractors, so I have to choose a better way to store the information correctly. 3.5 ImplicationsPeople memorize and forget something every day. In this time, the subjects took the test when they had free time, so some people could focus on this test, but someone did not which may change their feeling, physical condition, and so on. However, to keep memorizing words permanently, they must study again and again because people memorize many things in our daily life and then forget the information. 3.6. Limitations of the ExperimentsThese are limitations to the experiment. First, we do not record the time, so could not know how long it actually took this time. They did not have the time limitation, so someone might take very long time to remember the wordlist. Secondly, the subjects were only juniors and seniors in the university. It would have been better to research a wider range of ages, especially not only university students. Because of this, there may be a difference in the results of tests, and we could compare different age groups. Thirdly, the way to remember in the test was not clear. In this test we do not know how they remembered the words such as writing sometimes, or only reading, or if they used mnemonics, or something else. If there had been more information, we could get more data to analyze. Also, using mnemonics with word test may have been a good idea.3.7. Further researchThere are some ideas to follow up this research. Firstly, we can research to see if there is a different optimal set size between university students and elementary students, due to the changing function of their brain. Secondly, if there are differences of optimal set size by their learning level. So, in order to make stronger evidence, it would have better to ask many more wide range of learners to take the test and collect more data.3.8. Conclusion From this experiment, it can be said that the students have the ability memorize many things at one time, but they have limitation for that. Some of the subjects are easy to forget the meaning of words after the distractors. In this research, the best size was 9 set size method, but it is difficult to say it is the best set size, because it depends on the types of words, or their knowledge, or condition of their body and so on.ReferencesBooks and articlesBaddeley, A.D. 1990. Human memory. Newbury HouseCoady. J. T, Huckin. 1996. Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition: A Rationale for PedagogyDunbar, S. 1992. Developing vocabulary by integrating language and content.福田 昇 2010.『中学生を対象とした第二言語語彙習得に対するフラッシュカードの影響』, P. 2004. Numerical Cognition Without Words: Evidence from Amazonia, J. 2003. Incidental and intentional learning University of AmsterdamManktelow, J. 2007. Mind Tools, essential skills for an excellent careerMiller, G. 1994 The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing InformationNakata, T. 2008. English vocabulary learning with wordlists, word cards and computers: implications from cognitive psychology research for optimal spaced learning. ReCall, 20(1), 3-20Nation, P. 2000. Learning Vocabulary in Lexical Sets: Dangers and GuidelinesNeuner, G. 1992. The role of experience in a content- and comprehension-oriented approach to learning a foreign language. In P. J. L. Arnaud & H. Béjoint, Vocabulary and applied linguistics (pp. 156- 166). London: Macmillan.Nishi, S. 2014, Human memory., E. (1972) Episodic and Semantic MemoryZimmermann, K. Live Science Contributor Memory Definition & Types of Memory Accessed August 27, 2017, K. and H.. Roediger III Washington University in St. Louis.　Memory (Encoding, Storage, Retrieval) Accessed September 15, 2017, A. Foreign languages: how to memorise vocabulary, Accessed October 18, 2017, S. The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve – And How To Overcome It. Accessed September 25, 2017 AS Psychology Unit 1 Memory. Multi Store Model - Atkinson & Shiffrin Environmental Input Sensory Input (sights, sounds, etc.) Accessed November 29, 2017Mastin, L. The Human Memory, Accessed November 29, 2017Scheafer, P. Why Google Has Forever Changed the Forgetting Curve at Work Accessed November, 29, 2017AppendicesSet Size Test 1調査にご協力頂き、ありがとうございます。このテストは、①9個の英単語を覚える ②世界に関するクイズを解く（正答率は問いませんので気軽に選択してください）③覚えた単語の試験　という流れで進んでいきます。テストは aからdまであります。*必須名前 *あなたの回答を調査のために使用しますがよろしいですか。 *承諾拒否Please learn these words.6aRender ?の状態にするDilute 希薄化するConfound 混乱させるOverlap 重なる Manipulate 操るInhibit 抑制する個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。以下の質問に答えてください。面積が1番大きい国　ロシアアメリカカナダ面積が1番小さい国モナコVバチカンソウル世界一長い川ナイル長江アマゾン世界一ひろい湖スペリオル湖カスピ海ビクトリア湖世界一高い山ゴドウィンオースチン（カラコルム）カンチェンジュンガ（ヒマラヤ）エベレスト（ヒマラヤ）以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください（単純にどれくらい覚えているか知りたいので、何も見ずに答えてください。）もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。Dilute *Confound *Overlap *Render *Manipulate *Inhibit *Please learn these words.6ｂPlease learn these words.Degrade　 (人に)敬意をもたずに接するAllocate 　　割り当てるSwap 交換するDecay 腐敗するDiagnose 　診断するCompensate 　補償する個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。以下の質問に答えてください。以下の質問に答えてください人口が一番多い国インドアメリカ合衆国中国人口が一番少ない国ニウエツバルバチカン人口増加率が一番高い国ニジェールレバノンオマーン平均寿命が二番目に長い国スイスシンガポール日本国民総所得（GNI）が一番高い国中国アメリカ合衆国日本以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください（何も見ずに答えてください）もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。Decay *Diagnose *Compensate *Degrade *Allocate *Swap *Please learn these words.6ｃPlease learn these words.Drift 　　あてもなくさ迷うAudit 監査するMerge 合併するConverge 　 集まるFlip 　　 素早く動くDissolve 　溶ける個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。以下の質問に答えてください。以以下の質問に答えてください1人あたりの国民総所得（GNI）が一番多い国カタールスイスノルウェー世界の消費税（付加価値税）の税率が一番高い国ハンガリーアイスランドクロアチア，スウェーデン，デンマーク，ノルウェー米の生産量が一番多い国（モミ量）中国インドネシアインド小麦の生産量NO.1中国インドロシアバナナの生産量NO.1中国インドフィリピン以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください（何も見ずに答えてください。）もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。Merge *Converge *Flip *Dissolve *Audit *Drift *6dPlease learn these words.Precipitate 引き起こすDeceive 欺くInitiate 始めるUndermine 徐々に弱らせるCorrelate 相互に関連があるUtilize 利用する個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。以下の質問に答えてください。以以下の質問に答えてくださいカカオ豆の生産量が最も多い国ガーナコートジボワールインドネシア羊の頭数が最も多い国インド中国オーストラリア自動車の輸出台数が最も多い国日本フランスドイツ産業用ロボット稼働台数が最も多い国?地域アメリカ合衆国日本中国造船竣工量が最も多い国?地域中国韓国日本Test d以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください（何も見ずに答えてください。）もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。Initiate *Undermine *Precipitate *Deceive *Correlate *Utilize *6eReinforce (軍隊を)増強するAccelerate 加速するUplift 元気づけるDenote 示すWeave 織るMediate 仲介する個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。以下の質問に答えてください。以以下の質問に答えてください鉄道が一番長い国アメリカ合衆国ロシア中国1日あたりの原油の生産量が一番多い国サウジアラビアロシアアメリカ合衆国1日あたりの石油の消費量が一番多い国中国アメリカ合衆国インド金の産出量が一番多い国オーストラリア中国ロシアインターネット利用者数割合が一番多い国ノルウェーアイスランドデンマーク以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください（何も見ずに答えてください。）もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。DenoteWeaveMediate ReinforceAccelerateUplift6fPlease learn these words.Transcribe ～を文字に起こすInterfere 干渉するArticulate 考えをはっきり言うSwell 腫れるSophisticate 洗練させるEmbed 埋め込む個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。以下の質問に答えてください。以に答えてください日本からの訪問者が一番多い国?地域中国アメリカ合衆国大韓民国日本への入国者が一番多い国?地域台湾大韓民国中国日本人が一番多い国アメリカ合衆国中国オーストラリア日本語学習者が一番多い国?地域インドネシア大韓民国中国歴代外国人相撲力士の出身が一番多い国?地域ブラジルモンゴルアメリカ合衆国以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください（何も見ずに答えてください。）もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。Interfere *Articulate *Swell *Sophisticate *Embed *Transcribe *このテストを受ける前にあなたはどのくらいの単語を知っていましたか？ *ほとんどたくさん少し全くこのテストは *簡単だった難しかった6個の単語を一度に覚えるのは *多すぎるちょうどいい少な過ぎるもしこの調査の関してコメントがあれば書いてください。Set Size Test 2調査にご協力頂き、ありがとうございます。このテストは、①9個の英単語を覚える ②世界に関するクイズを解く（正答率は問いませんので気軽に選択してください）③覚えた単語の試験　という流れで進んでいきます。テストは aからdまであります。*必須名前 *あなたの回答を調査のために使用しますがよろしいですか。 *承諾拒否9aPlease learn these words.Dilute 　　希薄化するInhibit 　　抑制するDecay 　　 腐敗するAudit 　　 監査するDissolve 　　　 　　溶けるUndermine 　　　徐々に弱らせるAccelerate 　　　加速するMediate 　　　　　仲介するSwell 　　腫れる個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。以下の質問に答えてください。以以下の質問に答えてください日本からの訪問者が一番多い国?地域中国アメリカ合衆国大韓民国日本への入国者が一番多い国?地域中国台湾大韓民国日本人が一番多い国アメリカ合衆国中国オーストラリア日本語学習者が一番多い国?地域インドネシア大韓民国中国歴代外国人相撲力士の出身が一番多い国?地域ブラジルモンゴルアメリカ合衆国Test a以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください（単純にどれくらい覚えているか知りたいので、何も見ずに答えてください。）もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。Audit *Dissolve *Undermine *Accelerate *Mediate *Swell *Dilute *Inhibit *Decay *9bPlease learn these words.Overlap 重なるAllocate 割り当てるCompensate 補償するConverge 集まるDeceive 欺くUtilize 利用するDenote 示すInterfere 干渉するEmbed 埋め込む個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。以下の質問に答えてください。以以下の質問に答えてください鉄道が一番長い国アメリカ合衆国ロシア中国1日あたりの原油の生産量が一番多い国サウジアラビアロシアアメリカ合衆国1日あたりの石油の消費量が一番多い国中国アメリカ合衆国インド金の産出量が一番多い国オーストラリア中国ロシアインターネット利用者数割合が一番多い国ノルウェーアイスランドデンマーク以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください（何も見ずに答えてください。）もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。Deceive *Utilize *Denote *Interfere *Embed *Overlap *Allocate *Compensate *Converge *Please learn these words.9cPlease learn these words.Confound 　混乱させるDegrade 　　　(人に)敬意をもたずに接するDiagnose 　診断するMerge 　合併するPrecipitate 　引き起こすCorrelate 　相互に関連があるUplift 元気づけるTranscribe ～を文字に起こすSophisticate 　洗練させる個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。以下の質問に答えてください。以以下の質問に答えてくださいカカオ豆の生産量が最も多い国ガーナコートジボワールインドネシア羊の頭数が最も多い国インド中国オーストラリア自動車の輸出台数が最も多い国日本フランスドイツ産業用ロボット稼働台数が最も多い国?地域アメリカ合衆国日本中国造船竣工量が最も多い国?地域中国韓国日本c以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください（何も見ずに答えてください。）もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。Uplift *Transcribe *Sophisticate *Diagnose *Merge *Precipitate *Correlate *Confound *Degrade *Please learn these words.9dPlease learn these words.Render ?の状態にするManipulate 　 操るSwap 交換するDrift 　　あてもなくさ迷うFlip 　　 素早く動くInitiate 　　　始めるReinforce 　(軍隊を)増強するWeave 織るArticulate 　考えをはっきり言う個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。以下の質問に答えてください。以以下の質問に答えてください1人あたりの国民総所得（GNI）が一番多い国カタールスイスノルウェー世界の消費税（付加価値税）の税率が一番高い国ハンガリーアイスランドクロアチア，スウェーデン，デンマーク，ノルウェー米の生産量が一番多い国（モミ量）中国インドネシアインド小麦の生産量NO.1中国インドロシアバナナの生産量NO.1中国インドフィリピン以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください（何も見ずに答えてください。）もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。Drift *Flip *Initiate *Render *Manipulate *Swap *Reinforce *Weave *Articulate *このテストを受ける前にあなたはどのくらいの単語を知っていましたか？ *ほとんどたくさん少し全くこのテストは *簡単だった難しかった9個の単語を一度に覚えるのは *多過ぎるちょうどいい少な過ぎるもしこの調査の関してコメントがあれば書いてください。Set Size Test 3調査にご協力頂き、ありがとうございます。このテストは、①12個の英単語を覚える ②世界に関するクイズを解く（正答率は問いませんので気軽に選択してください）③覚えた単語の試験　という流れで進んでいきます。テストは aからcまであります。*必須名前 *あなたの回答を調査のために使用しますがよろしいですか。 *承諾拒否12aPlease learn these words.Inhibit 抑制するDissolve 溶けるMediate 仲介するAllocate 割り当てるDeceive 欺くInterfere 干渉するDegrade (人に)敬意をもたずに接するPrecipitate 引き起こすTranscribe ～を文字に起こすManipulate 操るFlip 素早く動くWeave 織る個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。以下の質問に答えてください。以以下の質問に答えてください1人あたりの国民総所得（GNI）が一番多い国カタールスイスノルウェー世界の消費税（付加価値税）の税率が一番高い国ハンガリーアイスランドクロアチア，スウェーデン，デンマーク，ノルウェー米の生産量が一番多い国（モミ量）中国インドネシアインド小麦の生産量NO.1中国インドロシアバナナの生産量NO.1中国インドフィリピン以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください（単純にどれくらい覚えているか知りたいので、何も見ずに答えてください。）もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。Mediate *Allocate *Deceive *Inhibit *Dissolve *Manipulate *Flip *Weave *Interfere *Degrade *Precipitate *Transcribe *se learn these words.12bPlease learn these words.Dilute 希薄(化)するAudit 監査するAccelerate 　　加速するOverlap 　　　　重なるConverge 　　集まるDenote 　　　　示すConfound 　　混乱させるMerge 合併するUplift 元気づけるRender ?の状態にするDrift 　　 あてもなくさ迷うReinforce 　 (軍隊を)増強する個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。以下の質問に答えてください。以問に答えてくださいカカオ豆の生産量が最も多い国ガーナコートジボワールインドネシア羊の頭数が最も多い国インド中国オーストラリア自動車の輸出台数が最も多い国日本フランスドイツ産業用ロボット稼働台数が最も多い国?地域アメリカ合衆国日本中国造船竣工量が最も多い国?地域中国韓国日本以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください（何も見ずに答えてください。）もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。Denote *Confound *Merge *Uplift *Render *Drift *Reinforce *Dilute *Audit *Accelerate *Overlap *Converge *Please learn these words.12cPlease learn these words.Decay 腐敗するUndermine 　　徐々に弱らせるSwell 腫れるCompensate 　　補償するUtilize 利用するEmbed 埋め込むDiagnose 　　診断するCorrelate 　相互に関連があるSophisticate 　　洗練させるSwap 　 交換するInitiate 　始めるArticulate 　　考えをはっきり言う個人のペースで、覚えれたと思ったら次に進んでください。以下の質問に答えてください。以鉄道が一番長い国アメリカ合衆国ロシア中国1日あたりの原油の生産量が一番多い国サウジアラビアロシアアメリカ合衆国1日あたりの石油の消費量が一番多い国中国アメリカ合衆国インド金の産出量が一番多い国オーストラリア中国ロシアインターネット利用者数割合が一番多い国ノルウェーアイスランドデンマーク以下の単語の日本語訳を書いてください（何も見ずに答えてください。）もしどうしても思い出せなければ”分からない”と書いてください。Diagnose *Correlate *Sophisticate *Swap *Initiate *Articulate *Decay *Undermine *Swell *Compensate *Utilize *Embed *Set Size Test 3*必須このテストを受ける前にあなたはどのくらいの単語を知っていましたか？ *ほとんどたくさん少し全くこのテストは *簡単だった難しかった12個の単語を一度に覚えるのは *多すぎるちょうどいい少な過ぎるもしこの調査の関してコメントがあれば書いてください。Thank you for taking the test. ................
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