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Colour associations in children and adultsRobin S. S. Kramer *, Joanne Y. PriorSchool of Psychology, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, LN6 7TS, UK* Corresponding author.E-mail address: remarknibor@ (R.S.S. Kramer).Postal address: School of Psychology, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln, LN6 7TS, UKAbstractA growing body of research has investigated how we associate colours and social traits. Specifically, studies have explored the links between red and perceptions of qualities like attractiveness and anger. Although less is known about other colours, the prevailing framework suggests that the specific context plays a significant role in determining how a particular colour might affect our perceptions of a person or item. Importantly, this factor has yet to be considered for children’s colour associations, where researchers focused on links between colours and emotions, rather than social traits. Here, we consider whether context-specific colour associations are demonstrated by 5- to 10-year-old children and compare these associations with adult data collected on the same task. We asked participants to rank order sets of six identical images (e.g., a boy completing a test), which varied only in the colour of a single item (his t-shirt). Each question was tailored to the image set to address a specific context, for example, “Which boy do you think looks the most likely to cheat on a test?” Our findings revealed several colour associations shared by children, and many of these were also present in adults, although some had strengthened or weakened by this stage of life. Taken together, our results demonstrate the presence of both stable and changing context-specific colour associations during development, revealing a new area of study for further exploration.Keywords: Colour associations; Context-specific; Children; Adults; RedIntroductionResearch over the last decade has begun to explore the role that colours play in our affect, cognition, and behaviour. To provide a framework for this field, Elliot and colleagues proposed colour-in-context theory (Elliot & Maier, 2012; for a review, see Elliot & Maier, 2014), which suggests that colour–behaviour associations are context-dependent. For instance, red may be associated with both approach (Valentine’s Day lingerie) and avoidance (traffic light signals) motivations, depending upon the context in which it is encountered. While significant attention has been given to explaining the origins of these associations (e.g., red’s relationship with attractiveness due to its link with sexual fertility in nonhuman primates – Caro, 2005; Nunn, 1999), few studies have considered whether colour associations are already present in children, and if these mirror the associations displayed in adulthood.If we first consider research with adults, as mentioned above, numerous studies have demonstrated an association between the colour red and attractiveness (e.g., Elliot & Niesta, 2008; Elliot et al., 2010). However, red may also increase perceptions of high status (Elliot et al., 2010), as well as dominance, threat, aggression, and anger (Feltman & Elliot, 2011; Little & Hill, 2007; Wiedemann, Burt, Hill, & Barton, 2015). In addition, red may be associated with lower leadership potential and ability (Maier, Elliot, Lee, Lichtenfeld, Barchfeld, & Pekrun, 2013), but also increased believability (Bashir & Rule, 2014). Interestingly, these associations are not always apparent (e.g., Kramer, 2016).While red has been investigated extensively, less is known about other colours and their associations within various social contexts. Research suggests that black is also seen as attractive, showing levels comparable with red, while white and yellow may be considered unattractive (Roberts, Owen, & Havlicek, 2010). Black is also associated with aggression (Frank & Gilovich, 1988; Vrij, 1997), with evidence suggesting that both black and red may dominate blue and green in various competitive contexts (Greenlees, Eynon, & Thelwell, 2013; Hagemann, Strauss, & Lei?ing, 2008; Hill & Barton, 2005; Ilie, Ioan, Zagrean, & Moldovan, 2008; Krenn, 2015; Sorokowski, Szmajke, Hamamura, Jiang, & Sorokowska, 2014).Numerous studies have also explored associations between colours and a wide range of descriptors, for example, linking blue and green with low-arousal, calming emotions (Clarke & Costall, 2008) and black with immorality (Sherman & Clore, 2009), power, and strength (Wexner, 1954). However, such relationships may not necessarily apply to social contexts (i.e., clothing colours), simply reflecting more abstract links, and to our knowledge, few studies have explored this topic.Limited research has also investigated colour associations in children. Typically, these studies involve associating colours in the abstract sense (e.g., asking children to name the colour they think of or choose a coloured square), rather than as applied to a specific item or context. Findings suggest that bright (dark) colours are associated with positive (negative) emotions, e.g., yellow and happiness in 5- to 6-year-olds (Boyatzis & Varghese, 1994). In addition, children aged 9 to 11 also consistently associate concepts like love and death with certain colours (red and black respectively; Byrnes, 1983; Karp & Karp, 1988). However, associations with characteristics that go beyond emotion terms are rarely considered, and the colour-in-context specificity of these associations is ignored. Finally, studies have not directly compared children’s and adults’ colour associations to see whether these are shared or emerge over time.Here, we address these omissions in the literature by investigating associations for six colours in ten different contexts, extending beyond emotion-related characteristics, and asking children and adults to complete the same task. Given the extensive literature focussing on red associations in adults, we selected contexts/traits in which previous evidence suggested that this colour may show a consistent association (either positive or negative): aggression, anger, and dominance (Fetterman, Robinson, & Meier, 2012; Little & Hill, 2007; Wiedemann et al., 2015; Young, Elliot, Feltman, & Ambady, 2013), attractiveness (Elliot & Niesta, 2008; Elliot, Tracy, Pazda, & Beall, 2013), cheating and honesty (Bashir & Rule, 2014; Krenn, 2015), danger (Pravossoudovitch, Cury, Young, & Elliot, 2014), intelligence (Maier et al., 2013), and strength (Dreiskaemper, Strauss, Hagemann, & Büsch, 2013; Elliot & Aarts, 2011; Payen et al., 2011). Finally, we included ‘speed’ because evidence suggests people respond faster to the colour red (Shibasaki & Masataka, 2014), which is commonly associated with sports cars (e.g., the Ferrari) in popular culture.MethodParticipantsWe collected data from 120 children (age range: 3-10 years old), who participated during a ‘Summer Scientist’ event run by the University of Lincoln. This sample size was simply determined by the number of children who were able to participate, given the limited duration of the five-day event. We excluded data from two participants – one reported being colour-blind and the other showed severe physical disabilities that meant the task was not completed. In addition, we chose to exclude children younger than 5 years old because it became apparent during testing that these participants typically responded based on irrelevant influences (e.g., a side preference that resulted in always choosing items presented in a particular location). These exclusions took place before any analyses were undertaken. Our final sample comprised 104 children (57 female; age M = 7.47 years, SD = 1.59 years). In all cases, parents provided written informed consent.We also collected data from 100 university students (67 female; age M = 19.88 years, SD = 2.25 years), who received chocolate biscuits as compensation. We chose this sample size in order to be comparable with the number of children who had already participated. None of these participants reported being colour-blind. For this adult sample, the participants themselves provided written informed consent.The University of Lincoln’s School of Psychology ethics committee approved the experiment presented here, which was carried out in accordance with the provisions of the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki.StimuliWe collected ten cartoon images from the Internet in order to represent the traits under investigation. These traits (images) were: aggression (a boxer), anger (an angry girl), attractiveness (a woman in a dress), cheating (a boy writing on paper), danger (an angry dog), dominance (a man in a suit and tie), honesty (a man speaking at a podium), intelligence (a woman holding a notebook), speed (a racing car with driver), and strength (a weightlifter holding weights above his head). Each of these images was then altered using the ‘replace colour’ tool in Adobe Photoshop CC 2018 to produce six different versions: black, blue, green, red, white, and yellow (see Fig 1; all stimuli are available in the Supplementary Material). In all cases, the colour of a specific item of clothing (or car) varied across images while the remainder of the image was unaltered. Care was taken to match the six colours in terms of lightness where possible, and to utilise the same six shades of colour across the ten sets of images.Fig. 1. Example images accompanying the question, “Which boy do you think looks the most likely to cheat on a test?”The questions that accompanied the ten sets of images were initially constructed to address the traits of interest listed above. However, we chose to adapt these where necessary to ensure our child sample would be able to understand them. As such, several of the revisions resulted in small (“pretty” instead of “attractive”) or more substantial (“scary” instead of “dangerous”) alterations to their meanings. The final list of questions can be found in the Appendix.ProcedureParticipants were tested individually. For each of the ten questions, the six colour images (individually printed and laminated) were placed on a desk in a random order and position. Participants were read the corresponding question and asked to select one of the images. The chosen image was then removed from the set and participants were asked to make their choice from the remaining five images, and so on until only one image remained. In this way, we collected rankings for all six images. During this process, the question was repeated by the experimenter as often as was needed in order to encourage responses, although no time limit was imposed. Choices were written down by the experimenter, making sure that these records were not visible to participants to avoid current decisions being influenced by previous ones. The order of the ten questions was randomised for each participant.We used the same procedure for collecting responses from our child and adult samples, and this included asking the same child-friendly questions (see the Appendix).ResultsRankings were assigned based on participants’ responses, with first choices being given a rank of 6 and last choices receiving a rank of 1. These data are summarised in Fig 2 (with measures of spread presented in the Supplementary Material). For each sample and question, we then calculated Friedman’s test (the non-parametric equivalent of a one-way, repeated measures analysis of variance), which evaluated the differences in the medians among the six colours’ rankings. In addition, for each of these χ2 values, we calculated Kendall’s W, which provided a measure of effect size (ranging from 0 to 1). Table 1 provides a summary of these analyses.Fig. 2. A summary of the ranking data. Median values are presented for each question for (a) the children and (b) the adults.Table 1A summary of the analyses, presented separately for each question and sample.QuestionSample Friedman’s Test, χ2Kendall's WWilcoxon Signed-Rank TestsWins fightsChildren112.23***0.22Bl > [B,G,W,Y] and R > [B,G,W,Y] and B > [G,Y]Adults274.58***0.55Bl > [B,G,W,Y] and R > [B,G,W,Y] and B > [G,W,Y] and Y < [G,W]Most angryChildren100.18***0.19Bl > [B,G,W,Y] and R > [B,G,W,Y] and B > YAdults229.14***0.46Bl > [B,G,W,Y] and R > [B,G,W,Y] and B > [W,Y] and G > [W,Y] and Y > WPrettiestChildren48.43***0.09W > [Bl,G,Y] and B > [Bl,G,Y] and R > GAdults97.31***0.19W > [Bl,G,Y] and B > [G,Y] and R > [Bl,B,G,Y] and Bl > GLikely to cheatChildren65.84***0.13Bl > [B,G,R,W,Y] and R > GAdults92.95***0.19Bl > [B,W,Y] and R > [B,W,Y] and W < [B,G,Y]Most scaryChildren97.40***0.19Bl > [B,G,R,W,Y] and R > [G,W,Y]Adults290.93***0.58Bl > [B,G,R,W,Y] and R > [B,G,W,Y] and B > [W,Y] and G > [W,Y]In charge at workChildren131.17***0.25Bl > [B,G,R,W,Y] and Y < [B,R,W] and G < [B,R,W]Adults242.29***0.48Bl > [B,G,W,Y] and Y < [B,G,R] and W < [B,G,R] and G < [B,R]Most honestChildren16.64**0.03Bl > GAdults3.030.01CleverestChildren11.48*0.02Adults60.68***0.12Bl > [G,R,Y] and B > [G,R,Y] and W > [G,Y]FastestChildren101.12***0.19Bl > [G,W,Y] and R > [Bl,B,G,W,Y] and B > GAdults203.43***0.41R > [Bl,B,G,W,Y] and W < [Bl,B,G,Y] and G < [Bl,B]StrongestChildren36.96***0.07Bl > [G,Y] and Y < [B,R,W]Adults82.47***0.16Bl > [G,Y] and R > [B,G,W,Y] and B > [G,Y] and W > [G,Y]Note. Bl = black, B = blue, G = green, R = red, W = white, Y = yellow‘Greater than’ denotes that one colour received a higher rank than the other colour(s) listed, whereas ‘less than’ denotes the colour received a lower rank. Reported signed-rank tests are statistically significant after Bonferroni correction (using = .05/15).* p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001For each sample and question, we also calculated preference proportions (Taplin, 1997), which quantify the proportion of responses where one colour was chosen over (before) another. For example, a value of 0.65 for ‘black over blue’ would mean that 65% of responses featured a higher ranking for black than blue (with 50% representing no overall difference). Using these preference proportions, we calculated Taplin’s T statistic as this measure is demonstrably more robust to a variety of situations than Friedman’s test (Taplin, 1997). These analyses confirmed the pattern of results produced by Friedman’s test and so we report these values in the Supplementary Material as an opportunity for comparison.As Table 1 illustrates, we found statistically significant differences in the colour rankings for both samples and all questions other than adult responses for honesty. However, these results do not inform regarding which colours’ rankings differed from each other. Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were therefore performed to make pairwise comparisons between the six colours. However, since 15 comparisons were required for each set of rankings, we implemented the conservative Bonferroni method in order to adjust the alpha level to .003 (given by .05/15). Table 1 provides a summary of these comparisons, and all p-values and effect sizes for these tests can be found in the Supplementary Material.In addition, we also carried out sign tests (e.g., Hollander & Wolfe, 1973) in order to make pairwise comparisons between the six colours by comparing the preference proportions to a value of 0.5 (see above). This test is often considered to have less power to detect differences than the signed-rank test (Usman, 2015), and indeed, we found that a few instances of previously significant comparisons failed to reach significance using this method. However, in almost all cases, both tests produced identical results. We report the outcome of these tests in the Supplementary Material for comparison.Table 1 highlights a number of patterns that were found. First, boxers with red gloves were perceived as more likely to win fights than most other colours, although black was also given a high ranking by both children and adults. This same pattern was found for the colour of dress worn in relation to how angry a girl was judged to be.Second, children associated both white and black with which dress looked the prettiest. Anecdotally, some children mentioned associations with wedding dresses as their justification. In adults, black no longer shows such a strong association, with red also being ranked high for this question.Third, both samples associated black with being more likely to cheat (see Figure 1), scarier when used as the colour of a dog’s collar, and more in charge when providing the colour for a man’s tie. For adults, we also found an association between red, the likelihood of cheating, and how scary the dog appeared, and a link for both red and blue with being in charge at work. Further, adults believed that white was unlikely to cheat, and that yellow was perhaps the least associated with being scary or in charge (with the children also showing evidence of this latter association).Fourth, adults associated green and yellow with being the least clever, although we found no significant colour differences in our children.Fifth, the fastest racing cars were seen as black or red by our children. However, our adults demonstrated a strong association with red and no evidence of one with black. Adults also often considered white to be the slowest car.Finally, our adult sample frequently ranked red as most associated with strength, while both samples considered yellow to be perhaps the weakest colour.DiscussionThe results of the current study represent the first investigation into children’s context-specific colour associations and how these overlap with associations demonstrated by adults. Interestingly, we find patterns showing consistent associations across both age groups for certain contexts, as well as associations which are displayed by children but not adults and vice versa.It is clear that a number of associations are present in our sample of children. For example, red- and black-gloved boxers win more fights, wearing a black tie implies being in charge at work, and red cars are fastest. Regarding the extensive literature of red associations in adults, we found that our children’s responses also showed evidence that red dresses make girls look more angry and that red collars make dogs look more scary, but there was no evidence of a link with red for many of the contexts. Taken together, we might conclude that red is associated with aggression, anger, and speed for children. Of course, determining whether these are more biologically or culturally based is beyond the scope of the current work, although one could hypothesise that all three traits may be underpinned by arousal mechanisms, which red has been shown to affect (Dreiskaemper et al., 2013; Gorn, Chattopadhyay, Sengupta, & Tripathi, 2004; Jacobs & Hustmyer, 1974; cf. Caldwell & Jones, 1985).In our adult sample, we found many associations across our contexts, suggesting a large influence of shared biology and/or culture. Like the children, this sample also associated black and red with winning fights and looking angry (Wiedemann et al., 2015). Interestingly, adults also showed evidence that red (as well as white) looked attractive, as predicted based upon much previous work (Elliot & Niesta, 2008; cf. Peperkoorn, Roberts, & Pollet, 2016). To some extent, both adults and children associated black with being likely to cheat, while adults also considered white as the opposite end of the continuum (Sherman & Clore, 2009). Black and red collars were associated with scarier dogs, with children showing similar relationships. Although black, blue, and red were all seen as tie colours worn by those in charge, no single colour dominated (for evidence against the popular “red power tie”, see Kramer, 2016). In adults, perhaps this may be related to signifiers of specific political parties, although further work is needed to address this idea. Red was also seen to depict the fastest car, in agreement with the children, while adults also considered white to be the slowest. Finally, there is some evidence that red is associated with strength (Elliot & Aarts, 2011). Taken together, in line with previous work, adults associate red with winning fights, anger, prettiness, scariness, being in charge, speed, and strength. However, at least in some cases, red failed to show a stronger association with these traits than some of the other colours chosen, and there was no compelling relationship with the other three traits considered.Researchers exploring the effects of colour may use spectrophotometers or other equipment to determine the colour parameters of their stimuli from spectral data. In doing so, the lightness and chroma, for example, can be equated for particular colours in some instances (e.g., red and blue; Elliot et al., 2010). Such methods ensure that any differences in behaviour are the result of changes in hue alone. We acknowledge that a limitation of the current work is that this technique was not used, although care was taken when creating the stimuli in order to match these to the best of our abilities (see all stimuli in the Supplementary Material). As such, the colour associations we found in this experiment may have been influenced by small lightness/chroma differences in addition to colour (hue) differences.In the current work, we only consider 5- to 10-year-old children and their colour associations. We found that our paradigm was too difficult for younger children to understand, leaving open the question of when these associations first become apparent. To address this issue, further research will need to develop a novel approach that provides access to these relationships in infants. Related, we were unable to consider narrower age groups or the possible effects of gender (e.g., Boyatzis & Varghese, 1994) with the sample size available. For example, future experiments might consider developmental milestones or other notable events (e.g., starting primary/elementary school) during childhood, and use these to define particular age groups that might differ in their colour associations.In summary, we provide evidence that both children and adults show strong, context-specific associations between colours and traits. In some cases, these are identical across samples, while in others, associations either emerge or disappear during development. We found some support for the various predictions made by the extensive literature on red associations in adults, and interestingly, fewer of these associations were present in children. Evidence that some associations develop while others are present throughout our lives from an early age represents an exciting new field of inquiry that further research might help us to explore.AcknowledgmentsThe authors thank the organisers and participants at the ‘Lincoln Summer Scientist’ event for the opportunity to collect data. We also thank Ross Taplin for his statistical advice.Declaration of conflicting interestsThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.FundingThis research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.ReferencesBashir, N. Y., & Rule, N. O. (2014). Shopping under the influence: Nonverbal appearance-based communicator cues affect consumer judgments. Psychology & Marketing, 31, 539-548.Boyatzis, C. J., & Varghese, R. (1994). Children’s emotional associations with colours. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 155(1), 77-85.Byrnes, D. A. (1983). Colour associations of children. The Journal of Psychology, 113(2), 247-250.Caro, T. (2005). The adaptive significance of colouration in mammals. BioScience, 55, 125-136.Caldwell, J. A., & Jones, G. E. (1985). The effects of exposure to red and blue light on physiological indices and time estimation. Perception, 14(1), 19-29.Clarke, T., & Costall, A. (2008). The emotional connotations of colour: A qualitative investigation. Colour Research & Application, 33(5), 406-410.Dreiskaemper, D., Strauss, B., Hagemann, N., & Büsch, D. (2013). Influence of red jersey colour on physical parameters in combat sports. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 35(1), 44-49.Elliot, A. J., & Aarts, H. (2011). Perception of the colour red enhances the force and velocity of motor output. Emotion, 11(2), 445-449.Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2012). Colour-in-context theory. In P. Devine & A. Plant (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 45, pp. 61-125). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier.Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2014). Colour psychology: Effects of perceiving colour on psychological functioning in humans. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 95-120.Elliot, A. J., & Niesta, D. (2008). Romantic red: Red enhances men’s attraction to women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1150-1164.Elliot, A. J., Niesta Kayser, D., Greitemeyer, T., Lichtenfeld, S., Gramzow, R. H., Maier, M. A., & Liu, H. (2010). Red, rank, and romance in women viewing men. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139(3), 399-417.Elliot, A. J., Tracy, J. L., Pazda, A. D., & Beall, A. T. (2013). Red enhances women’s attractiveness to men: First evidence suggesting universality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(1), 165-168.Feltman, R., & Elliot, A. J. (2011). The influence of red on perceptions of relative dominance and threat in a competitive context. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33, 308-314.Fetterman, A. K., Robinson, M. D., & Meier, B. P. (2012). Anger as “seeing red”: Evidence for a perceptual association. Cognition & Emotion, 26(8), 1445-1458.Frank, M. G., & Gilovich, T. (1988). The dark side of self- and social perception: Black uniforms and aggression in professional sports. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 74-85.Gorn, G. J., Chattopadhyay, A., Sengupta, J., & Tripathi, S. (2004). Waiting for the web: How screen colour affects time perception. Journal of Marketing Research, 41(2), 215-225.Greenlees, I. A., Eynon, M., & Thelwell, R. C. (2013). Colour of soccer goalkeepers' uniforms influences the outcome of penalty kicks.?Perceptual and Motor Skills,?117(1), 1-10.Hagemann, N., Strauss, B., & Lei?ing, J. (2008). When the referee sees red… Psychological Science, 19(8), 769-771.Hill, R. A., & Barton, R. A. (2005). Red enhances human performance in contests. Nature, 435(7040), 293.Hollander, M., & Wolfe, D. A. (1973) Nonparametric Statistical Methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons.Ilie, A., Ioan, S., Zagrean, L., & Moldovan, M. (2008). Better to be red than blue in virtual competition.?Cyberpsychology & Behavior,?11(3), 375-377.Jacobs, K. W., & Hustmyer, F. E., Jr. (1974). Effects of four psychological primary colours on GSR, heart rate and respiration rate. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 38(3), 763-766.Karp, E. M., & Karp, H. B. (1988). Colour associations of male and female fourth-grade school children. The Journal of Psychology, 122(4), 383-388.Kramer, R. S. S. (2016). The red power(less) tie: Perceptions of political leaders wearing red. Evolutionary Psychology, 14(2), 1-8.Krenn, B. (2015). The effect of uniform colour on judging athletes’ aggressiveness, fairness, and chance of winning.?Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology,?37(2), 207-212.Little, A. C., & Hill, R. A. (2007). Attribution to red suggests special role in dominance signalling. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 5, 161-168.Maier, M. A., Elliot, A. J., Lee, B., Lichtenfeld, S., Barchfeld, P., & Pekrun, R. (2013). The influence of red on impression formation in a job application context. Motivation and Emotion, 37, 389-401.Nunn, C. L. (1999). The evolution of exaggerated sexual swellings in primates and the graded-signal hypothesis. Animal Behavior, 58, 229-246.Payen, V., Elliot, A. J., Coombes, S. A., Chalabaev, A., Brisswalter, J., & Cury, F. (2011). Viewing red prior to a strength test inhibits motor output. Neuroscience Letters, 495(1), 44-48.Peperkoorn, L. S., Roberts, S. C., & Pollet, T. V. (2016). Revisiting the red effect on attractiveness and sexual receptivity: No effect of the colour red on human mate preferences. Evolutionary Psychology, 14(4), 1-13.Pravossoudovitch, K., Cury, F., Young, S. G., & Elliot, A. J. (2014). Is red the colour of danger? Testing an implicit red–danger association. Ergonomics, 57(4), 503-510.Roberts, S. C., Owen, R. C., & Havlicek, J. (2010). Distinguishing between perceiver and wearer effects in clothing colour-associated attributions. Evolutionary Psychology, 8, 350-364.Sherman, G. D., & Clore, G. L. (2009). The colour of sin: White and black are perceptual symbols of moral purity and pollution.?Psychological Science,?20(8), 1019-1025.Shibasaki, M., & Masataka, N. (2014). The colour red distorts time perception for men, but not for women. Scientific Reports, 4, 5899.Sorokowski, P., Szmajke, A., Hamamura, T., Jiang, F., & Sorokowska, A. (2014). “Red wins”, “black wins” and “blue loses” effects are in the eye of beholder, but they are culturally universal: A cross-cultural analysis of the influence of outfit colours on sports performance.?Polish Psychological Bulletin,?45(3), 318-325.Taplin, R. H. (1997). The statistical analysis of preference data. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series C (Applied Statistics), 46(4), 493-512.Usman, M. (2015). Power efficiency of sign test and Wilcoxon signed rank test relative to t-test. Mathematical Theory and Modeling, 5(12), 53-59.Vrij, A. (1997). Wearing black clothes: The impact of offenders’ and suspects’ clothing on impression formation. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11(1), 47-53.Wexner, L. B. (1954). The degree to which colours (hues) are associated with mood-tones. Journal of Applied Psychology, 38(6), 432-435.Wiedemann, D., Burt, D. M., Hill, R. A., & Barton, R. A. (2015). Red clothing increases perceived dominance, aggression and anger. Biology Letters, 11, 20150166.Young, S. G., Elliot, A. J., Feltman, R., & Ambady, N. (2013). Red enhances the processing of facial expressions of anger. Emotion, 13(3), 380-384.AppendixBelow are the ten questions that were used in the task for both child and adult participants. For two of these questions, we provided additional clarification if children required it (presented in brackets).Which man do you think will win the most fights?Which girl do you think looks the most angry?Which woman do you think looks the prettiest?Which boy do you think looks the most likely to cheat on a test?Which dog do you think looks the most scary?Which man do you think should be in charge at work? (Which man should be the boss?)Which man do you think looks the most honest? (Which man looks like he tells the truth the most?)Which woman do you think looks the cleverest?Which racing car do you think looks the fastest?Which man do you think looks the strongest? ................
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