MATHEMATICAL PREPARATION COURSE before studying Physics
MATHEMATICAL
PREPARATION COURSE
before studying Physics
Accompanying Booklet to the Online Course:
thphys.uni-heidelberg.de/¡«hefft/vk1
without Animations, Function Plotter
and Solutions of the Exercises
Klaus Hefft
Institute of Theoretical Physics
University of Heidelberg
Please send error messages to
k.hefft@thphys.uni-heidelberg.de
September 16, 2020
Contents
1 MEASURING:
Measured Value and Measuring Unit
5
1.1
The Empirical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
1.2
Physical Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
1.3
Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
1.4
Order of Magnitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
2 SIGNS AND NUMBERS
and Their Linkages
13
2.1
Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2
Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.1
Natural Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.2
Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.3
Rational Numbers
2.2.4
Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3 SEQUENCES AND SERIES
and Their Limits
27
3.1
Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2
Boundedness
3.3
Monotony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4
Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5
Series
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
i
4 FUNCTIONS
39
4.1
The Function as Input-Output Relation or Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2
Basic Set of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2.1
Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2.2
Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2.3
Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.4
Functions with Kinks and Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.3
Nested Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.4
Mirror Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.5
Boundedness
4.6
Monotony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.7
Bi-uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.8
Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.8.1
Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.8.2
Cyclometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.8.3
Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.10 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5 DIFFERENTIATION
77
5.1
Differential quotient
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2
Differential Quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.3
Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.4
Higher Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.5
The Technique of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.5.1
Four Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.5.2
Simple Differentiation Rules: Basic Set of Functions . . . . . . . . . 88
5.5.3
Chain and Inverse Function Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.6
Numerical Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.7
Preview of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
ii
6 TAYLOR SERIES
103
6.1
Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2
Geometric Series as Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.3
Form and Non-ambiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.4
Examples from the Basic Set of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.4.1
Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.4.2
Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.4.3
Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.4.4
Further Taylor Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.5
Convergence Radius
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.6
Accurate Rules for Inaccurate Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.7
Quality of Convergence: the Remainder Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.8
Taylor Series around an Arbitrary Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7 INTEGRATION
121
7.1
Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.2
Area under a Function over an Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.3
Properties of the Riemann Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.4
7.5
7.3.1
Linearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.3.2
Interval Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.3.3
Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.3.4
Mean Value Theorem of the Integral Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Fundamental Theorem of Differential and Integral Calculus . . . . . . . . . 130
7.4.1
Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.4.2
Differentiation with Respect to the Upper Border . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.4.3
Integration of a Differential Quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.4.4
Primitive Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
The Art of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
iii
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