A Survey of Good Practice in Diaconal Formation in ...
A Survey of Good Practice in Diaconal Formation in Ecumenical PerspectiveMargaret Elizabeth CarringtonA dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MA Ministry and Biblical Studies at the University of Sheffield2014I certify that this dissertation is based on my own original research and contains no material from any other source which is not referenced(Signed)..........................................................AcknowledgementI would like extend my grateful thanks to Revd. Dr. Kenneth Carveley for his wisdom and encouragement; to the deacons who agreed to be interviewed for their time and enthusiasm and to all those in my church family who have made this study possible.Table of Contents TOC \o "1-2" \h \z \u Chapter 1 Introduction PAGEREF _Toc383478171 \h 3Chapter 2 Origins and History of the Diaconate PAGEREF _Toc383478172 \h 6Introduction PAGEREF _Toc383478173 \h 6The Early Church PAGEREF _Toc383478174 \h 7Women Deacons PAGEREF _Toc383478175 \h 10Renewal Across Traditions PAGEREF _Toc383478176 \h 11Chapter 3 Emerging Theology PAGEREF _Toc383478177 \h 13Introduction PAGEREF _Toc383478178 \h 13The Diakonia of Christ PAGEREF _Toc383478179 \h 13Deacons and Ordination PAGEREF _Toc383478180 \h 14Deacons and Liturgy PAGEREF _Toc383478181 \h 17Diaconal Roles in Relationship PAGEREF _Toc383478182 \h 18Insights and Opportunities PAGEREF _Toc383478183 \h 19Chapter 4 A Review of Formation in Ecumenical Perspective PAGEREF _Toc383478184 \h 20Methodology PAGEREF _Toc383478185 \h 20Beginnings and context PAGEREF _Toc383478186 \h 21Formation and Meaning PAGEREF _Toc383478187 \h 22Ecclesiology and Theology PAGEREF _Toc383478188 \h 23Leadership and Practical Service PAGEREF _Toc383478189 \h 24Significance, Good Practice and Understanding PAGEREF _Toc383478190 \h 24Challenges and Outcomes PAGEREF _Toc383478191 \h 25Chapter 5 Conclusion and Recommendations PAGEREF _Toc383478192 \h 27Summary PAGEREF _Toc383478193 \h 27Recommendations PAGEREF _Toc383478194 \h 28Reflections on the Future PAGEREF _Toc383478195 \h 29Appendix 1 The Ordinal PAGEREF _Toc383478196 \h 30Appendix 2 Cover Letter PAGEREF _Toc383478197 \h 30Appendix 3 Schedule of interview questions PAGEREF _Toc383478199 \h 33Appendix 4 Interviewees Tradition and Background PAGEREF _Toc383478200 \h 35Appendix 5 Participants’ Formational Study PAGEREF _Toc383478201 \h 37BibliographyPrimary Sources PAGEREF _Toc383478203 \h 42Secondary Sources PAGEREF _Toc383478204 \h 43 Chapter 1 IntroductionThis study topic was chosen against the background of my own experience of formation as a deacon in the Church of England, exposure to Orthodox worship in which deacons are prominent, participation at international level with deacons and diaconal workers from a range of different traditions and valued discussions with local deacon colleagues, largely from the Methodist church. Following the initiative of the Roman Catholic Church after Vatican II, in response to pastoral needs and mission imperatives, the diaconate has been widely re-discovered and re-energised but with less clarity within the Church of England as compared with other traditions. The context for this study is threefold. Firstly reviews of formation for ministry in the Church of England in recent years have recommended a clearer emphasis on the specific learning needs of deacons and others, within the overall policy of promoting collaborative, ecumenical learning., Secondly, of particular interest is the impact of John Collins’ theological re-framing of diakonia, traditionally associated with deacons as menial servants, and the impact it has had on determining what deacons are being formed for. Thirdly some dioceses of the Church of England have been ordaining distinctive deacons for some years whilst others have just begun but numbers are small and inexact so the reflections of established deacons from other traditions with a longer history hold promise. Participants from Anglican, Roman Catholic, Methodist, Lutheran and Antiochian Orthodox churches participated in the study which examined their experiences of formation against the background of differing theology and ecclesiology. In particular their views were sought on what they considered to be significant about their formation and what aspects of their programmes they would advance as evidence of good practice which might inform Anglican practice. It is not within the scope of this study to discuss gender issues or the relationships between deacons and the various lay ministries that exist within the Church of England except to acknowledge that renewal of the diaconate is set within the context of a significant increase in lay ministry ecumenically, declining numbers of priests and a greater emphasis on collaborative working which respects and supports the ministry of the whole church.Deacons in this study are those individuals who have been recognised by the church (Appendix 1) as having a charism for a lifelong commitment to an enabling servant ministry which connects with those on the edge in society and within the church, and whose ministry is characterised as caring, missional, prophetic and transformative. They are variously referred to as ‘distinctive’, ‘preferred’, ‘permanent’ and also ‘absolute’ in the Roman Catholic Church which does not allow transition to the priesthood for married deacons. As Barnett asserts, in real terms the “diaconate” of those in training for the priesthood is ’another office’ and ‘such deacons are not trained for the diaconate’. Formation, defined as the overarching concept that integrates the person, understanding and competence, is an ongoing process of education, training and self learning. Integrated learning (often the only logistical option) has the potential to enrich relationships between priests and deacons if there is an appropriate understanding of the order of deacon as a specific form of ministry which symbolizes the diakonia of the whole church and which is reflected in the programme content. Other than becoming a deacon at ordination as a step towards priesthood, the absence of any other reference in Christou’s account of his formation supports Barnett’s point.The Roman Catholic Church has laid down a framework of norms for the specific training and conduct of deacons from the aspirant programme through initial formation to subsequent lifelong learning which guides local arrangements, should Bishops wish to re-introduce the diaconate. Orthodox Jurisdictions vary greatly but generally programmes are generic and sometimes ‘ad hoc’ with access to specific online material, study alongside seminarians and arrangements to learn their role ‘apprenticed’ to a priest. Methodists and Anglicans study with ordinands for the priesthood with specific material provided by the Methodist Diaconal Order (an ordained, dispersed, religious community) to ensure their deacons are equipped for their dual role as members of the clergy and of the order.The German Lutheran pattern of specific diaconal training, (represented by the study participant) often in a diaconal community, may include mandatory professional qualifications in people-facing fields. The pattern adopted by the Church of Sweden, again reflected by the study participant, of specific diaconal training in separate colleges is similar but with the addition of six months initial collective study for all types of church workers including priests. All the Churches represented in the study officially support the renewal of the diaconate and ecumenical dialogue,, has been helpful in exploring its varied and contested nature but many theological questions remain such that in some cases deacons are still finding their place, especially in the Church of England where their ministry remains largely hidden. Theological issues around relationships between deacons and laity on the one hand and priests/presbyters/elders on the other, how ‘service’ is understood and what is distinctive about a deacon’s ministry are an ever present reality. A key question is whether diaconal ministry receives adequate attention in formational programmes designed primarily for those who will become priests. Historically the diaconate was always a distinct but diverse order with its own dignity and identity (and has always been so in the Orthodox Church) but revival cannot and should not attempt to replicate exactly practice from antiquity but at the same time the tradition of the Church is not something to lightly set aside. As Karl Rahner puts it ‘Today what is properly in question is not a restoration of the diaconate in its ancient form but a creative conception of the diaconate of the future. Ancient models of the diaconate can provide stimuli for this new specification of it.’ Enduring principles I would suggest include enacting the inclusive love of Christ, containing dualism by drawing sacred and secular together and challenging the church by reaching into areas where it may not wish to be. What does the Church of England expect of deacons today and how can they best be formed to meet those expectations? The chapters that follow explore the history and theological tensions surrounding the diaconate and draw on the formational experiences of ten deacons as they consider what for them constituted good practice. In conclusion recommendations are presented which it is hoped might be of help not only in forming deacons with a clearer and more confident understanding of who they are but more importantly in enlivening the mission of the servant church. Chapter 2 Origins and History of the DiaconateIntroductionOver the last 2,000 years change has been a constant feature of the diaconate, giving rise to both continuity and discontinuity within and between traditions, as the Church believes the Holy Spirit has prompted the church to adapt to contextual needs. This chapter will trace the evolution of the diaconate, as exercised by both men and women, from its origins to its restoration post-Vatican Two and will examine reasons for its decline and current resurgence. Texts from the New Testament and the early Church Fathers provide a complex picture of the diaconate, traditionally seen as a servant ministry, which is difficult to interpret with certainty today given that the term ‘deacon’ has a range of meanings which have not been applied with any consistency and that the concept of ‘office’ did not emerge for the first three centuries of the history of the Church. When trying to understand the nature and development of the deacon role it is helpful at the outset to note the difficulties in translating the Greek words for ‘minister’ (diakonos), ‘ministry’ (diakonia), and ‘to minister’ (diakonēo) into English as they overlap, so that diakonos may rendered ‘minister’ ‘servant’ or ‘deacon’, For example all three English words are applied to Phoebe of Cenchreae in different translations of Romans 16:1-2 which make it difficult to know what her role was, whether New Testament or Patristic sources are consulted. As the Catholic theologian John Collins suggests, ‘If we can come to a clearer understanding of early deacons we ought to be in a better position to decide what we ought to aim for in deacons for churches in our times’. Acts 6:1-6 has traditionally been interpreted as the foundational text for the ministry of deacons conceptualised as menial service until Collins’ exhaustive study of the meanings of the diakon word group in ancient and biblical usage revealed a broader range of meanings for diakonia. He argues, as does Fischer, that the Seven appointed to ‘wait on tables’ were not deacons as we know them and neither was their ministry restricted to humble service, although humility is fundamental for those who follow Christ’s example (Phil. 2:6-11). However the text does indicate a selection process by the community and appointment by the Twelve. Collins concludes that the diakon word group more often connotes commissioned agency than it does menial service and to limit diakonia to the ‘caring sphere of Christian life’ misrepresents the field of meaning of these words. The difference this makes is that although the commissioned agent or go-between is still a servant, the emphasis primarily is not on the task itself but on the one who sends. Since the nineteenth century the concept of diakonia as social service rather than commissioned agency gained strength from the work of Wilhelm Brandt whose involvement in German Lutheranism and the Kaiserwerth community of deaconesses influenced his study of service in early Christian and non-Christian circles and in turn shaped H.W.Beyer’s description of the diaconate in Kittel’s Dictionary in 1935. Acceptance of Collin’s work by most theologians is reflected in amended dictionary descriptions of the diakon word group today., Although the Seven were not deacons in a formal sense, they can be said to be prototypes of the office of diakonos as it emerged later, and this development forms the next section.The Early ChurchThe primitive Church was an organic body of people joined together by virtue of baptism as the Laos of God and ministry was the province of all, according to their various gifts (Rom. 12:4-6). Leadership was charismatic and in contrast to Jewish thought, there was no distinction between sacred and secular in terms of the designation of those who performed particular functions but by the close of the New Testament period an organisational structure had emerged, guided by the apostles and by Paul, with presbyters in the Jerusalem church, influenced by Jewish heritage, and bishops and deacons as the model in Greek speaking churches. These two patterns merged into one around AD110 creating a single three fold pattern of ministry alongside other forms which did not survive. Vischer suggests that the influence of the Greek inheritance may explain the origin of the close collaborative relationship which developed between bishops and their deacons from the beginning. The Bishop of Rome retained collaborative cardinal-deacons, who were not ordained priests, until the last one died in 1899. The transition in New Testament times from general authoritative leadership to formal commissioning for ministry is unclear but whilst reference to bishops and deacons in Philippians 1:1 is suggestive of a specific office, 1Timothy 3:1-13 is far more explicit in outlining character requirements and a differentiation of roles that indicate organisational change. Now overseers (episkopos /presbyteros) and deacons appear in relationship, with the deacon’s worthiness being tested by the pre-eminent overseer whose teaching role would indicate that deacons themselves did not teach at this time but nothing more precise can be gleaned about the diaconate. St John of Constantinople (AD 350-407) lends his authority to the view (still debated) that the women mentioned in I Timothy are not the wives of deacons but deacons in their own right. ,. ‘The years from about AD100 to 600 saw a dramatic expansion of the numbers, responsibilities and influence of deacons in pastoral care and church administration documented by patristic writers, which eventually brought them into conflict with presbyters and heralded their decline. Clement of Rome writing around AD 96 to the Corinthians mentions the appointment of presbyteroi, episkopoi and deacons in the context of a dispute which strengthened the deacons’ liturgical link with presbyters and a little later Justin Martyr comments that deacons distributed communion to absent church members. Polycarp who exhorts deacons to live holy lives for the sake of Christ to whom they belong does not comment on their responsibilities but the author of the Shepherd of Hermas indicates their administrative function in handling the financial support for widows and orphans.,The letters of Ignatius of Antioch, who was executed in AD108, may be historically unreliable in that he presents an unlikely level of fixity within church governance at this period but his words of counsel to the Trallians do outline his regard for deacons whom he calls his co-slaves (syndouloi) when he says ‘let all men respect the deacons as Jesus Christ, even as they should respect the bishop as being a type of the Father and the presbyters as the council of God and as the college of Apostles. Apart from these there is not even the name of a church.’ By the time the Didache was edited in about AD150, bishops and deacons were elected and commissioned with the laying on of hands, according to Barnett as a ‘confirmation of the charisma given by the Holy Spirit’ but although roles were differentiated, definition was still not fixed and it is this fluidity that gives rise to current debate about whether or not deacons preached. The early second century letters of Ignatius show for the first time that bishops, presbyters/elders and deacons are clearly differentiated with a single bishop (the monepiscopate) presiding over a council of presbyters (and possibly deacons), attached to a local church but without any concept of hierarchy. In his letter to the Trallians reference is made to the liturgical role of the deacon: ‘those too who are deacons of Jesus Christ’s ‘mysteries’ must give complete satisfaction to everyone. For they do not minister mere food and drink, but minister to God’s church’. By the end of the post-Apostolic period deacons had a distinct liturgical and caritative function specific to their order, exercised on behalf of the whole church in association with the bishop and subject to the local church council. By the beginning of the third century the ordination prayer recorded by Hippolytus (AD 215), which says the deacon’s office is ‘to offer in Thy holy sanctuary the gifts that are offered to Thee by Thy appointed high priests’ signals a change in relationship, with the deacon becoming an influential assistant to the bishop not only liturgically during the Eucharist and at baptisms, but also by serving as his legate on specialist assignments. At the dawn of the fourth century presbyters and deacons exercised complementary ministries but with deacons wielding great influence as prestigious representatives of the bishop at high level councils such as Nicea in AD 325, although Canon 18 decreed that they ‘must remain within their own limits’. In Rome a presbyter could only be ordained with the recommendation of a deacon” and deacons were being ordained as bishops because of their collaborative experience. As the century progressed tensions escalated between bishops and deacons on one side and presbyters on the other regarding role and status and the canons of the church relating to deacons became increasingly prescriptive leading to the eventual collapse of the diaconate.Constantine the Great’s recognition of the church as a legal religion after AD 313 and his patronage of it led to exponential growth and the delegation of individual churches to presbyters whilst bishops adopted wider overarching supervision. Deacons were outnumbered and became assistants to presbyters rather than the bishop and by the fifth century the deacon’s role was solely liturgical, to the detriment of charitable service and to the appreciation of their distinctive value. The tenth century saw the emergence of the three-step clergy hierarchy or cursus honorum, with the diaconate becoming largely a transitional stage on the way to priesthood, at least in Western churches. In addition, the Lateran Councils’ decrees (1123 and 1129) on priestly and diaconal celibacy sacralised the clergy and led to a further decline. Women DeaconsIn the Eastern churches the diaconate retained a stronger character with a distinctive ministry open to both men (diakonos) and women (diakonissa). Canon 15 of the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451) made provision for older women to be ordained deacon with the laying on of hands but although Western churches did not adopt this pattern the term ‘deaconess’ was used and applied interchangeably with that of ‘abbess’. Subsequent legislation, which stressed the order of deacons was open to both sexes, was enacted in the East particularly in the Byzantine Church where the female diaconate flourished from the late fourth to the late seventh century as a major order. Women deacons undertook tasks which were culturally inappropriate for men such as assisting at the nude baptism of female candidates and distributing communion to housebound women but the rise of infant baptism, the influence of Islam and strictures about physical impurity hastened their demise. The eight century Byzantine ordination rites were similar for both sexes, although women deacons played a different role. The ordination liturgy for female deacons set out in the Barberini Codex hardly differs from the version for male deacons. Eastern women deacons received communion at the altar with other clergy and were responsible for chanting parts of the liturgy but as the diaconate increasingly became a step on the way to male ordination the role of women deacons shrank and had almost disappeared by the twelfth century, except in Hagia Sophia Constantinople and the church in Jerusalem. Karras and Zagano assert that recent scholarship provides unequivocal evidence that these women did receive a full ordination to the diaconate as a major order in the East (already accepted in the Greek Orthodox Church) but debate continues about the exact meaning of cheirotonia (ordination or commissioning) and recovery depends on a clearer understanding of orders in general and the context of need. The next section takes a brief look at renewal within the traditions represented in my interview sample.First proposed by the Council of Trent in 1563, interest in a renewed diaconate in modern times can be traced back to the end of World War II in Germany where an ecumenical group of priests who had survived Dachau concentration camp sought to re-kindle a spirit of Christ-like service to the needy. A similar group of men and women led by Hannes Kramer in Freiburg and supported by Catholic theologian Karl Rahner, added momentum. Finally in 1967 the Second Vatican Council, renewed the permanent diaconate for married and single candidates not merely in response to a shortage of priests (although this may be compelling in some contexts), but as a ministry with its own identity and dignity which would complement that of priests and inspire and enable the servant church to ‘respond to its own diaconal nature’. With Papal approval, bishops were free to renew the diaconate in their dioceses if they considered it appropriate. This initiative re-energised the Roman Catholic diaconate particularly in America where almost half of the world’s 30,000 deacons reside. Renewal Across TraditionsOf all the traditions the Orthodox Church has maintained the greatest degree of continuity with deacons still exercising a prominent liturgical role which Canon Law reserves solely for deacons not in transition. It should also be noted that in the Orthodox Church diakonia is understood as the historical prototype for philanthropy which inspired Western Churches and which embodies the concept of loving service in the world as ‘liturgy after the liturgy’. The collapse of Communism has enabled the Orthodox Church to reclaim and broaden its historical legacy not just to meet needs, but to work for sustainable social change.Within the Church of England, after the Reformation, the unity of the threefold ministry was maintained but with a transitional male diaconate and the nineteenth century saw unsuccessful moves to revive a voluntary permanent diaconate for men to assist overworked priests. However a deaconess movement of lay women able to respond to material and spiritual poverty spread across Europe, influenced by the German Lutheran Kaiserwerth model. In 1968 the Lambeth Conference recommended restoration of a distinctive diaconate, in 1986 women were ordained as deacons and their admission to the priesthood in 1994 enabled vocations to a lifelong distinctive diaconate to emerge with greater clarity for both sexes. In sum, deacons are part of an ancient tradition of life-long ministry acting as commissioned agents engaged in worship, witness and service, in the church and the world in collaboration with their bishops and priests. In a world of fewer priests, larger benefices, greater social mobility, a de-churched generation and a society with many suffering hardship in recession, renewal of the diaconate is timely. According to Vatican II the argument for renewal in the Roman Catholic Church (reflected in other traditions) was not simply to address priestly shortages but rather to restore the fullness of the ancient three fold ministry, strengthen those operating as de facto deacons through ordination, meet essential pastoral needs and revitalise mission based on a careful re-examination of the theological basis. It is to this I now turn. Chapter 3 Emerging TheologyIntroductionAlthough it is over forty years since the decision to renew the diaconate was taken by the Second Vatican Council, theological questions in the Roman Catholic Church (and in other traditions) still await clarification because prior to the existence of a permanent diaconate as Ditewig observes, a well worked out theology was not considered necessary. Given that the largest number of permanent deacons in any tradition is to be found in the Catholic Church in the USA (Latin and Eastern Rite) and that their permanent deacons cannot make any transition to the priesthood, it is unsurprising that much of the current theological reflection comes from this stable although the growth of the revitalised diaconate has promoted broader critical thinking. How are deacons as an ancient ecclesial reality to be of practical help to the church and the world in today’s context? The renewal of the diaconate is not without its critics because it raises difficult questions about which there is little ecumenical consensus regarding the theology of orders, the ecclesial relationships between clergy and between clergy and laity (especially where transitional and non-transitional deacons co-exist) and crucially, the precise nature of a ‘distinctive’ diaconal identity. Gaillardetz and Baker express concern that the expanding diaconal ministry has ‘run too far ahead of a developed theology’ but Avis states that ‘the diaconate is at the same time the most problematic and the most promising of all the ministries of the Church. Some churches have been agonising about what a deacon is, while others have begun to discover what a deacon can be’ (author’s emphasis). This chapter will offer a critical analysis of the theology of the diaconate as a servant ministry, beginning with the foundational example of Christ the servant (Lk. 22:27, Rom.15:8), and will identify commonalities and differences with other traditions and insights that shape formation. The Diakonia of Christ The servant ministry of the whole Church, clergy and laity alike, has always been founded on the imitation of Christ whose self-emptying death (Jn 15:13; Phil. 2:1-11) and resurrection is the supreme expression of love and service and who acts on behalf of the Father to share his will with humanity. Cummings, a Catholic deacon, advances three models for the diaconate in which Christ’s example can be embodied, namely the power model, the historical model and the kenotic model but only the latter, he believes, provides an adequate theology. Adherents of the power model focus on what the deacon ‘s function is today whereas those who take a more historicist approach feel obliged to follow early church practices and so are cautious about change. The kenotic model, applicable to all believers, derives its meaning from the servanthood of Christ which is not necessarily menial but is offered in great humility described by St. Paul as Christ ‘taking the form of a slave’ (Phil. 2:7). In the words of Mark’s gospel in the context of a corrective to the rivalry between the apostles James and John, Jesus tells them: ‘The Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve (diakonein), and to give his life as a ransom for many’ (Mk 10:45). For Collins this verse is no justification for a form of diakonia centred mainly on charitable service, although it has commonly been used as such. He maintains that by splitting the Markan verse after the first clause and keeping the second two parts of the sentence together it can be seen that Christ serves through giving his life in obedience to the mandate of the Father. As Gooder notes, this interpretation shifts the meaning of caring service primarily towards doing what God requires as set down in the Old Testament prophetic tradition in the words of Micah 6.8: ‘what does the Lord require of you but to do justice, and to love kindness, and to walk humbly with your God?’ and in the Servant Songs of Isaiah. If mandated agency is the overarching principle of the diakon word group as Collins concludes, undertaken by the agent as go-between, then a broad interpretation of service must follow if we are to honour the fullness of the Missio Dei. Jesus stresses that his followers are to be the slaves and servants of all (Mt. 23:11; Lk. 9:48), prepared to be last instead of first, and to embrace a radical vulnerability (Mt. 16:24-26) in direct contrast to worldly values and notions of power so often inherent in the church. Barnett describes the account of Jesus washing the feet of his disciples in John’s gospel (Jn 13:1-20) as an ‘acted parable of humiliation’ but paradoxically there is power in weakness (2 Cor. 12.9). Jesus reveals the self emptying love of the Father (Jn 3:16) and calls the whole church to follow his example (Jn 12:26) by collaborating in the fulfilment of God’s salvific vision for humanity (Lk. 9:1-6; Lk.10:1-12; Mt. 28:16-20) and deepening its theōsis, or intimacy with God. Just as Christ was sent by the Father to reveal his will, likewise his disciples are sent into the world as emissaries of Christ (and of the church) the agent of the Father, therefore those called to lead must model a servant leadership with humility but not servility. (Lk. 4:16-21; Jn 20:19-23). Catholic deacon Gaillardetz warns that identifying deacons as icons of Christ primarily on the basis of caring for the needy is a ‘dead end’ theology because it emphasises the functional aspect of ministry rather than grounding it in an ecclesial relationship, overlooks the fact that priests and bishops share the same iconic reality as deacons (not true for Orthodox deacons within the Eucharist) and limits the historical breadth of diaconal ministry. Further the kenotic model of diakonia, rich though it is, does not identify any attributes specific to deacons beyond those shared by all the baptised in their discipleship. Gaillardetz suggests an adequate theology must ‘do justice’ to church tradition regarding deacons and explain the rationale for ordination in a way that distinguishes it from the ordination of priests and bishops and from lay ecclesial ministry.Deacons and OrdinationThe Church of England understands the Church to be one, holy, catholic and apostolic as stated in the creeds and its mission is given practical expression through the Five Marks however its theology of ministry is less clearly stated. The ecumenical document ‘Baptism Eucharist and Ministry’ recovers a high theology of baptism which underlines the priesthood of the laity who participate in a discipleship common to the whole church (Eph. 4:4-6) as one body (1 Cor.12:12-13).The church is empowered by the Holy Spirit to be an effective ‘sign and instrument of the reign of God’ through the interrelated activity of lay and ordained, in carrying out the mission of God (I Pet. 2:9) which finds its expression as worship/leitourgia, witness/martyria and service/ diakonia, held together in a single unity (Mat.28:19-20) but with differing emphases determined by gifting (Rom.12:1-8). Churches that have adhered to a three-fold ministry interpret orders as sacramentally significant not in what clergy do but in what they represent in terms of being. Through ordination clergy become a sacramental sign of the ministry of Christ set apart and formed to become a specific focus for that ministry on behalf of a priestly people (I Tim. 4:14; II Tim. 1:6; 1 Pet. 2:9). Ordained ministry serves a specific role in supporting and reminding the church of its goals, mission and diaconal essence and a distinction can be made between the activity of the faithful as ‘discipleship’ (a more inclusive concept) and the lifelong commitment of bishops, priests and deacons authorised by the church to exercise a ‘ministry which is public, representational, expected, and subject to oversight’ in particular in relation to the bishop. Together with priests and bishops the ministry of the deacon, ‘promotes, releases and clarifies’ the essential nature of the Church but this ‘does not make the individual minister, as a personality, an icon of Christ’. The ordination of deacons is often contested because of its proximity to lay ministry but the deacon’s particular focus is to take on a responsibility to enable mission and to embody its servant calling, as a core function of a diaconal church. Metaphorically ‘focus’ language is used in the sense of creating a sharper, clearer image through the process of convergence of light positioned to bring it to wider attention. (Methodist and Anglican deacons in dialogue also used the analogy of a magnifying glass.) The optical analogy is helpful in highlighting the fact that ordained ministry is not defined by functions, as they are not constitutive of authority, but rather it is focussed on the significance of Christ’s ministry as prophet, priest and king and on the church as a sacramental sign of God’s redemptive mission at work. There is an inherent tension between identifying the character and symbolism of the deacon as configured to the ministry of Christ on the one hand and yet arguing for a role that is representative of the diakonia of the whole church on the other. If deacons simply replicate what the laity does why does the church need them at all? As Hannaford asserts ‘the significance of the sacred ministry lies precisely in its symbolism and capacity to focus what is true of the whole church’. A fundamental debate for Catholic theologians has been determining the sacramental status of the deacon ordained ‘not unto the priesthood but unto the ministry’ whilst at the same time being admitted to the oneness of Holy Orders. The Vatican maintains that the ‘diaconia of the liturgy’ at the Mass casts the deacon in the role of sanctifier as ‘minister of the blood’ and that this differs intrinsically from the contribution of the laity who assist with the chalice and from the role of the presiding priest. The difference between deacons and laity is derived from the concept of the sacramental character imprinted by ordination but the question of whether sacramental status applies to deacons at all has a long history of contestation that still awaits resolution. Conciliar documents are equivocal about whether the deacon acts in persona Christi like priests and bishops or in nomine Christi and the question of how Christ is specifically made manifest in the deacon’s ministry hangs in the air but acting in the name of Christ seems by far the stronger biblical warrant which includes all involved in mandated agency (Mat.28:19; Col.3.17; Jas 5:14).One of the reasons for the revival of the permanent diaconate advanced by the Catholic Church was to restore the fullness of the three-fold ministry as a manifestation of the mission of Christ the servant but generally the tasks outlined by Canon for deacons have veered towards liturgy. Traditions with a less sacramentally pronounced theological perspective may or may not ordain their deacons and will understand their symbolic ‘being’ differently. The Methodist church, which has taken intentional steps to ensure lay servant ministry is not limited by any suggestion of clericalism, has established a diaconate distinguished as itinerant, full time, stipendiary and characterised by holiness of life. As members of the Methodist Diaconal Order its deacons continue the rich heritage of the original Wesleyan deaconesses and are seen by Anglican deacons as having a clear identity. The quality of ‘being’ in religious community life has always been a powerful symbol of lifelong commitment and has shaped the way in which the diakonia of Christ touches lives. ‘Being’ depends on a servant spirituality of surrender (Isa. 6:8) that embodies the reality expressed in Galatians 2:20 that ‘it is no longer I who live but Christ who lives in me’, supremely revealed through Eucharist.Deacons and LiturgyThe work of deacons was traditionally grounded in the celebration of Eucharist which exemplified their servant ministry, linking worship with mission and caritas (1Cor.11:2-22, 26) as the gathered heard the word and were sent out to witness and to serve. The three strands of word, worship, and pastoral care apparent in Acts 2:42-47 remain constitutive of the life of the church. Churches with a high sacramental theology value the liturgical role of the deacon as key in expressing the link between altar and community (and between the altar and heaven in Orthodox tradition, as deacons mirror the angels at the heavenly banquet of the Church) however within reformed traditions deacons may not have a liturgical role. The serving role of the deacon at Eucharist, according to Keating, is a core metaphor of the deacon’s spirituality and clarifies diaconal service for the congregation, for example in Luke’s parable of the Great Banquet (Lk. 14:15-23) it is the servant who is sent as an icon of Christ’s love to invite the needy to come and eat, highlighting the diakonia of all God’s people. Whereas the priest presides over the gifts (or dispenses the mysteries in Orthodox terms) the deacon presides over the work of caritas bringing needs and concerns to the attention of the church in intercession and encouraging the congregation in their own self-offering in the words of the dismissal. Keating states that the deacon’s presidency is ‘a moral and spiritual collaboration with the mission of the laity’ which offers hope and energises love (Mt.24:12).In the context of Eucharist it is the deacon’s powerlessness that reveals the image of Christ the servant which the presiding priest cannot reflect without ‘confusing the symbolism of the liturgy - he cannot be both presider and servant simultaneously’. Current debate within the Methodist Diaconal Order has raised concerns for some that assisting liturgically confuses their role with that of presbyters, whereas others would support greater liturgical involvement for the reasons already outlined. The Order’s paper ‘What is a Deacon?’ asserts that witness through service is essentially sacramental because ‘all life contains visible signs of invisible grace’. Anglican-Lutheran deliberations conclude that the deacon’s liturgical role overrides the divide between ontology and function, with which the church has always struggled, by integrating symbolism and practice. A sacramental theology of orders which embraces hierarchy and ontological change can be seen to promote clericalism. In his search for a constructive theology Gaillardetz stresses the foundational nature of Church as an ordered communion of the baptised in relationship with Christ and one another realised as much horizontally as hierarchically. In my view deacons are intentionally those who seek to facilitate this relational reality in enabling lay ministry (Eph. 4:12) as collaborative servant leaders. Diaconal Roles in RelationshipVallee, a Catholic liturgist, takes issue with the expanding liturgical role of deacons beyond the Mass and the attempt to merge this with their traditional charitable service as a confusing mistake which encroaches on presbyteral responsibility, diminishes the symbolic representation of the deacon as Christ the servant, and departs from the teaching of the Early Church. She argues that deacons should preach only with a specific gifting and should not preside at occasional offices, especially at baptism (emergencies excepted) as this is the first step towards Eucharist. Her latter point reflects the ideal, but today’s reality requires flexibility as engagement with un-churched people may rest on relationships established by deacons. Nervousness arises from the desire to protect the priesthood in a hierarchical Church polity especially as the creation of a married diaconate has blurred the clarity of the lay-clerical divide traditionally associated with celibacy. Tavard, (writing in the 1980s) quoted by Cummings, advocates abandoning a superfluous diaconate in favour of releasing more creative forms of ministry not simply based on ancient tradition, however this view severs tradition completely and fails to take account of the international increase in deacon numbers widely acknowledged as a movement of the Holy Spirit. Vallee’s position is theologically unsound because she retains a narrow interpretation of diakonia plus a return to an early church model of the diaconate which is impossible to realise and contextually inappropriate with no room for the Holy Spirit. Ideally ministry should be a wholistic expression of the three elements of the deacon’s role which flow from the essence of the church, described in the Catholic document on diaconal formation as ‘a mystery of Trinitarian communion in missionary tension’. In reality traditions have developed differing emphases with Orthodox Churches adopting a primary liturgical role as enacted theologyon the one hand, the Lutheran Church emphasising social care on the other and according to Orton, and Barrow, the Methodist Church sitting in the middle. The German Lutheran model of Diakonie requires professional formation in various people-facing disciplines (see Appendix 5) and whilst the focus on love of neighbour (Deut.15:7-23; Lev. 19:18b; Mt.22:34-40) is a great strength, the question of identity confusion with secular social workers arises especially for traditions in which a sacramental theology of orders is very significant. The Methodist Diaconal Order maintains that the caritas of deacons is intrinsically sacramental yet this understanding does resonate with Borras who from a Catholic perspective states that the capacity to embody kenotic sacrifice is a gift of grace and cannot be reduced to ‘services rendered’, moral rectitude or disposition. This seems to me to mine a common seam of truth to ecumenical advantage but perhaps the most contested question that impacts on formation is the relationship between transitional and vocational deaconsInsights and OpportunitiesIn the search for an adequate theology for a renewed diaconate a questioning stance has emerged with regard to sequential ordination to the priesthood., Gaillardetz and others ,, argue that framing the diaconate as a step on the way to priesthood fails the test of adequacy, given that the cursus honorem has a short history, was preceded by examples of direct ordination of bishops and Popes from the diaconate and was a major reason for its decline. A return to direct ordination to the priesthood is advocated by some (exemplified in the Methodist Church) which would allow the vocational diaconate to recover its identity as a full and equal order with its own charism , within a unity of ministry, whereas the Church of England suggests transitional deacons might spend more time in the role. The theology of the diaconate is still evolving but in spite of uncertainties and differences revival of the diaconate has progressed across the world and the common bond of service and prophetic alteriority which unites deacons opens up ecumenical possibilities for study and support. The Church of England advocates collaborative study plus separate tracks for specific ministries however clarity about the needs of vocational deacons is necessary if potential is to be realised. Given this wide theological perspective, what are the formational experiences of deacons from this diversity of traditions? The next chapter investigates this question. Chapter 4 A Review of Formation in Ecumenical PerspectiveMethodology This chapter details the aims of the study, the rationale for the selection of participants, the interview design, transcription and reporting. The study aims to capture the experiences of deacons who having completed their initial formation had been exercising their ministry for up to five years. This time frame was chosen to ensure that participants’ reflections were accessible and could be placed alongside the reality of their unfolding ministry. Two participants were chosen from each of five traditions, namely Anglican, Methodist, Catholic, Antiochian Orthodox and Lutheran, and identified through ‘gatekeepers’ or ‘insider assistants’, for example directors of diaconal formation programmes. Gatekeepers and participants received the same information about the study to ensure that all were aware of what they were agreeing to in terms of confidentiality and time commitment. To reduce possible ethical bias potential participants responded directly to me and not to gatekeepers. There seemed to be a marked degree of enthusiasm to engage with the study perhaps because as one educator observed, ‘the diaconate is still finding its place in the church.’ Participants were drawn from the UK, Sweden and Germany and were emailed the covering letter and consent form (Appendix 1) and the schedule of interview questions (Appendix 2) in advance to give them time to reflect. English was not the first language of the Lutheran participants so question wording was concise and a brief explanation of terms introduced the schedule. The scope, order and suitability of the open questions were checked by another deacon who assessed clarity of wording, and ensured there were no leading questions. To provide a more complete picture the qualitative interviews gathered data on the whole process of formation from discernment to validation, reflections on impact, what was deemed particularly significant about training programmes and what was consider to be good practice. Background details on current ministry (Appendix 3) and training structure (Appendix 4) provided the context for responses. Data was also gathered about the extent to which their role as deacon was understood by their churches. Views on the content of programmes revealed some common themes and gave rise to suggestions for future development. Qualitative interviewing seeks to capture the experiences of informants through concrete description but will be shaped by theological understanding and by the interview design. In this study I viewed the interview conversation as a situated journey for interviewer and interviewee as co-constructionists. Given the diversity of diaconal ministry within and between church traditions, constructivism allows for flexible and in-depth exploration of new insights which may emerge for both parties and for a wider audience interested in diaconal formation. Face- to- face, audio recorded, semi-structured interviews lasted just over an hour and were conducted in my home, participants’ homes or in their workplace and consent forms signed. In three instances where this was not possible for geographical reasons two participants responded to the question schedule by email (one of whom had indicated that dealing with the written word would be easier) and one was interviewed by phone and the conversation audio recorded. Where responses required further clarification exchanges were conducted by email and by mutual agreement consent forms from non-local participants were scanned and sent to me. As the methods of data collection varied, comment on their relative merits is advanced. Face- to-face interviews allowed for more complex questions to be asked but can be open to social desirability bias where respondents wish to ensure a positive impression, but telephone interviews strip away facial expression and gesture which would normally provide clues about how to respond, particularly to pauses and silence, so concentration on the tone and pace of the voice was required. Rapport was easy to establish as deacons have a common bond which was bolstered by mentioning prior reading of key documents relevant to the interviewee’s tradition.Transcripts recorded non-verbal communication such as pauses and speaker’s emphases (bold in the transcript) as a means of noting depth of reflection or strength of feeling. Participants were invited to check their emailed transcripts for accuracy, or amend them should they wish and two did so. Transcribed data was coded and analysed using grounded theory to identify data categories from which themes emerged after further scrutiny and analysis. Data was gathered to test the assumption that good practice in the formation of deacons, could be uncovered by reviewing the formation process as it exists in other church traditions, where the identity and role of the deacon appears to be expressed with greater clarity than in the Church of England. It was also assumed that formational programmes would have a positive impact on theological understanding especially in traditions where the ordination of distinctive deacons is well established. An analysis of the data on the process of formation and deacons’ reflections upon it follows.Beginnings and contextOf the ten interviewees initial formation culminated in ordination into a three-fold ministry tradition with the exception of the German Lutheran and Methodist deacons. The lay ministry of the former was validated at a celebratory Einsegnung service (hallowing or consecrating ) and exercised against the background of the rich 19th century tradition of Kaiserwerth which is ‘organized beside the church, but sees itself as part of the church’. The Methodist deacons became part of a horizontal two-fold ministry (plus collegial oversight by Conference) as equal partners alongside presbyters with a distinctive but different role and additionally were admitted into the Methodist Diaconal Order. For several interviewees ‘call’ language was used to describe their inner sense of vocation, as the beginning of their formational journey combined with parallel discernment from their community of faith. Seven out of ten people had significant prior involvement in people-facing professions, theological study at degree level or longstanding liturgical or other experience of service in church life and saw this as defining part of their path to the diaconate. However one deacon, wary perhaps of discernment based on functionalism rather than holiness, was at pains to say, ‘there’s a view even in the Catholic Church you know; it’s about a decent bloke who attends church regularly. Let’s rope him into the diaconate programme. I don’t think it should be seen like that at all’. In contrast the Orthodox deacons saw lay discernment of potential as something the church should not lose. ‘I was picked up by the Holy Spirit along the way.....and sort of drawn in’ said one interviewee who had been invited to become a deacon by his congregation after many years of lay service. ‘Call’ language was described as ‘unusual’ or even presumptuous and although charism was essential, discernment was weighted towards collective decision making in response to an objective need for a deacon. In continuity with the early church, discernment retains strong organic elements alongside adherence to episcopal validation. For enquirers from churches with no experience of deacons, discernment was a slow discovery. A Lutheran deacon, who studied alongside priests, left because he felt connecting theological studies with his existing people-facing skills ‘was not the intention of the study programme.’ Finding the deacon school and the ‘deaconic’ community was the ‘connection and call he had waited and prayed for’. Recognition of a charism to undertake practical service in different guises was a common experience complemented by objective discernment by the whole church. Formation and Meaning Formation was described as an ongoing challenging process of self discovery which enabled mental, theological, spiritual and practical development, leading to a deeper prayer life, increased confidence in faith, the ability to reflect theologically and to influence others. Describing her emerging diaconal identity one respondent said ‘Neither human beings nor help from the Holy Spirit fit neatly into the nice little boxes we create for ourselves but the deacon box was the one that most fitted who I really am.’ Interviewees were asked about the significant impact of their formational programmes on their character in terms of identity, spirituality, liturgical role, leadership and practical service shaped by their tradition and what was particularly significant. These topics will be addressed in turn. The impact on character revealed the importance of learning about heritage (not always a strong feature of programmes) in projecting a positive identity which for Orthodox, Lutherans and Methodists was especially rich. A Lutheran participant gained ‘a new sight of deacons from the New Testament to the 19th century’ from his specific diaconal programme whereas the Methodist deacons, training ecumenically, were fortunate to have a member of the MDO on the staff, holding the diaconal role in front of them and to receive additional specific training from the order. An Anglican reflected that (self-study aside) her ‘tailored’ programme contained nothing on the theology or development of the diaconate but shortened courses do not always overlap with identified core learning needs without recourse to the flexibility online material could provide.The Catholic participants reported only brief treatment of the history of the diaconate and left a mention of ontological change through the grace of orders to one Anglican participant, probably because they took it for granted. Both Methodists and Anglicans said their ecumenical programmes were ‘very priestly focussed’ which meant negotiating accommodation to their academic needs however the Methodist Church’s provision of deacon mentors was key. As one Methodist deacon explained: I had a mentor who’s a retired deacon.... meetings were critical, in the understanding of who I was, who God has called me to be, what my role within the Methodist Church was as opposed to a presbyter........or a priest within the Anglican Church, and to keep me on track with that. Most participants described their programmes as spiritually beneficial particularly citing community life and worship, working with a spiritual director, and introduction to new spiritual traditions as growth areas. Ecumenical study was helpful in widening understanding and appreciation of other worship styles whilst grounding respondents more deeply in their own tradition. For all deacons identity is linked to an understanding of what it is to be church and it is this topic that forms the next section.Ecclesiology and Theology The form of the diaconate differs according to tradition, particularly in respect of the theology of orders and how servanthood is expressed within a unity of ministry. Deacons who were part of a three-fold ministry pattern described it as retaining an unhelpful ‘pecking order’. In class discussions an Anglican deacon felt she ‘just wanted to hide’ when asked ‘why on earth would anyone want to be just always a deacon?’ Even within Methodist congregations where a flat structure places deacons and presbyters in equal partnership but with differing roles, lack of understanding of a calling to the diaconate was experienced as a perennial problem.The Orthodox Antiochian deacons described a less hierarchical triangular structure (with the caveat that Orthodox jurisdictions differ), derived from Ignatius of Antioch, in which they retained a close relationship with the whole people of God and their Bishop, exercising delegated authority alongside the priest, with both covered by the Bishop’s Omophorion. Bishops are successors to the twelve and the deacons to the seven, always referred to in the liturgy as the diaconate in Christ. The baptised represent Christ the King, the priest Christ the High Priest (and Saviour in the Eucharist) and the deacon Christ the Servant. As liturgy is acted theology, liturgy plays a large part in uniquely defining the role of deacons who in the Russian tradition commonly give lifelong service whilst retaining the potential to be priested, if the need arises in their local community. As one deacon asserted,’ the idea of a transitional deacon makes no sense in Orthodox ecclesiology.’Liturgical roles were approached in different ways with Orthodox deacons learning through an extended apprenticeship working alongside their priest; Catholics using scripted ‘dry runs’ for services, and Lutherans sitting an exam in leading worship. Methodist deacons, for whom liturgy and sacrament was strongly associated with presbyteral ministry, expressed concern that a liturgical role (the subject of recent debates) had the potential to limit their focus on community and confuse their identity with that of presbyters. One interviewee said Sunday worship was not central to their ministry but a place where ‘they came to receive not to give’. All participants echoed the Lutheran deacon’s assertion that ‘in the church we do not only need people who have learnt to preach and lead the congregations but also people who know how to take care of the poor, the disabled, those who won’t come to church’. Although all roles overlap, this comment distinguished between the external focus of the deacon’s ministry, (the point where its character is most sharply delineated) as compared with that of the priest whose key role is holding the people before God at the altar. Interviewees defined the distinguishing mark of the deacon, within one united ministry, as the link between church and the world beyond the believing community, however where the emphasis of ministry lay varied with the Orthodox having a prominent internal role in the liturgy and the Lutherans a well established tradition of external practical service.An Anglican interviewee described the deacon’s liturgical role as ....a mirror of what we do in the community and vice versa. We invite people to be reconciled, proclaim the gospel, teach the faith in sermons, pray for the needs of the world and the local community, invite people to share the Peace of Christ, offer hospitality at the altar .......and send out the congregation to carry Christ’s love into the world. All this should reciprocate with what goes on outside the church door. The deacon’s work was described as a ‘now-and-not-yet ministry’ as they invite to confession and prepare the elements but do not pronounce absolution or consecrate. It is regrettable one Anglican interviewee found that practical training about Eucharist simply underlined what she would not be doing. I would argue that whatever one’s churchmanship is, teaching the symbolism of the liturgical roles of priest and deacon together would be illuminating for all and good preparation for formal occasions where distinctive deacons may be invited to have a presence. Leadership and Practical Service The comments of interviewees would suggest that diaconal leadership described by one deacon as ‘a delegated authority to lead in particular areas of responsibility’, was unevenly represented in training but as an Anglican deacon explained, ‘there is a need to recognise when to seek advice, work collaboratively, or check legal responsibility for decision making’. The Catholic interviewees had no training on leadership other than liturgical, but McDonnell’s observation that until recently their Church lacked a doctrine of ministry (as opposed to priesthood) perhaps explains the omission. De Pree’s model of the fiduciary leader who builds, serves and liberates potential in others in a collaborative community of nurturing relationships called into existence by God, is quoted by Ditewig as particularly appropriate for deacons as servant leaders and ecclesial signs of God’s love. All traditions gave weight not just to what deacons do in terms of word, witness and service but more importantly what they are. Interviewees’ practical self descriptions included being ‘a sign that the Christian heart should beat for everyone’, an inspiration and encouragement to others, and a kenotic model for risk taking as servants. They were at pains to avoid clericalism and inhibition of the laity by encouraging, equipping and enabling others then standing back which for itinerant Methodist deacons is inescapable. Views on the significant aspects of formation in terms of structure, content and good practice follow. Significance, Good Practice and Understanding Catholic deacons said that describing deacons as ‘shop floor workers’ should not lessen the need for a robust theological foundation because ministry involved answering complex ethical and relationship questions. Academic upgrades to programmes reflect the general picture of increasing professionalization but this should not exclude those gifted with practical skills. , Orthodox deacons valued the informality of the apprenticeship system as a blessing of the Holy Spirit and cited the egalitarian nature of formal courses, open to laity and clergy alike, as good practice. Understanding of the deacon’s ministry was strongest where clergy had supervised a trainee and where there was close collaboration with congregations so they could observe deacons in practice, but as Pederson’s study of the American Methodist Order of Deacons shows, acceptance often coexists with misunderstanding. Viewing the diaconate as merely a step to priesthood was reported as common amongst clergy and fellow students and led to uncertainty about identity. As most deacons, apart from Methodists, are not itinerant experience of what the diaconate can offer spreads slowly. Describing their ministry as ‘tough and trying’ on the edges of society, deacons underlined practical knowledge and the formation of emotional maturity as significant aspects of programmes which equipped them as servant leaders. Power to do the job was variously attributed to the sacramental grace of orders, the certainty of ‘being chosen for good reason’, a rule of life, and support from diaconal communities and church congregations. Study with candidates for the priesthood was valued because basic theology was well covered, but training was not shaped sufficiently by what deacons do, for example gaps were identified in core areas such as homelessness, mental health, addiction and community development. Practical placements which were highly valued by all became ‘significant’ where there was an opportunity to shadow other deacons, and it was suggested that this could be extended ecumenically. Anglican deacons wanted to see more placements with written reflections after each one but recognised logistical difficulties for part time students. Catholic deacons cited systematic observation of catechetical groups and occasional offices supported by scripted ‘dry runs’ as good practice and Orthodox deacons highlighted the apprentice system as the only way to learn pastoral skills. How deacons were understood in their churches and what challenges they faced concluded their reflections. Challenges and OutcomesParticipants’ experiences of formation were shaped by the shortage of priests, varying levels of commitment to the diaconate as a full and equal order and how the sacramentality of orders and the unity of ministry was understood and expressed. The shortage of priests/presbyters was a pressure for all interviewees which for some tended to shift their focus towards liturgical or presidential roles which they felt added to identity confusion and limited community work. Catholic deacons echoed Vallee’s concern that Lumen Gentium 29 has created inconsistency in affording bishops choice about renewing the permanent diaconate, however affirmation and support for the distinctive diaconate is uneven within the Church of England as well and it has not been promoted in recent years which has left a gap in experience between older deacons and those recently ordained. The Hind Report on formation and ‘The Mission and Ministry of the Whole Church’ (not adopted by General Synod) both recommend taking the diaconate more seriously and focussing more clearly on it in formation however from a Methodist perspective the latter document was perceived as ‘aspirational’ without evidence of strong diocesan backing. Study data did identify some aspects of good practice which might enrich practice within the Church of England which is complex due to overlap with priestly and lay ministries. Interviewees (some from contexts where deacon numbers are higher) made a number of suggestions which resonate with the above reports and other studies.All interviewees felt formation should provide the opportunity to explore and develop a specific theology, stronger diaconal identity and closer supportive networking with other deacons rather than simply mirroring what is generally offered to ordination candidates. McRae and others advocate programmes which include shared material plus aspects dedicated to the formation of deacons with attention paid to the fields of social sciences and community development and an intentional mission focus on areas where the church might not wish to be. Involving deacons as speakers (and where possible educators) would signal official affirmation and provide more nuanced insights into diaconal practice but an audit of existing resources would be necessary.In sum formation did not always equip deacons with a confident theology or identity so it is not surprising that mentoring and support by deacons for deacons was a strong theme as was ecumenical networking and shadowing deacons in other traditions, especially where it was perceived that identity was clearer. The report ‘Mission and Ministry of Whole Church’ suggests that ‘the training pathway for distinctive deacons could be more clearly and prominently signposted than it has been in the past.’ Having looked at the current position the next chapter will turn to future prospects.Chapter 5 Conclusion and RecommendationsSummaryFrom the Early Church to the present, deacons have been called to hold before the church its essential diaconal nature, connecting church and community, reaching out to those on the margins and challenging the church to maintain its mission imperative and prophetic edge leading the Church in its intercession for humankind. As enablers and encouragers of others they are in Newbigin’s words ‘a hermeneutic of the gospel. In an age of disbelief in the credibility of truth claims the distinctive deacon’s deeply relational ministry of presence (Lk. 22:27b), acceptance (Mt. 15:21-28) and pastoral accompaniment (Lk.24:13-33) can be a powerful expression of the love of Christ so how best can formation be designed to prepare them for this role? Bearing in mind Collins’ re-definition of diakonia, this study has reviewed the history and emerging theology of the diaconate based on a kenotic model and highlighted some of the associated complexities. The formational experiences of deacons from different traditions were investigated with a view to indentifying what they considered to be good practice which might provide insights for my own tradition. Ecumenically recognition is growing that formation which has been seen largely through a priestly lens, requires a stronger focus on the requirements of vocational deacons who have a different charism and office.Most interviewees were positive about their formation, in terms of integrated learning, spirituality and core theology and were enthused by the possibility of learning from deacons in other traditions, but identified gaps in diaconal studies such as the history and theology of the diaconate, servant leadership and practical pastoral topics that reflect what deacons do. Difficulties were expressed in terms of the lack of understanding of their role at all levels, and the perennial problem of being negatively defined as ‘sub-priests’. Programmes which include shared material plus aspects dedicated to the formation and support of deacons would seem to be the way forward with more involvement of deacons as mentors for students. The distinctive diaconate in the Church of England remains a hidden ministry which according to Methodist colleagues needs to be ‘recovered and celebrated’ but progress has been made with the welcomed appearance of the guidelines for discernment of deacons. The document ‘Mission and Ministry of the Whole Church’ has helpfully clarified the theology regarding relationships between the diaconate and other ministries but points to the need for further action by asking ‘the Church of England how it can do justice to this calling and take it more seriously, in selection, training and deployment’. Looking ahead, the following recommendations which incorporate the views of study participants and some of my own, will hopefully contribute towards an answer.Recommendations The recommendations with their sources represent the views and aspirations of study participants from cited traditions, or the literature or are my own suggestions which could be helpful to the Church of England. As McRae states ‘unless deacons are able to see themselves as truly embodying the diakonia of the whole church their theological and ecclesial insights will remain compromised and ineffective’. Some points will be for individual deacons and others for theological educators and the dioceses.DiscernmentEstablish an aspirant programme for deacons and priests (RC)Ensure the diaconate is included as an option in vocations events (RC)Use experienced deacons as a resource for those exploring ministry in liaison with the Diocesan Director of Ordinands CurriculaGive serious consideration to developing formational programmes that will more clearly prepare deacons to embody their distinctive calling with confidence (Ang,RC,Meth)Retain a generic core but develop a strand of diaconal studies that gives attention to historical roots and to today’s needs, with a focus on social sciences and community development such as Christianity in public life, ecological responsibility and management of change (Ang, Meth) Explore individual tailoring without compromising collective learning or the needs of the church, through better use of information technology Ensure practical teaching on the Eucharist involves the deacon’s role so all ordinands, whatever their churchmanship understand it - deacons have the opportunity to symbolise the unity of the church’s three fold ministry by exercising a representative liturgical role not just at parish level but alongside priests as a part of Cathedral worship and in civic life (Ang, Luth)Involve vocational deacons as deacons in classroom discussions to foster a diakonal way of thinking in theological reflection ResourcesHarness information technology to enable access to online material particularly for individuals on shortened courses, where identified gaps in learning cannot be filled because the available time frame may not contain the relevant topics (Ang)Ensure training college libraries hold key titles relating to the diaconate Support Audit local deacon’s skills and experience and encourage them to form supportive networks with trainees and diocese (Meth, Ang, RC)Identify deacons willing to act as mentors for othersAwareness RaisingInvite enquirers, those involved in the process of formation, parish priests and church members to educative events designed to promote understanding about the diaconate Ecumenical LinksConsider longer placements which involve shadowing distinctive deacons in other traditions and build stronger ongoing ecumenical links (Ortho,RC,Ang,Luth,Meth)There are two comments to make before concluding. Firstly although the diaconate is contested theologically this is not ecumenically divisive because the validity of orders is not usually in question so closer ecumenical ties between deacons from different traditions hold out promise. Secondly, studies of deacon’s experiences are few, so further participative research would be helpful in assessing the progress of renewal in the Church of England. Reflections on the FutureIn the Church of England the diaconate, as has been said, is somewhat hidden and the Diaconal Association of the Church of England (DACE), which is a voluntary body and not part of the Church, has to work hard to identify and support distinctive deacons from amongst the general ‘assistant curate’ population by contacting bishops. Wider opportunities for ecumenical learning and support come from partners in the Diakonia World Federation; from Kaire, an informal international gathering for diaconal workers, and also from the Methodist Diaconal Order who kindly offer Anglican deacons hospitality in their area groups. Locally one deacon has become six so progress is being made. Tavard’s suggestion that deacons are superfluous was not borne out by any of my study participants, rather their stories were self-sacrificial and missional. Bishop Rogerson, quoted by John Armes of the Scottish Episcopal Church, reminds us that God has always renewed the vocational diaconate in response to social upheavals and created a kairos moment which these words from For Such a Time as This seem to express.A renewed diaconate… operating as a catalyst for Christian discipleship, in the mission space between worship and the world, can help the Church to become more incarnational. In worship the Church gathers to receive and to celebrate its identity, to be renewed in the Spirit, and to be sent forth in the name of Christ and in the power of the same Spirit to bring God's reconciling, healing grace to a world full of brokenness. We have not been good at doing equal justice to these two vital movements of the Church's life: sending and gathering. The re-envisioned diaconate can help to hold them together. Such is the purpose of formation.Word Count 14,702Appendix 1 The OrdinalIn the Common Worship Ordination of Deacons, the Bishop addresses the congregation in the following words:Deacons are called to work with the Bishop and the priests with whom they serve as heralds of Christ’s kingdom. They are to proclaim the gospel in word and deed, as agents of God’s purposes of love. They are to serve the community in which they are set, bringing to the Church the needs and hopes of all the people. They are to work with their fellow members in searching out the poor and weak, the sick and lonely and those who are oppressed and powerless, reaching into the forgotten corners of the world that the love of God may be made visible.Deacons share in the pastoral ministry of the Church and in leading God’s people in worship. They preach the word and bring the needs of the world before the Church in intercession. They accompany those searching for faith and bring them to baptism. They assist in administering the sacraments; they distribute communion and minister to the sick and housebound.Deacons are to seek nourishment from the Scriptures; they are to study them with God’s people that the whole Church may be equipped to live out the gospel in the world. They are to be faithful in prayer, expectant and watchful for the signs of God’s presence, as he reveals his kingdom among us.Appendix 2 Cover LetterRevd. M. Elizabeth Carrington202 Boroughbridge RoadYork YO26 6BDTo: Deacon XDate 2 Nov 2013Dear Deacon,I am a distinctive (preferred) deacon in the Church of England studying for a Master’s degree as part of Initial Ministerial Education under the auspices of Sheffield University and the Yorkshire Ministry Course, based at the College of the Resurrection, Mirfield. My dissertation topic is entitled ‘A Survey of Good Practice in the Formation of Distinctive Deacons in Ecumenical Perspective’. Following the initiative of the Roman Catholic Church after Vatican II the role of distinctive (as opposed to transitional) deacons has been re-discovered and re-energised across the denominations, but with less clarity within the Church of England as compared with other traditions. The Roman Catholic and Methodist churches have established formational programmes for distinctive deacons specific to their role and the diaconate is clearly identifiable. In contrast, within the Church of England there is currently a generic approach. Some dioceses of the Church of England have been ordaining distinctive deacons for many years whilst others have just begun. It would appear that consideration of formational requirements specific to distinctive deacons are in view so the reflections of established deacons from other traditions with a longer history would be informative. Of particular interest is the impact of the current theological re-framing of the role of the distinctive deacon on ministerial formation.I aim to identify what distinctive deacons with up to five years experience post-ordination(or equivalent) from Anglican, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Lutheran and Methodist backgrounds consider to be key formational elements of pre-ordination education which would best support the theological and practical expression of their role with the objective of highlighting good practice and uncovering innovation.I propose to gather information via face- to-face, audio-recorded, semi-structured interviews and where this is not possible for geographical reasons, via telephone or questionnaire. Interviews would take no longer than one hour. All information collected will remain strictly confidential and the names of informants anonymised to protect identities. Any reference to data in the text of the dissertation will be coded to preserve anonymity. The findings will be shared only with Sheffield University and the College of the Resurrection, Mirfield. Dissertations are held in the Mirfield library. All participants will be provided with copies of the interview questions in advance and will be asked to check transcription records for accuracy to avoid misrepresentation. All gathered data will be destroyed after transcription and should you deem it necessary, it can be submitted by the researcher to the College of the Resurrection Mirfield for destruction and confirmation can be provided. I will be happy to discuss any questions you may have and please be assured that should you agree to participate, you are free to withdraw from the process at any time or to decline to answer particular questions. If you would be willing to participate I would be grateful if you would confirm this by email at your earliest convenience. The interview date and style will then be arranged. A copy of the consent form is provided below which will be signed by both parties at interview. Thank you for time in reading this letter,Yours SincerelyRevd. Deacon Liz Carrington Assistant Curate, St Luke’s Church, YorkParticipant Consent FormTitle of Dissertation: A Survey of Good Practice in Diaconal Formation in Ecumenical PerspectiveName of YMC / COR / IME student: Margaret Elizabeth CarringtonParticipant Identification Number for this project: Please tick boxI confirm that I have read and understand the information letterdated 23rd Oct 2013 explaining the above project and I have had the opportunity to ask questions about the project.I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdrawat any time without giving any reason and without there being any negativeconsequences. In addition, should I not wish to answer any particularquestion or questions, I am free to decline. I understand that I can contact the above-named student should I have any questions regarding the interview. carringtone@ Tel +44(0)1904 798916I understand that my responses will be kept strictly confidential.I give permission for members of the team to have access to myanonymised responses. I understand that my name will not be linked withthe research materials, and I will not be identified or identifiable in thereport or reports that result from the research. 4. I understand that all data collected for the purposes of this research will be destroyed once the dissertation has been submitted.I agree to take part in the above dissertation project.________________________________________Name of ParticipantDateSignatureMargaret Elizabeth Carrington ________________ ____________________ YMC / COR / IME studentDateSignatureTo be signed and dated in presence of the participant. Once this has been signed by all parties the participant should receive a copy of the signed and dated participant consent form, the letter/pre-written script/information sheet and any other written information provided to the participants. A copy of the signed and dated consent form should be returned to the Academic Registrar. Appendix 3 Schedule of interview questions A Survey of Good Practice in the Formation of Deacons in Ecumenical Perspective.Note: Diaconal ministry can take many forms across different church traditions. The use of the term ‘deacon’, used here, refers to individuals who have been set apart by their Church to exercise a validated ministry which does NOT lead to priesthood. In some traditions the title may be ‘deaconess’.Your ministry Is your ministry full time or part time?Do you receive payment or do you work on a voluntary basis?Do you also have a secular job?How is your ministry validated? (Ordination, Commissioning, Religious Order)How long have you been exercising your ministry? Briefly describe your ministry and the context in which you work.2. Structure of the mandatory training programme leading to validationHow was your formational programme delivered? Was it:ResidentialNon-residential, but largely face to faceNon-residential, but largely on-line With whom did you study? Those training for the priesthood from your own traditionThose training for the priesthood from your own and another tradition Solely with those training for diaconal ministry (deacons, deaconesses ) in your traditionOther (please describe)How long was your programme? 3. Your Formational Programme Describe what formation means to you?What is your theological understanding of your role?Describe the impact of your programme on: Your character as a deacon?Your spirituality?The liturgical exercise of your ministry?Your practical service as you are exercising it now?Your leadership as a deacon?What do you see as the most significant aspects of your formation?Why is this?What do you see as examples of good practice in your formational programme?Your Place in the ChurchTo what extent is your role understood in your church?How do you see the future development of the diaconate? 5. Your ReflectionsPlease add your comments if you would like to. October 2013Appendix 4 Interviewees Tradition and BackgroundInterviewees& length of ministryChurch TraditionValidation & Deployment ContextLutheran 14 yearsGerman Reformed Evangelical and Lutheran ‘Deaconic’ Community Single order of ordained ministryEinsegnung (consecration) +Deaconic Community (Residential and dispersed )30 hours a week StipendiaryProfessional training as a nurse and educatorOne of several deacons in a home for disabled young people run by a Deaconic Foundation Lutheran 24 yearsChurch of Sweden Reformed with maintenance of three-fold ministry and traditionsOrdained Full time stipendiary Sole deacon Church disestablished in 2000,membership 68% nationally Suburban – 1 churchOrthodox 15 ? yrsAntiochian Jurisdiction UKThree-fold ministryOrdained Awaiting priesting Voluntary – retiredSole deaconDiaspora church and UK convertsCity centre – 1 churchOrthodox 219 monthsAntiochian Jurisdiction UKThree-fold ministryOrdained Voluntary + secular jobFlexible hoursPotential monkSole deaconDiaspora church and UK convertsCity centre – 1 churchMethodist 14 yearsThe Methodist Church in Britain; Two fold ministry with collegial oversight (Conference)Ordained + Methodist Diaconal Order (Ordained dispersed religious community)Full time stipendiaryItinerantSole deaconRural circuit -10 churchesMethodist 25 yearsThe Methodist Church in Britain; Two-fold ministry with collegial oversight (Conference)Ordained + Methodist Diaconal Order (Ordained dispersed religious community)Full time stipendiaryItinerantSole deacon – married to presbyterTown centre - 2 churchesInterviewees& length of ministryChurch TraditionValidation & Deployment ContextAnglican 114 monthsInterviewees& length of ministryChurch of England EvangelicalThree-fold ministryTraditionOrdainedPart time 2 days a week + SundayNo secular jobValidation & DeploymentSole deacondeprived/diverse community Inner city- 2 churchesContextAnglican 24? yearsChurch of England Various, including Anglo-CatholicThree -fold ministryOrdainedPart time voluntary + full time secular jobSole deaconUrban - 5 churchesRoman Catholic 13? yearsMajor church worship3-fold ministryPermanent (absolute) deaconsOrdainedPart time voluntaryMainly weekends + full time secular job Flexible hoursOne of three deaconsDiverse, gathered congregationInner city - 1 churchRoman Catholic 210 monthsParish worship3-fold ministryPermanent (absolute) deaconsOrdainedPart time voluntary, retired3 days a weekFlexible hoursOne of two deacons + parish sisterSuburban -3 churches, 3 schoolsAppendix 5 Participants’ Formational Study Interviewee Prior learning Comments on the discernment process, pre and post-validation training structure Lutheran 1 SwedenPrevious professional skills – e.g. project management. ‘I have worked outside the church with many things for 23 years’.Mandated 3 years ‘people field’ degree (psychology) Existing parish commitment requiredBasic generic ‘Course for the Church of Sweden’ 6 months (mandatory for all church professions, priests, deacons, musicians, parish educators)1 month practical parish training with other candidates – if accepted then:2 months in 2nd parish plus Diocesan courses2 years specific deacon training and reflection on calling in discussion with the Bishop and Diocesan DeaconAfter final acceptance, 1 year university course concluding with an academic exam‘Hearing’ before Chapter, days before ordination Total inc. degree 7 years <Change Jan 2014 – Supplementary pastoral theology mandatory for all the above, except church organists, in final year/term: entry requirements BA and MA for priests. Higher education required for all. ‘We also want the training in professional skills to make possible the choice of alternative occupations in society.’> Interviewee Prior learning Comments on the discernment process, pre and post-validation training structure Lutheran 2 GermanyWorking with people with epilepsy in a Deaconic Foundation (interviewee’s term) Specific course for Deacons (men and women)Grundseminar: 1 year residential in Deaconic Community3 years minimum individual study elsewhere in social work, nursing etc which is state approved but not necessarily at university. “I did a geriatric care course run by a Deaconic Foundation”. 1st year placement in Abendfrieden nursing home for deaconess elders.Oberseminar: 1 year part time in a Deaconic Community 20 hours a week. This covered OT/NT, church history, dogmatics, ethics, spiritual welfare (including practice),spiritual life, theory of church services and congregations, youth work, deaconic history, theory and basics of social work, group dynamics Total 5 years <Change: Programme upgraded to offer externally validated credits towards BA> Orthodox 1Longstanding liturgical experience and continuous personal studywith priests and monks. To be ordained priest as soon as there is a Bishop. Strong tradition of Congregational Invitation Ad Hoc Apprenticeship in own deanery and with own priest No formal training and non available in the UK (Access to American online and residential European courses in Greece and Russia)No distinction between training for deacons and priests – one continuum across 3 tiers – because ‘ultimately one leads to the other even if in practice they never do’ Studied individually with monks and priests over the years, who judged competency. Accent on liturgy Rule – 40 liturgies must be served with supervision, for mass and each of the other mysteries Timescale variableIntervieweePrior learningComments on the discernment process and pre-validation training structureOrthodox 2Liturgical experienceGeneric on-line E-quip course – 3 years. Deacons usually ordained in year 2.Largely online plus discussions with colleagues and spiritual director. Essays and research are included. Open to any Orthodox Christian with a firm understanding of faith and tradition. Many lay students The parish community discerns the need for a deacon - parish priest speaks to the potential candidate, explains the role and asks him to consult his spiritual father(director) The parish priest presents the candidate to the Bishop’s Axios (worthy) Committee who examine him and make recommendations. Possible interview with the BishopAcceptance – parish priest, spiritual father and lay people discuss the function of the diaconate and Bishop determines training programmeDate set for ordination once studies are “sufficiently advanced” and the person is deemed capable of performing some diaconal functions, rather than after a fixed time period No fixed rules across jurisdictions – ordination before or after training Total variable / 3 yearsMethodist 12 yrs Generic Foundation Course to help discern calling – Grad. Dip Th. with people of other faiths or none <Change -this has since been dropped>2yrs Non-residential Regional Course mostly for ordinands to the priesthood: C of E, Meth, URC + one other deacon– residential weeks and weekends Support via Methodist Diaconal Order (MDO) Area Groups and Convocation2 (or 3) yrs training as a probationer deacon – mandatory contextual study relating to the appointment – ‘Very helpful to know what’s going on’. Self selection of relevant courses.Ordination and reception into the MDO Total 6 years IntervieweePrior LearningComments on the discernment process and pre-validation training structureMethodist 23yrs Generic Non-residential Regional Ministry Course mostly for ordinands to the priesthood C of E, Meth, URC. Sole deacon + 2 presbyters, 2 URC.- 1 past deacon student known On line material was just being developed – ‘you could go and put videos in’Some flexibility to choose ‘diaconal’ modules with experiential placements ‘There were a couple of essays where I worked with the college staff to say “I do not wish to write an essay about my calling to the Anglican priesthood”. You’ve got to go out of your way and say ‘I need to push for this bit to be changed to make it specific for me. Sometimes I had to go and bite my tongue. They weren’t set up to train Methodist deacons’.‘The MDO provided additional formational information and reading to understand the history of diaconate both as a Methodist deacon and diakonia world-wideSupport via MDO Area Groups and Convocation 2 (or 3) yrs training as a probationer deacon. Total 5 years Anglican 1Teacher – adult educationReader for 5 years Generic, 2 years Non-residential Regional Ministry Course, residential weeks and weekends mostly for ordinands to the priesthood, C of E, Meth, URC.Study - Sole deacon, one Lutheran, some pioneer ministers, otherwise AnglicansInitial Ministerial Education post-ordination – 4 years Total 6 yearsAnglican 2IT manager in health services. Previous theological study.‘Doing many of the same things long before I was ordained.’ Generic ecumenical 1 year full time Regional Ministry Course, residential with ordinands to the priesthood (deferred a year to arrange absence from work) Initial Ministerial Education post-ordination – 4 years Total 5 yearsIntervieweePrior LearningComments on the discernment process and pre-validation training structureRoman Catholic 1University lecturerSpecific 4 years – Diocesan programme - ‘Homemade’ part time, non-residential, course for permanent deacons. Rolling programme. Monthly on Saturdays. <Change: Now a more robust academic externally validated programme specific to the diaconate at an approved Educational Institute. BA upgrade option> Total 4 yearsRoman Catholic 2Teacher, librarian. Graduate in theology & philosophy. Active in social work. Experienced church worker and retreatant. Prior study with Jesuits. 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