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ABSTRACT
The key to understanding where we are going is to learn from where we have been. Unprecedented changes in the health care system were introduced through the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, but we have not stopped to measure the progress we have made in reaching the Act’s initial goals. We need to take an inventory of the current status of the health system, including the impact of the Affordable Care Act before considering future health reform.
Making recommendations to encourage commonsense health legislation and looking beyond bipartisan views on health care is important to design a robust health care system. The public health significance of pursuing critical national health reform is that we can ensure the health and wellness of individuals and communities through all echelons of the government. Vital issues like access to care, health disparities, financing care, and quality of care can be addressed and corrected.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 GOALS OF THE AFFORDABLE CARE ACT 2
1.1.1 Expanding Health Care Coverage – Why did we need it? 2
1.1.2 Shifting the Focus of the Health Care Delivery System from Treatment to Prevention –How do we justify this goal? 3
1.1.3 Costs and Inefficiency in Health care- what is the scope of the problem? 4
2.0 PROVISIONS OF THE AFFORDABLE CARE ACT 6
2.1 To Expand Health Care Coverage 6
2.1.1 Expansion of Public Health Insurance 6
2.1.2 Establishing Health Benefit Exchanges 6
2.1.3 Changes to Private Health Insurance 7
2.1.4 Individual Mandate 8
2.1.5 Employer Requirements 8
2.2 Shifting the Focus of the Health Care Delivery System from Treatment to Prevention 9
2.2.1 Investing in Public Health 9
2.2.2 Educating the Public 9
2.2.3 Coverage of Preventive Benefits 10
2.2.4 Building Capacity for Prevention in the Future 10
2.3 Reducing Costs and Improving Efficiency of Health Care 11
2.3.1 Testing New Delivery Models 11
2.3.2 Encouraging Shift Toward Payment Based on Value of Care Provided 11
2.3.3 Developing Resources for System-Wide Improvement 12
3.0 IMPACT OF THE AFFORDABLE CARE ACT 13
3.1 EXPANDING HEALTH CARE COVERAGE 13
3.2 3.2 SHIFTING THE FOCUS OF THE HEALTH CARE DELIVERY SYSTEM FROM TREATMENT TO PREVENTION 15
3.3 REDUCING COSTS AND IMPROVING EFFICIENCY OF HEALTH CARE 16
4.0 Repair, Repeal or Replace? 18
4.1 Repairing the ACA 18
4.2 Repealing the ACA 19
4.3 Replacing the ACA 20
5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS 22
6.0 Conclusion 23
BIBLIOGRAPHY 24
List of figures
Figure 1. Distribution of National Health Expenditures, by Type of Service (in Billions), 2010 3
Figure 2. Percentage of Individuals in the United States Without Health Insurance, 1963-2015.. 14
Introduction
In the wake of the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression in combination with rising health care costs, high numbers of uninsured individuals, fragmentation of care, and inefficiencies in health care delivery, it became imperative to reform the American health care system. In addition, national health care reform, particularly the creation of universal coverage, had been the focal point of many previous White House administrations’ unsuccessful attempts to change the health care landscape.
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) was landmark health legislation signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23rd, 2010. Since the law was signed, there have been more than sixty attempts by House Republicans to repeal or alter the Act.
The recent presidential victory and Republican majorities in both chambers of Congress have presented an opportune occasion for Republicans to repeal the Affordable Care Act(ACA). As both major political parties adhere to their convictions and race to garner support in their political circle of influence, health professionals need to stand for the health of the American people. It is our duty to evaluate the effects of the law, make recommendations for improvement, and foresee the consequences of repealing the Act.
The purpose of this essay is to elucidate the goals of the ACA, the provisions used to achieve the goals, and the outcomes of administering the law. Then various alternatives to the law and their effects will be detailed.
1 GOALS OF THE AFFORDABLE CARE ACT
According to the American Public Health Association (APHA) the three key goals of the Affordable Care Act are to expand health care coverage, to shift the focus of the health care delivery system from treatment to prevention, and to reduce the cost and improve the efficiency of health care.1
1 Expanding Health Care Coverage – Why did we need it?
In 2010, the National Health Interview survey revealed that 16% of the American population were uninsured.2 Furthermore, in the year prior to the implementation of the ACA, census surveys affirmed that forty-seven (47.3) million Americans under the age of 65 were uninsured; this constituted 18% of the under 65 demographic.3 Moreover, of the individuals who had health insurance, thirty-one (31.7) million individuals spent a high share of their annual income on medical care.3 When we account for both of these groups, a staggering seventy-nine (79) million individuals were at risk for not being able to afford care.
A combination of factors set the stage for high levels of uninsured individuals. First, a majority of the uninsured were non-elderly adults who didn’t qualify for public health insurance programs like Medicaid and Medicare. Furthermore, the high costs of obtaining private health insurance effectively prevented access for a majority of the uninsured. Second, private insurers practiced risk selection by charging high premiums or denying coverage to high utilizers of health care. Third, lack of competition in the private health insurance market gave little incentive for insurers to lower premiums and cater to the unmet needs of the uninsured population. Fourth, the cost of health insurance has increased disproportionately in comparison to wage increases.
2 Shifting the Focus of the Health Care Delivery System from Treatment to Prevention –How do we justify this goal?
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Americans used preventive services at only half the recommended rate.4 On the provider side, the health care system centered on treating injuries and disability, and managing chronic conditions, but did not focus on maintaining the health of individuals. Preventable causes of illnesses like smoking and obesity were left unaddressed, depleting precious resources and increasing costs of care. From the patient perspective, cost sharing measures for preventive services like deductibles, copayments, and coinsurance deterred individuals from undergoing essential preventive services like cancer screening, immunization, and counselling. Ultimately, $277 billion dollars were spent on treating illnesses which could have been prevented by broad based prevention programs, and we incurred a loss of $1.1 trillion dollars due to lost productivity as a result of chronic illnesses.5
[pic]
Figure 1. Distribution of National Health Expenditures, by Type of Service (in Billions), 2010
The pie-chart above reviews the distribution of National Health Expenditures revealing that a majority of health care dollars were spent on hospital care and physician/clinical services. On the other hand, public health activity along with research and structures and equipment constituted only 14.8% of the health care expenditure. This disparity in distribution of funds points to a deep-seated neglect in supporting preventive services.
Lastly, research published by the Milken Institute in 2007 suggested that even modest improvements in preventing and treating diseases could lead to forty (40) million fewer cases of chronic disease by 2023.5 This would decrease the economic impact of disease by 27%. 5 Based on the implications of the study, the researchers recommended incentivizing and rewarding prevention and recommitting as a nation to achieving a healthy body weight.5
3 Costs and Inefficiency in Health care- what is the scope of the problem?
The amount of money a nation spends on health care compared to the prediction of the amount a nation should spend based on Gross Domestic Product (GDP) constitutes excessive spending. For instance, in 2006, the United States was expected to spend an average of only $4,819 per capita on health care based on GDP rather than the $6,714 it actually spent.6 This means that the $1,895 difference constitutes excessive spending. In 2013, before the major provisions of the ACA came into effect, the United States spent 17.1 % of its GDP on health care.6This was 50% more than the next highest spender(France) amongst the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. 6
As the statistics above suggest, the United States spends more than any other developed nation on health care, yet this expenditure does not translate to stellar health outcomes. The United States in comparison with other OECD countries demonstrates the lowest life expectancy, highest infant mortality, higher incidence of complications associated with diabetes like amputations, and higher mortality associated with ischemic heart disease. 6Even within the country wide variations in care and costs were noted across geographic regions. Furthermore, many experts believe that a significant portion of our health care dollars are wasted, with estimates suggesting that up to 30 percent of total spending could be eliminated without reducing health care quality.7
In conclusion, international comparison of health systems placed the United States last in an analysis that considered measures such as quality, access, efficiency, equity, and cost.
PROVISIONS OF THE AFFORDABLE CARE ACT
1 To Expand Health Care Coverage
1 Expansion of Public Health Insurance
In order to decrease the amount of uninsured individuals one of the provisions of the ACA is centered on expanding public health insurance programs namely Medicaid and Children’s Health Insurance Program(CHIP). Medicaid was expanded to include children, pregnant women, parents, and adults without dependent children up to 133% of the Federal Poverty Level (FPL).8 Medicaid expansion was contested in court challenging its constitutionality. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the law but restricted the ability of Health and Human Services(HHS) in enforcing the expansion. This decision caused the provision to be optional for states. As of January, 2017, thirty-two states have adopted Medicaid expansion. The Act extended federal funding for CHIP until 2015. 8
2 Establishing Health Benefit Exchanges
Establishing Health Benefit Exchanges (also called health insurance exchanges/health insurance marketplace) is an effort to streamline insurance purchase. Both federal and state-run exchanges have to adhere to rules regarding pricing of the plans and the benefits included within the plan. The exchanges provide a platform where individuals and small businesses can readily purchase coverage. Subsidies are being made available through the marketplace to provide financial assistance for individuals below 400% of the FPL. 8 The administrative simplification of the exchanges is coupled with ease of information through the online portal and telephone hotlines.
3 Changes to Private Health Insurance
One major amendment to the private health insurance market has been abolishing medical underwriting. Medical underwriting refers to the practice of tailoring coverage benefits and costs of coverage based on health status. This practice was rampant prior to implementation of the ACA where insurers denied coverage based on previous health conditions, medications, and even occupation. Under the Act it became illegal to deny coverage due to pre-existing conditions. Furthermore, charging differential premiums and instituting lifetime and annual limits became outlawed. Second, the law approved federal subsidies for individuals with moderate incomes (up to 400% of FPL) to make coverage more affordable. Next, the act instituted the medical loss ratio provision in which insurers are mandated to use at least 80% of premium income on clinical services and quality improvement. If insurers fail to use the specified amount of premium income on patient care, then the excessive amount must be refunded to the customers. Lastly, insurers were required to cover dependents up to the age of 26 notwithstanding group or individual coverage.
4 Individual Mandate
In the Pre-ACA Era, individuals were not required to purchase insurance. Most individuals were provided health benefits through their employer, but a significant proportion of the population remained uninsured. This leads to increased health care costs overall and posed several challenges to insurers like adverse selection, moral hazard, and high risk pools. In the ACA Era, by authorizing the individual mandate and setting up the insurance marketplace, individuals are pooled together with a patient characteristic other than their health status. This leads to an assortment of individuals in the insurance pool with a combination of high utilizers and low utilizers of health care. Furthermore, the healthy individuals in the risk pool will help offset the costs from sicker individuals. As a consequence of the individual mandate the number of insured individuals will increase as all individuals are required to have some form of insurance.
5 Employer Requirements
The employer requirements aspect of the Act helps assess the health care coverage options being made available to employees. Based on the size of the business and presence/absence of health care coverage options for employees the government in turn provides tax subsidies or penalties. This measure to provide oversight for employer sponsored insurance was expected to decrease the number of employees who remain uninsured.
2 Shifting the Focus of the Health Care Delivery System from Treatment to Prevention
1 Investing in Public Health
Foremost, the Law created a new council, namely the National Prevention, Health Promotion and Public Health Council.9 The Council is tasked with spearheading public health initiatives backed by evidence based research and advancing the public health agenda. They are also required to make recommendation to inform future policy. Next, the Act established the Prevention and Public Health Fund. 9 The Fund is the financial backbone that enables the Council to pursue its goals and responsibilities.
2 Educating the Public
Public educational programs were administered as a consequence of Congress recognizing the potential for broad based educational programs in addressing preventable diseases and promoting population health. 10 Various modes including television, radio, web portals act as avenues to promulgate a healthy lifestyle and create awareness about risk factors and diseases in the population. In addition, an unexpected progressive aspect of the law recruited restaurants to serve as sources of public health information by mandating display of nutritional information as a part of restaurant menus. 10
3 Coverage of Preventive Benefits
Cost sharing, a practice where patients were required to pay a portion of the costs associated with medical services in the form of deductibles, copayments, and coinsurance served as a primary barrier for individuals seeking preventive services. The Act eliminated cost sharing and facilitated the coverage of preventive services by both public and private insurance providers in accordance with the recommendations of the United States Preventive Services Task Force. 10
4 Building Capacity for Prevention in the Future
Numerous research programs are being instituted under the purview of the Law to facilitate capacity building. First, a pilot program using ten community health programs to evaluate the effect of using individualized wellness programs which offer measures to address risk factors for preventable conditions. 9 Second, provisions of the act encourage comparative analysis of effectiveness and cost to identify prevention priorities and communities that would benefit from active intervention. 9Third, grants to conduct research for Medicare beneficiaries and individuals nearing Medicare eligibility to identify appropriate community-based programs. 9
3 Reducing Costs and Improving Efficiency of Health Care
1 Testing New Delivery Models
Foremost, the Law lead to the formation of Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs).11 ACOs are a manner of ensuring that health care providers take responsibility for costs and quality of health care provided to Medicare beneficiaries. Essentially, they have a stake in maintaining the health and well-being of a specific patient population. Second, ACA seeks to reform primary care by using patient-centered medical home model. 11 This model encourages “care coordination, care teams, patient engagement, and population health management.” Third, attempts to bridge the transition from in-patient care to other care settings are being pursued in partnership with community-based organizations through the Community-Based Care Transitions Program. 11 This initiative has potential to decrease hospital readmissions.
2 Encouraging Shift Toward Payment Based on Value of Care Provided
Traditionally, the American reimbursement system had been a fee for service model that is a volume based reimbursement. Various programs of the ACA have attempted to reshape the status-quo by piloting reimbursement based on value of care provided. Hospital Value-Based Purchasing Program and Physician Value-Based Payment program indicate the switch to provide payments rewarding high value care which is correlated to quality measures. 11 Next, Hospital Readmissions Reduction Program (HRRP) and Hospital-Acquired Conditions Reduction Program penalize hospitals or withhold payments to reduce the occurrence of readmissions and incidence of hospital acquired infections(HAIs) respectively. 9 Lastly, the Bundled Payments for Care Improvement Initiative tests a strategy where a single payment, is levied for an episode of care pertaining to a Medicare beneficiary. 11 Bundle payments address the variation in costs and care across different geographic areas in the country.
3 Developing Resources for System-Wide Improvement
The ACA has established several new agencies and institutes in order to set the stage for future health innovation and reform of health care delivery. First, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Innovation was set up to explore novel payment and delivery methods in order to decrease costs and improve quality for beneficiaries of public health insurance programs – Medicare, Medicaid, and CHIP. 11Second, Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute (PCORI) funds research on clinical treatments and their outcomes with respect to quality of life, daily functioning, and long-term survival. The Institute is also tasked with ensuring that research translates into change in clinical practice. 9 Third, Medicare-Medicaid Coordination Office is targeted towards improving care for low income individuals with disabilities who avail coverage through both Medicare and Medicaid. 11 This Office aims to increase coordination between the two programs. Fourth, National Strategy for Quality Improvement in Health Care is designed to form a partnership between government agencies and private providers to work on the common goal of improving health in communities and reducing overall health costs. 9
IMPACT OF THE AFFORDABLE CARE ACT
The Act has had varying degrees of success in achieving its initial goals. The provisions of the Act will have both short-term and long-term ramifications for the health care system. Now, we will document the progress made in light of the implementation of the Act.
1 EXPANDING HEALTH CARE COVERAGE
The ACA has succeeded in expanding and improving coverage. Since the Law has been instituted the uninsured rate has declined by 43% that is from 16% in 2010 to 9.1% in 2015. The number of uninsured individuals has declined from 49 million to 29 million. 2 Although, a portion of this success can be attributed to the recovering economy, it is undeniable that the Act has had considerable influence. The graph below shows these changes. It must be documented that the greatest decline in the uninsured population since the creation of Medicare and Medicaid has been through the provisions of the ACA.
[pic]
Figure 2. Percentage of Individuals in the United States Without Health Insurance, 1963-2015
Specifically, looking at uninsured rates amongst the nonelderly adult population there is a decline from 18% in 2010 to 10.3% in 2016. 3 This is noteworthy as the Medicaid expansion provision of the ACA was designed to address the needs of this population. In states which opted out of Medicaid expansion other provisions of the ACA caused declines in the uninsured. However, this decline in numbers of uninsured was lower in comparison to states which did expand Medicaid. Moreover, in states which did not expand Medicaid uninsured non-elderly adults were concentrated in the ‘coverage gap’. ‘Coverage gap’ is caused due to the fact that the individuals are not “poor enough” to qualify for Medicaid on one hand and they are “too poor” to avail marketplace subsidies on the other hand. Another provision of the law, allowing young adults to remain on their parents’ plan till age 26 has allowed 2.3 million individuals to avail coverage.12
In 2014, the initial launch of health insurance exchanges faced severe roadblocks due to serious technological shortcomings. Nonetheless, during the 2017 open enrollment period (OEP) 12.2 million consumers obtained coverage through state and federal run marketplaces.13
2 3.2 SHIFTING THE FOCUS OF THE HEALTH CARE DELIVERY SYSTEM FROM TREATMENT TO PREVENTION
Provisions of the ACA committed to taking a preventive approach to health care have had several benefits. One, the coverage for individuals with insurance has been augmented with mandatory coverage for preventive services. Second, by eliminating cost-sharing for preventive services an increase in the use of some preventive services has been documented. Current research claims that the increased utilization of preventive services is restricted to blood cholesterol tests, blood pressure testing, and flu immunization.14 Third, recent evidence concludes that the innovative method of displaying nutritional information on menus may influence customers to choose low-calorie foods.15 Fourth, an anti-smoking campaign for public awareness led by the CDC resulted in 1.6 million people quitting smoking.16 Fifth, by investing in public health and developing the health care workforce is on track to decrease health disparities.
In spite of recent progress and investment of resources for research and to advance the field of public health, it remains to be seen if these measures translate to breakthroughs in the field of public health in the future and unequivocally improve population health long-term.
3 REDUCING COSTS AND IMPROVING EFFICIENCY OF HEALTH CARE
Pilot programs, changing delivery models and payment incentives have yielded promising results. First, by implementing Hospitals Readmission Reduction Program an estimated 150,000 fewer admissions occurred in 2012-2013.9 Second, Hospital Acquired Conditions Reduction Program delivered the first ever decrease in composite rate of hospital acquired conditions(HACs) nationally. This meant that 1.3 million fewer patients suffered from hospital acquired conditions.9 Fourth, the National Strategy for Quality Improvement in Healthcare’s priority of working on patient safety led to 17% decrease in harm experienced by patients nationwide and 50,000 death avoided. 9
Although the ACA has made strides in achieving improved coverage and better quality measures, the greatest drawback of the ACA remains its inability to reign in health care costs. The ACA includes provisions for cutting payments and raising revenues that
will achieve about $670 billions of gross savings for the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) as a payer between 2011 and 2019, according to the CMS Office of the Actuary.17
However, it does little to address waste in the health care system. Waste refers to non-value added services like overtreatment, pricing failures, fraud and abuse, failure of care coordination, failures in execution of care processes and administrative complexity. 18 Most conservative estimates claim that health expenditures can be reduced by 20% if efforts are made to curtail costs.18
Next, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) projects that if the current law remains unchanged, then the United States will face rising debt and deficit over the next 30 years.19 Even though, this can be attributed to the aging population the provisions of the Act cannot be completely blameless. The Act, increases the spending of major health programs whilst lacking provisions to adequately control costs.
Repair, Repeal or Replace?
Taking into account the notion that health care is a highly polarizing issue between the two major political parties, it is essential that we assess alternatives to the Affordable Care Act that might be pursued by the current administration. There are three strategies that may be considered individually or in combination with each other. The three strategies are repairing the existing Act, repealing the Act, and replacing the Act.
1 Repairing the ACA
This entails fixing the ‘glitches’ in the Act and ensuring that there is some compromise between the two major political parties. This scenario considers the rising public approval of the law. Currently, 54% approve the law as opposed to the 44% who approved of the law in 2016.20 Moreover, recent surveys conducted by the Pew Research Center reveal that even amongst the individuals who disapprove of the law, a majority lean towards modifying the existing law rather than repealing it entirely. 20
The major problems facing the Act today are the rising premiums and increasing numbers of insurers exiting the marketplace. These two problems are interdependent as insurers exiting the marketplace will lead to less competition in turn causing the rising premiums.
These problems can be solved by adopting several strategies. First, the government can provide a public insurance option on the exchange, particularly in areas where a single insurer is monopolizing the market. Second, the government, both federal and state can use the size of the exchange market to enter into negotiations with insurers in order to bring prices down. 21 Third, mandate that all insurers who supply insurance to the individual market participate in the exchange.21 Fourth, the risk corridors can be re-instated to encourage insurers to engage in the marketplace.22
In conclusion, regardless of how the law is repaired there is a clear asset in repairing the law. We can build on the progress made by the Affordable Care Act and salvage the resources that have been invested by various stakeholders. Moreover, care and coverage of individuals interacting with the health care system as a result of the provisions of the Act will not be jeopardized.
2 Repealing the ACA
This involves essentially annulling the provisions of the Act. A repeal of the ACA would increase the number of uninsured individuals by 29.8 million.23 Rise in uninsured individuals will lead to increase in uncompensated care. Furthermore, repeal during the course of the year, especially of the individual mandate can lead to healthy individuals refusing to pay premiums and withdrawing from the insurance market. Consequently, insurers will have to pay the cost of providing care to the sickest individuals which will not be offset by healthy individuals paying premiums. Beyond immediate consequences, a repeal will have far-reaching impact. For instance, if unforeseen circumstances are created through a repeal without a replacement we risk losing the participation of a majority of insurers in the next calendar year. 23 Hence ‘repeal and delay’ a strategy being reviewed by some Republicans could lead to a volatile health care system. It is unwise to repeal the existing Act without substituting an alternate legislation in its place.
Ultimately, expert analysis reveals that a likely repeal bill would not only reverse recent gains in insurance coverage, but leave us with more uninsured and uncompensated care than before the Act was instituted.24
3 Replacing the ACA
Although, several alternatives have been put forth to replace the ACA there is a lack of consensus between the proposed plans. A frontrunner amongst the alternatives is the American Health Care Act which seeks to repeal and replace ACA has the following salient features. First, the proposes a phased repeal of the ACA mandates, health plan standards for actuarial value, and premium and cost sharing subsidies.25 Furthermore, it also repeals the Prevention and Public Health Fund. Second, the bill proposes premium flat tax credits based on age instead of the existing tax credits which are income based. 25 Third, it establishes a State Patient and State Stability Fund, which focuses on care for high risk individuals and preventive services. IN addition, funds are specifically earmarked for maternal and newborn care, mental health and substance abuse. 26 Fourth, disbursement of Medicaid on a per capita basis with states receiving block grants. 25 Fifth, the bill proposes increasing the role of health savings accounts(HSAs) by allowing greater tax exempt contributions and increasing the services and products that can be paid for using HSAs. 26
The Congressional Budget Office estimates that by adopting the American Health Care Act the number of uninsured individuals will rise by 14 million in comparison to the current law. 27 However, further changes to subsidies can lead to 24 million individuals losing coverage by 2026.27
RECOMMENDATIONS
-Despite the changes in political leadership, we should not lose sight of the resources and systems that have been developed under the purview of the ACA. It is ideal to consider repairing the current Act’s shortcomings.
- Review high performing states and regional health systems and involve these entities in developing nation-wide guidelines and future legislation.
-Future health care legislation should include measures to control waste in the system and adequately address health care costs.
Conclusion
The American people deserve a health system which offers patient-centered care, is focused on continuous innovation and provides the best outcomes at the most reasonable cost. Such a system needs evidence-backed research and political compromise. It also requires a sense of responsibility amongst patients, providers, insurers, and legislators in adopting the health system as their own and working towards a common goal of betterment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1- American Public Health Association. Why do we need the Affordable Care Act? April 2013. Available at: . Accessed February 2017.
2- Obama, Barack. "United States health care reform: progress to date and next steps." Jama 316, no. 5 (2016): 525-532.
3- 29, 2016 Sep. "Key Facts about the Uninsured Population." The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. October 04, 2016. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
4- "Preventive Health Care." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. June 12, 2013. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
5- DeVol, Ross, Armen Bedroussian, A. Charuworn, A. Chatterjee, I. K. Kim, S. Kim, and K. Klowden. "An unhealthy America: the economic burden of chronic disease—charting a new course to save lives and increase productivity and economic growth. Milken Institute. October 2007." URL: . milkeninstitute. org/publications/publications. taf(2008).
6- Reinhardt, Uwe E. "Why Does U.S. Health Care Cost So Much? (Part I)." The New York Times. November 14, 2008. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
7- "IOM Report: Estimated $750B Wasted Annually In Health Care System." Kaiser Health News. September 07, 2012. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
8- Damico, Oct 19 2016 | Rachel Garfield and Anthony. "The Coverage Gap: Uninsured Poor Adults in States that Do Not Expand Medicaid." The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. October 19, 2016. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
9- The Commonwealth Fund - Health Policy, Health Reform and Delivery System Improvement. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
10- Shih, Anthony, Julia Berenson, and Melinda K. Abrams. "Preventive Health Services Under the Affordable Care Act: Role of Delivery System Reform." The Commonwealth Fund. April 16, 2012. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
11- Abrams, Melinda K., Rachel Nuzum, Mark A. Zezza, Jamie Ryan, Jordan Kiszla, and Stuart Guterman. "The Affordable Care Act's Payment and Delivery System Reforms: A Progress Report at Five Years." The Commonwealth Fund. May 07, 2015. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
12- Uberoi N., Finegold K., Gee E. Health insurance coverage and the Affordable Care Act, 2010-2016. Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, US Department of Health and Human Services. /pdf/187551/ACA2010-2016.pdf. Published March 3, 2016. Accessed April 12th , 2017.
13- Health Insurance Marketplaces 2017 Open Enrollment Period Final Enrollment Report: November 1, 2016 – January 31, 2017. (2017, March 15). Retrieved April 12, 2017, from
14- Han, X., K. Robin, J. R. Guy, Z. Zheng, and A. Jemal. "Has recommended preventive service use increased after elimination of cost-sharing as part of the Affordable Care Act in the United States?" Preventive medicine. September 2015. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
15- "Menu Labeling." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. August 19, 2016. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
16- "Campaign Overview." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. March 23, 2016. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
17- Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Office of the Actuary. Estimated Financial Effects of the “Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act,” as Amended. Washington, DC: US Dept of Health and Human Services; 2010.
18- Berwick, Donald M., and Andrew D. Hackbarth. "Eliminating waste in US health care." Jama 307, no. 14 (2012): 1513-1516.
19- "The 2017 Long-Term Budget Outlook." Congressional Budget Office. March 31, 2017. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
20- Fingerhut, Hannah. "Support for 2010 health care law reaches new high." Pew Research Center. February 23, 2017. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
21- Waldman, Paul. "Opinion | Obamacare has some problems. Here’s how we can fix them." The Washington Post. October 25, 2016. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
22- "Risk corridors: What they are and what they do." The Incidental Economist. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
23- Blumberg, Linda J., Matthew Buettgens, and John Holahan. "Implications of Partial Repeal of the ACA through Reconciliation." Urban Institute. February 01, 2017. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
24- "Repealing the ACA without a Replacement - The Risks to American Health Care — NEJM." New England Journal of Medicine. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
25- "How Affordable Care Act Repeal and Replace Plans Might Shift Health Insurance Tax Credits." The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. April 04, 2017. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
26- "The American Health Care Act: New House GOP Bill Summary and Interactive Maps of Its Effects on Tax Credits." The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. March 07, 2017. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
27- American Health Care Act." Congressional Budget Office. March 23, 2017. Accessed April 12, 2017. .
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THE IMPACT OF THE PATIENT PROTECTION AND AFFORDABLE CARE ACT AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF REPEALING THE ACT
by
Manasa Ranginani
M.B.B.S, Manipal University, India, 2015
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the
Multidisciplinary MPH Program
Graduate School of Public Health in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Public Health
University of Pittsburgh
2017
UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH
This essay is submitted
by
Manasa Ranginani
on
April 28th, 2017
and approved by
Essay Advisor:
David N. Finegold, MD ______________________________________
Director, Multidisciplinary MPH Program
Professor
Department of Human Genetics
Graduate School of Public Health
University of Pittsburgh
Essay Reader:
Mark S. Roberts, MD, MPP( ______________________________________
Professo
______________________________________
Professor and Chair
Department of Health Policy and Management
Graduate School of Public Health
Professor of Medicine
Industrial Engineering and Clinical and Translational Science
School of Medicine
University of Pittsburgh
Copyright © by Manasa Ranginani
2017
David N. Finegold, MD
THE IMPACT OF THE PATIENT PROTECTION AND AFFORDABLE CARE ACT AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF REPEALING THE ACT
Manasa Ranginani, MPH
University of Pittsburgh, 2017
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