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Intervention for Teaching Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness: The ability to hear and manipulate sounds in words.

• Phonemic awareness is not phonics.

• Phonemic awareness is auditory and does not involve words in print

Teaching Phonemic Awareness:

Critical features of Phonemic Awareness instruction

Intervention: Reinforcing Alphabet Names/Sounds 

Age: K-2

Materials: alphabet cards, music, hat 

Intervention: The student will say the letter and something that begins with that sound to their neighbor.  The children sit in a circle.  Each child draws an alphabet letter out of a hat.  Have them identify the letter as they draw it out of the hat and think of something that begins with that sound.  Place letters on the floor and stand up.  Play a musical march and children march around the circle until the music stops.  When the music stops, the children sit down by a new letter and repeat the above procedure.  You can spot check to save time and have the kids help each other if they don't know the letter.  Repeat the procedure several times.  You could use words, shapes, math facts, anything you want to reinforce. 

Reference: Good, R. H., Simmins, D.C., Smith, S.B. (1998).  Effective academic intervention in the United States: Evaluating and Enhancing the Acquisition of Early Reading Skills.  School Psychology Review 27 (1) 45-56. 

Website:

Intervention: Word learning activity to help children become very familiar with print.

Reading new texts and rereading familiar texts ensure that students in these programs engage in meaningful, connected reading. This program also includes activities that help students focus on and become familiar with printed words. For example, the Winston-Salem Project uses a procedure called "Making Words" (Cunningham, 1991; Cunningham & Cunningham, 1992). Students are presented with the letters that form a word from a selection they read. Words are selected because of their interest and because they contain word identification elements that will be useful to the students. For example, students might be presented with the letters a c e e h r t. (Students delight in trying to guess the "long" word, a word that uses all the letters and is from a recently read story.) Progressively longer words are built from the letters. A teacher might begin by asking students to take two letters and form the word at. Next, they might be asked to add a letter to form rat, to change a letter to form cat, to rearrange the letters to form act. Using similar directions they might move through eat, ate, tea, tear, rate, crate, create, to teacher. (See Cunningham & Cunningham, 1992, for further details and more examples.)

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Resources: Cunningham, P. M. (1991). Phonics they use: Words for reading and writing. New York: HarperCollins.

Cunningham, P. M., & Cunningham, J. W. (1992). "Making words: Enhancing the invented spelling-decoding connection." The Reading Teacher, 46, 106-113.

From: Pikulski, J.J. (1997) Preventing Reading Problems: Factors Common to Successful Early Intervention Programs. Retrieved April 27, 2006 from

From: Pikulski, J.J. (1997) Preventing Reading Problems: Factors Common to Successful Early Intervention Programs. Retrieved April 27, 2006 from

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Tips:

1. Phonemic Awareness is a critical component of reading instruction but not an entire reading program. It absolutely needs to be taught, but should only be 10-15 minutes per day of your reading instruction.

2. If you focus on just a few types of phonemic awareness, you get better results. There are a lot of skills in phonemic awareness, but research has found that blending and segmentation are the 2 critical skills that must be taught. Instruction must focus on blending and segmenting words at the phoneme, or sound level. This is an auditory task.

3. Research has found that you get better results when teaching phonemic awareness to small groups of children rather than an entire class.

4. Phonemic awareness needs to be taught explicitly. The instructional program must show children what they are expected to do. Teachers must model skills they want children to perform before the children are asked to demonstrate the skill.

5. Teachers increase effectiveness when the manipulation of letters is added to phonemic awareness tasks. Phonemic awareness is an auditory skill, but once children start to become familiar with the concept, teachers can introduce letter tiles or squares and manipulate them to form sounds and words.

Teaching Sound Isolation:

Use Conspicuous Strategies

Show children how to do all the steps in the task before asking children to do the task.

Example: (Put down 2 pictures that begin with different sounds and say the names of the pictures.) "My turn to say the first sound in man, /mmm/. Mmman begins with /mmm/. Everyone, say the first sound in man, /mmm/."

Non-example: "Who can tell me the first sounds in these pictures?"

Use consistent and brief wording.

Example: "The first sound in Mmman is /mmm/. Everyone say the first sound in man, /mmm/."

Non-example: "Man starts with the same sound as the first sounds in mountain, mop, and Miranda. Does anyone know other words that begin with the same sound as man?"

Correct errors by telling the answer and having children repeat the correct answer.

Example: "The first sound in Man is /mmm/. Say the first sound in mmman with me, /mmm/. /Mmmm/."

Non-example: Asking the question again or asking more questions. "Look at the picture again. What is the first sound?"

Teaching Blending

Scaffold Task Difficulty

When children are first learning to blend, use examples with continuous sounds, because the sounds can be stretched and held.

Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a broken way. When he says /mmm/ - /ooo/ - /mmm/ he means mom."

Non-example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a broken way. When he says /b/ - /e/ - /d/ he means bed."

When children are first learning the task, use short words in teaching and practice examples. Use pictures when possible.

Example: Put down 3 pictures of CVC words and say: "My lion puppet wants one of these pictures. Listen to hear which picture he wants, /sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/. Which picture?"

Non-example: ".../p/ - /e/ - /n/ - /c/ - /i/ - /l/. Which picture?" (This is a more advanced model that should be used later.)

When children are first learning the task, use materials that reduce memory load and to represent sounds.

Example: Use pictures to help children remember the words and to focus their attention. Use a 3-square strip or blocks to represent sounds in a word.

Non-example: Provide only verbal activities.

As children become successful during initial learning, remove scaffolds by using progressively more difficult examples. As children become successful with more difficult examples, use fewer scaffolds, such as pictures.

Example: Move from syllable or onset-rime blending to blending with all sounds in a word (phoneme blending). Remove scaffolds, such as pictures.

"Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/ - /p/. Which picture?"

"Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/ - /p/. What word?"

Non-example: Provide instruction and practice at only the easiest levels with all the scaffolds.

Teaching Phoneme Segmentation

Strategically Integrate Familiar and New Information

Recycle instructional and practice examples used for blending. Blending and segmenting are sides of the same coin. The only difference is whether children hear or produce a segmented word. Note: A segmenting response is more difficult for children to reproduce than a blending response.

Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to say the sounds in words. The sounds in mom are /mmm/ - /ooo/ - /mmm/. Say the sounds in mom with us. "

Concurrently teach letter-sound correspondences for the sounds children will be segmenting in words.

Example: Letter sound /s/ and words sun and sit. Put down letter cards for familiar letter-sounds. Then, have children place pictures by the letter that begins with the same sound as the picture.

Non-example: Use letter-sounds that have not been taught when teaching first sound in pictures for phoneme isolation activities.

Make the connections between sounds in words and sounds of letters.

Example: After children can segment the first sound, have them use letter tiles to represent the sounds.

Non-example: Letters in mastered phonologic activities are not used. Explicit connections between alphabetic and phonologic activities are not made.

Use phonologic skills to teach more advanced reading skills, such as blending letter-sounds to read words.

Example: (Give children a 3-square strip and the letter tiles for s, u, n.) Have children do familiar tasks and blending to teach stretched blending with letters.

Resources: Adams, M. J., Foorman, B. R., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T. (1998). The elusive phoneme: Why phonemic awareness is so important and how to help children develop it. American Educator, 22(1-2), 18-29.

Felton, R. H., & Pepper, P. P. (1995). Early identification and intervention of phonological deficits in kindergarten and early elementary children at risk for reading disability. School Psychology Review, 24, 405-414.

Website:

Intervention for Teaching the Alphabetic Principle

Alphabetic Principle: The ability to associate sounds with letters and use these sounds to form words.

Teaching the Alphabetic Principle:

Critical Alphabetic Principle skills

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Teaching Sounding Out Words

Judicious Review

• Prior to reading the words, review the letter-sound correspondences that have been recently introduced or are problematic for learners.

• As you progress to each new phase of word reading (sounding out > saying whole word > sounding out the word in your head), students may need a reminder of the procedure.

• Once students learn a number of word types (e.g., CVC with continuous, CVCC with continuous, CVC with stop), include examples of all taught word types in the list.

• Keep the word lists to a manageable length (6-8 words per list).

|Simple Regular Words - Listed According to Difficulty |

|Word Type |Reason for |Examples |

| |Relative | |

| |Ease/Difficulty | |

|VC and CVC words that begin with continuous sounds|Words begin with a continuous sound |it, fan |

|VCC and CVCC words that begin with a continuous |Words are longer and end with a consonant blend |lamp, ask |

|sound | | |

|CVC words that begin with a stop sound |Words begin with a stop sound |cup, tin |

|CVCC words that begin with a stop sound |Words begin with a stop sound and end with a consonant blend|dust, hand |

|CCVC |Words begin with a consonant blend |crib, blend, snap, flat |

|CCVCC, CCCVC, and CCCVCC |Words are longer |clamp, spent, scrap, scrimp |

Example: (Teacher points to the word map on the board, touches under each sound as the students sound it out, and slashes finger under the word as students say it fast.) "Sound it out." (/mmmmmmmmaaaaaaap/) "Say it fast." (map)

Instructional Design Considerations

Conspicuous Strategies

Use the following systematic progression to teach word reading so as to make public the important steps involved in reading a word:

1. Students orally produce each sound in a word and sustain that sound as they progress to the next.

2. Students must be taught to put those sounds together to make a whole word.

3. Students sound out the letter-sound correspondences "in their head" or silently and then produce the whole word.

Each step must be modeled and practiced!!

Mediated Scaffolding

For students to learn and apply knowledge of letter-sound correspondences and use that knowledge to reliably decode words, words must be carefully selected for both (a) the letters in the words, and (b) the complexity of the words.

Letters in words for initial sounding-out instruction should:

• consist of continuous sounds as these sounds can be prolonged in the voice stream.

• be ones students know.

Words in sounding-out practice and instruction should:

• progress from short vowel-consonant and consonant-vowel-consonant (2- or 3-letter) words in which letters represent their most common sounds to longer words (4- or 5-phoneme words) in which letters represent their most common sound.

• not contain consonant blends (e.g., /st/, /tr/, /pl/) until students are proficient with consonant-vowel-consonant configurations.

• begin with continuous sounds in early exercises to facilitate blending. Stop sounds may be used in final positions of words.

• represent vocabulary and concepts with which students are familiar.

Teaching Letter-Sound Correspondences

Example:

(Teacher points to letter m on board). "The sound of this letter is /mmmmm/. Tell me the sound of this letter."

Instructional Design Considerations

Conspicuous Strategies

• Teacher actions should make the task explicit. Use consistent and brief wording.

Mediated Scaffolding

• Separate auditorily and visually similar letters.

• Introduce some continuous sounds early.

• Introduce letters that can be used to build many words.

• Introduce lower case letters first unless upper case letters are similar in configuration.

Strategic Integration - Simple Before Complex

1. Once students can identify the sound of the letter on two successive trials, include the new letter-sound correspondence with 6-8 other letter sounds.

2. When students can identify 4-6 letter-sound correspondences in 2 seconds each, include these letters in single-syllable, CVC, decodable words.

Review Cumulatively and Judiciously

Use a distributed review cycle to build retention:

|NKNKKNNKKKKN |

|N = new sound; K = known sound |

|Example (r = new sound; m, s, t, i, f, a = known sounds): r m r s t r r i f a m r |

Teaching Reading Connected Text

Instructional Design Considerations

• A primary goal of beginning reading instruction is to prepare learners to read passages in order to communicate that print has purpose and meaning.

• Once students can accurately decode CVC and VC word types, these words should be introduced in short, highly controlled passages.

• Do not assume that learners will automatically transfer from reading words correctly in lists to reading words in passages. When introducing passage reading, they will need prompts and procedures for transferring word recognition skills to passages.

Conspicuous Strategies

The explicit teaching procedure consists of two components:

• In the first component, teachers provide direct wording for students to "figure out the word, say the sounds in the word to yourself." This component generally lasts 1-2 weeks.

• The second component of transitioning to passage reading involves a modified prompt where teachers give a direction at the beginning of the passage. For example, the teacher says, "Figure out the first word" and then asks students to read the word. Note the prompting to say the sounds is eliminated.

• A final technique is to increase the pace of word reading. In initial passage reading exercises, allow 3 seconds of "think time" per word. As students become proficient (i.e., reading the passage with no errors), reduce the think time to 2 seconds and later to 1.5 seconds.

Mediated Scaffolding

When introducing passage reading, it is important to:

• Ensure students can read the words in lists at a rate of one word per 3 seconds.

• Include only words students can decode in passages.

• Include repeated opportunities to read passages to develop accuracy and fluency.

• Make clear the connections between sounding out the words in lists and reading those words in passages.

• Progress from the highly prompted sight reading strategy to the less-prompted strategy.

• Reduce the time for sight reading words from 3 seconds to 2 seconds to 1.5 seconds.

Strategic Integration

• Teach words first in word lists before integrating into passages.

• Use both the sounding out strategy and sight reading strategy for a few weeks to communicate their connection.

Resources: Juel, C. (1991). Beginning reading. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 759-788). New York: Longman.

Kame'enui, E. J., Simmons, D. C., Baker, S., Chard, D. J., Dickson, S. V., Gunn, B., Smith, S. B., Sprick, M., & Lin, S. J. (1997). Effective strategies for teaching beginning reading. In E. J. Kame'enui, & D. W. Carnine (Eds.), Effective Teaching Strategies That Accommodate Diverse Learners. Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Website:

Another great resource:

Virginia Department of Education (1998). Ideas and activities for developing phonological awareness skills: A teacher resource supplement to the Virginia Early Intervention Reading Initiative. Retrieved April 27, 2006 from

Following reviewed by Kristi Henning

Phonemic Awareness Interventions

Discrete Trial Training

Each training trial, regardless of the skill objective, consists of four major components:

1. The teacher or therapist presents a brief, distinctive instruction or question (stimulus).

2. The instruction is followed by a prompt, if the child needs one, to elicit the correct response.

3. The child responds correctly or incorrectly (response).

4. The teacher or therapist provides an appropriate "consequence." Correct responses receive a reward, which may be an edible treat, a toy, hugs or praise; incorrect responses are ignored and/or corrected.

• Data are collected

• After five correct responses, the skill is considered to be learned.

• Discrete Trial Training can be used when teaching letter sound correspondence, letter recognition, and other tasks associated with reading.

References



A Brief Explanation of Discrete Trail Training

Contributed by Steve Buckmann

Given the increasing interest in early behavioral interventions for children with autism spectrum disorders, it is not surprising that the Indiana Resource Center for Autism receives almost daily requests for information about such interventions. Two frequent questions asked by individuals requesting information are, "What is discrete trial training?" and "What is the difference between discrete trial training and the Lovaas Method?" The following is a brief explanation of discrete trial training and a basic contrast of the two.

Discrete trial training (DTT) is a method of providing intervention. According to Anderson et al. (1996), the discrete trial method has four distinct parts: (1) the trainer's presentation, (2) the child's response, (3) the consequence, and (4) a short pause between the consequence and the next instruction (between interval trials). For some readers, these four parts are perhaps more familiar when presented in the following model:

This model is the basic framework used fairly consistently across DTT programs. The primary difference among discrete trial training programs is found in what they teach, rather than how they teach. For example, the UCLA Young Autism Project (aka Lovaas Method) is one treatment program directed mainly at pre-school aged children with autism. It uses discrete trials as its main instructional method and follows a fairly set progression of instructional programs beginning with early receptive language and "terminating" with programs focused on achieving skills in self help, community and school situations. Not all programs using DTT follow the same program sequences or curriculum as the UCLA project.

Many readers may also be asking the question, "Don't ALL educational programs involve some use of the discrete trial method?" The answer is yes—at least to a limited degree. Instructional situations and interactions can generally be described in terms of this basic teaching model. However, there is often confusion between an informal or periodic use of this teaching model and "doing discrete trial training." What distinguishes DTT programs is the intensity and duration of the training and the primary role of the discrete trial method for instruction. DTT programs generally involve several hours of direct 1:1 instruction per day (including high rates of discrete trials) over many months or years.

Though the basic model for DTT appears relatively straightforward, applying the model effectively is not. A casual understanding of applied behavior analysis is insufficient for applying DTT programs. Given the high stakes of early intervention, the controversy surrounding discrete trial training programs, and the effort and knowledge required to effectively deliver DTT, parents, administrators and teachers must invest the time and energy to understand all aspects of discrete trial training programs. This includes not only understanding how to implement such a program, but having the ability to evaluate the effectiveness and appropriateness for each child. The following resources can assist this effort.



Reference

Anderson, S. R., Taras, M., & Cannon, B. O. (1996).Teaching new skills to young children with autism. In C. Maurice (Ed.), Behavioral intervention for young children with autism. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Resources

Guralnick, M. J. (Ed.). (1996). The effectiveness of early intervention. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Harris, S., & Handleman, J. (1994). Pre-school programs for children with autism. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Maurice, C. (Ed.). (1996). Behavioral intervention for young children with autism. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Siegel, B. (1996). The world of the autistic child: Understanding and treating autistic spectrum disorders. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Phonemic Awareness: An Important Early Step in Learning To Read

Author: Roger Sensenbaugh

|With little or no direct instruction, almost all young children develop the ability to understand spoken language. While most kindergarten |

|children have mastered the complexities of speech, they do not know that spoken language is made up of discrete words, which are made up of |

|syllables, which themselves are made up of the smallest units of sound, called "phonemes." This awareness that spoken language is made up of |

|discrete sounds appears to be a crucial factor in children learning to read. |

|This Digest discusses the concept of the awareness that spoken language is made up of discrete sounds, why this concept is so important to |

|early childhood educators, its relation to the debate on the best type of reading instruction, and finally, teaching methods that may help |

|children in developing such an awareness. |

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|What Is Phonological/Phoneme Awareness? |

|Stanovich (1993-94) defines "phonological awareness" as the ability to deal explicitly and segmentally with sound units smaller than the |

|syllable. He also notes that researchers "argue intensely" about the meaning of the term and about the nature of the tasks used to measure it.|

|Harris and Hodges (1995) present a brief essay on phonemic awareness. Another oft-cited source (Adams, 1990) uses "phonemic awareness" almost |

|exclusively. Phonological awareness sometimes refers to an awareness that words consist of syllables, "onsets and rimes," and phonemes, and so|

|can be considered as a broader notion than phonemic awareness. Each term is widely used and perhaps (if incorrectly) used interchangeably. In |

|preparing this Digest, both terms were used to search the ERIC database. For the purposes of this Digest, each author's use will be followed. |

|Adams (1990) describes 5 levels of phonemic awareness in terms of abilities: |

|to hear rhymes and alliteration as measured by knowledge of nursery rhymes |

|to do oddity tasks (comparing and contrasting the sounds of words for rhyme and alliteration) |

|to blend and split syllables |

|to perform phonemic segmentation (such as counting out the number of phonemes in a word) |

|to perform phoneme manipulation tasks (such as adding, deleting a particular phoneme and regenerating a word from the remainder). |

|Back to the Table of Contents |

|[pic] |

|Why Is It So Important? |

|Educators are always looking for valid and reliable predictors of educational achievement. One reason why educators are so interested in |

|phonemic awareness is that research indicates that it is the best predictor of the ease of early reading acquisition (Stanovich, 1993-94), |

|better even than IQ, vocabulary, and listening comprehension. |

|Phonological awareness is not only correlated with learning to read, but research indicates a stronger statement is true: phonological |

|awareness appears to play a causal role in reading acquisition. Phonological awareness is a foundational ability underlying the learning of |

|spelling-sound correspondences (Stanovich, 1993-94). Although phonological awareness appears to be a necessary condition for learning to read |

|(children who do not develop phonological awareness do not go on to learn how to read), it is not a sufficient condition. Adams (1990) reviews|

|the research that suggests that it is critical for children to be able to link phoneme awareness to a knowledge of letters. |

|Once beginning readers have some awareness of phonemes and their corresponding graphic representations, research has indicated that further |

|reading instruction heightens their awareness of language, assisting then in developing the later stages of phonemic awareness mentioned |

|above. Phonemic awareness is both a prerequisite for and a consequence of learning to read (Yopp, 1992). |

|Instruments to test for a child's phonemic awareness tend to be short, easy to administer, reliable, and valid. Stanovich also provides a |

|quick (7-minute) and easy-to-administer phonological awareness test in an article in which he discusses his career as a researcher. Yopp |

|(1995) presents a similarly brief assessment instrument and offers detailed evidence for its validity and reliability. |

|Back to the Table of Contents |

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|[pi|Relation To The "Great Reading Wars" |

|c] |Phonological awareness and its role in beginning reading has the potential to confound supporters at both extremes of the whole language |

| |vs. phonics "debate" over reading instruction. Regardless of instructional technique, phonological awareness is an essential element for |

| |reading progress (Griffith and Olson, 1992). In another study, Griffith et al. (1992) found that children with high phonemic awareness |

| |outperformed those with low phonemic awareness on all literacy measures, whether they were taught using a whole language approach or |

| |traditional basal instruction. Whole language advocates need to admit that not all children develop this necessary ability simply through |

| |immersion in a print-rich environment, and that some children will need direct instruction in phonological awareness. "Phonics first" |

| |supporters (and perhaps even "phonics only" supporters) need to admit that teaching students letter-sound correspondences is meaningless |

| |if the students do not have a solid visual familiarity with the individual letters and if they do not understand that the sounds (which |

| |can be complex, shifting, and notoriously rule-breaking) paired with those letters are what make up words (Adams, 1990). |

| |What is needed, and what many practitioners probably already actually implement, is a balanced approach to reading instruction--an |

| |approach that combines the language- and literature-rich activities associated with whole language activities aimed at enhancing meaning, |

| |understanding, and the love of language with explicit teaching of skills as needed to develop fluency associated with proficient readers. |

| |Honig (1996) offers a review of reading research supporting such a balanced approach and presents detailed guidelines on how to integrate |

| |whole language principles with the necessary foundation reading skills. |

| |Back to the Table of Contents |

| |[pic] |

| |Teaching Methods |

| |Research indicates that phonological awareness can be taught and that students who increased their awareness of phonemes facilitated their|

| |subsequent reading acquisition (Lundberg et al, 1988). Teachers need to be aware of instructional activities that can help their students |

| |become aware of phonemes before they receive formal reading instruction, and they need to realize that phonemic awareness will become more|

| |sophisticated as students' reading skills develop. |

| |The following recommendations for instruction in phonemic awareness are derived from Spector (1995): |

| |At the preschool level, engage children in activities that direct their attention to the sounds in words, such as rhyming and alliteration|

| |games. |

| |Teach students to segment and blend. |

| |Combine training in segmentation and blending with instruction in letter-sound relationships. |

| |Teach segmentation and blending as complementary processes. |

| |Systematically sequence examples when teaching segmentation and blending. |

| |Teach for transfer to novel tasks and contexts. |

| |Yopp (1992) offers the following general recommendations for phonemic awareness activities: |

| |Keep a sense of playfulness and fun, avoid drill and rote memorization. |

| |Use group settings that encourage interaction among children. |

| |Encourage children's curiosity about language and their experimentation with it. |

| |Allow for and be prepared for individual differences. |

| |Make sure the tone of the activity is not evaluative but rather fun and informal. |

| |Spending a few minutes daily engaging preschool, kindergarten, and first-grade children in oral activities that emphasize the sounds of |

| |language may go a long way in helping them become successful readers and learners. |

| |Back to the Table of Contents |

| |[pic] |

| |References |

| |Adams, Marilyn Jager (1990). Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print. Cambridge, MA: Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, Inc. ED 317 |

| |950 |

| |Griffith, Priscilla, and Mary W. Olson (1992). "Phonemic Awareness Helps Beginning Readers Break the Code." Reading Teacher, 45(7), |

| |516-23. EJ 439 120 |

| |Griffith, Priscilla, et al. (1992). "The Effect of Phonemic Awareness on the Literacy Development of First Grade Children in a Traditional|

| |or a Whole Language Classroom." Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 6(2), 85-92. EJ 460 128 |

| |Harris, Theodore L., and Richard E. Hodges (1995). The Literacy Dictionary: The Vocabulary of Reading and Writing. Newark, DE: |

| |International Reading Association. ED 385 820 |

| |Honig, Bill (1996). Teaching Our Children to Read: The Role of Skills in a Comprehensive Reading Program. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.|

| |CS 012 479 |

| |Lundberg, I. et al. (1988). "Effectiveness of an Extensive Program for Stimulating Phonological Awareness in Preschool Children." Reading |

| |Research Quarterly, 23(3), 263-84. EJ 373 262 |

| |Olson, Mary W., and Priscilla Griffith (1993). "Phonological Awareness: The What, Why, and How." Reading and Writing Quarterly: Overcoming|

| |Learning Difficulties, 9(4) 351-60. EJ 474 132 |

| |Spector, Janet E. (1995) "Phonemic Awareness Training: Application of Principles of Direct Instruction." Reading and Writing Quarterly: |

| |Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 11(1), 37-52. EJ 496 026 |

| |Stanovich, Keith E. (1993-94). "Romance and Reality (Distinguished Educator Series)." Reading Teacher, 47(4), 280-91. EJ 477 302 |

| |Yopp, Hallie Kay (1992). "Developing Phonemic Awareness in Young Children." Reading Teacher, 45(9), 696-703. EJ 442 772 |

| |-------------- (1995). "A Test for Assessing Phonemic Awareness in Young Children." Reading Teacher, 49(1), 20-29. EJ 513 301 |

Letter-Naming

Interventions for Acquisition and Fluency

Bingo

A fun way to teach letter-names, but was originally meant to teach letter-sounds.

Materials:

One (1) bingo card per child

Several bingo chips per child

Directions:

1) Make copies of the bingo cards and the picture and letter squares (Found in Interventions for Reading Problems, pages 67-71)

2) Give each student his or her own bingo card.

3) Place the picture and letter squares in a box or bag.

4) Draw out one square at a time and show it to the students. If a picture square is drawn, the students should name the picture and give the first letter of the name. Any student who has that letter on his or her card should place a bingo chip on it. If a letter square is drawn, without showing the students the card, read the letter-name to the student. Any student who has that letter on their card should place a bingo chip on it.

5) The teacher should decide in advance whether the students need to cover a single row or the entire card to get “bingo.”

(For letter-sound bingo directions, please see directions on page 66 of Interventions for Reading Problems)

Source:

Daly, Edward J., Chafouleas, Sandra, & Skinner, Christopher, H. (2005). Interventions for Reading Problems. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Discrete Trial Training-Letter Naming

Materials:

Flashcards with the letters of the alphabet printed one letter on each card.

Directions:

1. Give the student a letter-naming probe. Note the letters the student is unable to name correctly.

2. Two “known” letter cards (letters the student got right) and 1 “unknown letter” card (a letter the student got wrong) are placed in front of the student.

3. The examiner, tells the student to point to the “unknown” card.

4. A) If the correct letter is named, the cards are mixed and placed in front of the student who is asked to point to the “unknown” letter again. When the student is able to correctly point to the “unknown” letter five times, the letter becomes “known.” Then, one of the original “known” cards is removed leaving the new “known” card and the old “known” card. Finally, a new “unknown” is added to the grouping.

B) If an incorrect letter is named, the student is told the correct name and asked to repeat the correct letter name. Then, the cards are mixed and placed in front of the student again. The examiner asks the student to point to the “unknown letter.”

5. Steps 2 & 3 are repeated until all of the “unknown” cards are considered “known.”

Resource:

Gary L. Cates, Ph.D.

Immediate Feedback-Letter Naming

Materials:

Curriculum Based Assessment Probes in Letter-Naming

Directions:

1. Inform the student that they will be taking a letter-naming probe. Also, let them know that you will correct any errors that they make, but that once the correction has occurred, they should continue with the naming of the probe.

2. Administer the Curriculum-Based-Assessment Probe in Letter-Naming. Anytime the student names a letter incorrectly, note it on the examiner copy and say the correct letter name. If necessary, prompt the student to continue the probe.

3. Repeat the process, with different probes, as many times as desired.

Source:

Gary L. Cates, Ph.D.

Post Office

Materials:

Picture Cards (see page 67-71 of Interventions for Reading Problems for examples)

Envelopes or pouches, each labeled with a different letter of the alphabet and able to fit the picture cards.

Directions:

1. Place the envelopes in front of the child. Or, if targeting a few, specific letters, only place those envelopes in front of the child.

2. Place the picture cards in front of the child. If only targeting a few letters, only place the relevant picture cards in front of the child.

3. Ask the child to name each picture.

4. Ask the child to name the first letter of the picture’s name.

5. Then, the child “mails” the picture card in the appropriately marked envelope.

6. The child picks a new picture card and the process is repeated until all picture cards are placed in their appropriate envelopes.

**This process can also be used for letter sounding. Just add letter-cards to the picture cards and ask the child to name the first sound of the picture card. Then, when success is experienced, ask the student to give the sound for each letter card.**

Source:

Blachman, B.A., Ball, E.W., Black, R.S., & Tangel, D.M. (2000). Road to the code: A phonological awareness program for young children. Baltimore: Brookes.

Daly, Edward J., Chafouleas, Sandra, & Skinner, Christopher, H. (2005). Interventions for Reading Problems. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Immediate Feedback with Repetition

Materials:

Curriculum-Based-Assessment Letter-Naming Probe

Directions:

1. Place Curriculum-Based-Measurement Letter-Naming Probe in front of student.

2. Ask the student to read the probe.

3. When the student makes a mistake, immediately correct them and ask them to repeat the correct answer. When the student repeats the letter-name correctly, they may proceed with the remainder of the probe. If the probe is timed, pause the stopwatch when the student is corrected, and restart the stopwatch when they continue with the probe.

4. Repeat, with different probes, as often as needed.

Sources:

Gary L. Cates, Ph.D.

Dowhower, S.L. (1987). Effects of repeated reading on second-grade transitional readers’ fluency and comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 389-406

Herman, P.A. (1985). The effects of repeated readings on reading rate, speech pauses, and word recognition accuracy. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 553-565

Rasshotte, C.A. & Torgesen, J.K. (1985). Repeated reading and reading fluency in learning disabled children. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 180-188.

Rasinski, T.V. (1990). Effects of repeated reading and listening-while-reading on reading fluency. Journal of Educational Research, 83(3), 147-150.

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