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One Size Does Not Fit All: Adult Students’ Different Experiences, Sources of Support, and Persistence in CollegeDebbie Ritter-Williams, Ph.D., and Ruby A. Rouse, Ph.D.Table of ContentsExecutive SummaryBackgroundTheories of Adult Student RetentionLifespan Theories and Generational InfluencesPurpose of the StudyMethodPopulationSampleData CollectionAdult Student College Retention Scale (ASCRS)Main Study Data CollectionResultsPersonal DemographicsEmployment DemographicsEducation DemographicsDescriptive Results for Study VariablesResearch Question 1: Psychosocial Issues and Generational CohortResearch Question 2: Psychosocial Issues and Past Educational ExperienceResearch Question 3: Learner’s Decision to Continue their Education by Psychosocial Issues ExperiencedResearch Question 4: Perceptions of Sources of Support by Generational CohortResearch Question 5: Decision to Continue and Sources of SupportDiscussionStudy Limitations and Future Research RecommendationsConclusions and Recommendations for PracticeReferencesTables1Response scales and collapsed scales for survey items about psychosocial issues2Percentage of respondents who experienced each issue to at least some extent, percentage who thought the issue might have at least some influence on their decision to continue taking classes, ranked by percentage point differences3Response scales and collapsed scales for survey items about sources of support4Percentage of respondents who rated each source of support as at least somewhat effective and at least somewhat important, and percentage point differences between the two ratings (ranked by Importance). 5Statistical comparison of adult learners’ experience of psychosocial issues by generational cohort6Comparison of adult learners’ mean scores for experience of psychosocial issues by generational cohort7Statistical comparison of adult learners’ perception of the influence of psychosocial issues on decision to continue, by generational cohort8Comparison of adult learners’ mean scores for influence of psychosocial issues on decision to continue, by generational cohort9Adult learners reporting the extent of psychosocial issues experienced by past educational experience10Comparison of adult learners’ mean scores for experience of psychosocial issues by past educational experience11Adult learners reporting the extent of psychosocial issues experienced by elapsed time since last enrollment12Comparison of means for adult learners’ experience of psychosocial issues, by time elapsed since last enrollment13Statistical comparison of adult learners’ likelihood of continuing classes by psychosocial issues experienced14Statistical comparison of adult learners’ perceptions of effectiveness of sources of support by generational cohort 15Mean scores for adult students’ perception of effectiveness of support, by generational cohort16Statistical comparison of adult learners’ likelihood of continuing classes by effectiveness of sources of supportFigures1Model of research questions for the study2Respondents by generational cohort3Respondents by gender4Respondents by ethnicity5Respondents by race6Respondents by marital status7Respondents by number of financially dependent children still living at home8Respondents by employment status9Institutions represented by study participants10Respondents’ institutional affiliations11Respondents by level of degree program12Respondents by previous college experience13Time elapsed since respondents’ previous degree enrollment14Respondents by likelihood of continuing15Experience of psychosocial issues to some extent, by previous educational experience16Experience of psychosocial issues to some extent, by time elapsed since previous enrollment17Percentage of generational cohort members rating a source of support as at least somewhat effective (showing significant results only)18Percentage of generational cohort members experiencing psychosocial issues to at least some extent19Percentage of generational cohort members stating a psychosocial issue might have at least Some influence on their decision to continue classesAppendixesAAdult Student College Retention ScaleBANOVA and Post-Hoc Tukey Results for Adult Learners’ Experience of Psychosocial Issues by Generational CohortCANOVA and Post-Hoc Tukey results for Adult Learners’ Perception of the Influence of Psychosocial Issues on Decision to Continue, by Generational CohortDANOVA and Post-Hoc Tukey results for experience of psychosocial issues and highest level of education previously completedEANOVA and Post-Hoc Tukey results for adult learners’ experience of psychosocial issues, by time elapsed since last enrollmentFANOVA and Post-Hoc Tukey results for adult students’ perception of effectiveness of support, by generational cohortExecutive SummaryBackgroundMany researchers have studied the factors affecting the low retention rates of adult students, focusing on adult students as a homogenous group.Few researchers have explored retention-related differences between subgroups of adult students or focused on the psychosocial issues they experience when they return to school.PurposeThe purpose of this quantitative correlational study was to gather demographic information about adult students at a variety of institutions across the United States, to understand adult students’ experience of psychosocial issues, and to determine the sources of support they find helpful in dealing with issues that arise as a result of returning to school.MethodThe Adult Student College Retention Scale was developed to measure students’ experiences of 16 different psychosocial issues, their perceptions of the effectiveness and importance of 13 sources of personal, school-related, and work-related support, and their estimated likelihood of continuing to take classes. Surveys from 4446 students over the age of 22 attending more than 1,300 different postsecondary institutions across the United States were used in the analysis..ResultsResults provided support for the existence of significant differences among adult learners based on their generational cohort, past educational experience, likelihood of continuing to take classes, and perceptions of effectiveness and importance of sources of support. These differences suggest that educational institutions, businesses, and families must offer multifaceted forms of support to ensure students are able to persist to degree completion.RecommendationsFor Educational InstitutionsTailor college student orientation programs and other support services to the differing needs of Baby Boomers (to exert their leadership) and to Millennials (to determine their “fit” with the institution).Institute an “early alert” system for adult students who experience an unexpected “shock” that requires immediate assistance to prevent them from dropping out.Leverage the support relationships between faculty and adult students to help students connect with other support services on campus, and make sure those support services are easily accessible both physically and temporally.For BusinessesEstablish work climates in which supervisors and coworkers are enabled to encourage and recognize employees who are also students.Make instrumental assistance available through tuition assistance and other financial perks, and through creative working arrangements.Acknowledge the added value educated employees bring to the workplace in the presence of the students, their coworkers, and their loved ones when appropriate.Summary? As the largest-growing group of students in postsecondary institutions, adults must be recognized as having different needs depending on their age, past educational experience, and other variables, much as researchers and practitioners have already recognized differences in the needs of the much more homogenous group of 18- to 22-year-old traditional students. Ignoring these differences and continuing to consider all adult students as virtually the same will likely result in continuing low retention rates for this population. As the United States emerges from perilous economic times and strives to reach the President’s education goals, every student, regardless of age or life situation, must have the best chance possible for degree completion.One Size Does Not Fit All: Adult Students’ Different Experiences, Sources of Support, and Persistence in CollegeAlthough enrollment of adults over the age of 22 is projected to increase up to 20% by 2016 (Eduventures, 2008), enrollment does not always result in degree attainment. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) records indicate that less than half of all students enrolled in a 4-year bachelor’s program will earn a degree (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 2009). For community colleges, which enroll a full 40% of degree-seeking students (Morris, 2005), the retention rate was as low as 25% (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 2009). In Milam’s (2009) study of nontraditional students, degree-attainment rates were very low: 28.1% of full-time and 5% of part-time nontraditional students had earned an associate’s or bachelor’s degree after 6 years of study.Research on the factors influencing retention of adult learners in postsecondary degree programs has focused on academic preparation and competence, lifestyle deterrents (such as lack of time and money), institutional deterrents (such as inconvenient class times and office hours), and, to a lesser extent, psychosocial issues such as self-esteem and goal clarity. The influence of psychosocial issues on retention has been studied primarily through individual interviews with small numbers of participants, so the extent to which these issues influence degree attainment is largely unknown.Another area of inquiry that has been noticeably neglected is the relationship between age at enrollment and retention. Most definitions of “nontraditional student” or “adult learner” place every learner over the age of 22 in one demographic category. Assuming all adult learners are similar is theoretically risky when considering psychosocial experiences, because life span theorists such as Erikson (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007), Levinson (Kittrell, 1998), and Sheehy (1995) have identified sequential and developmentally unique periods of life throughout adulthood.The purpose of this study was to gather demographic information about adult students at a variety of institutions across the United States, to understand adult students’ experience of psychosocial issues, and to determine the sources of support they find helpful in coping with the demands of attending college and completing a degree. dealing with issues that arise as a result of returning to school.The report begins with a review of germinal and current research about adult student college retention and life span development theories, including descriptions of generational cohorts. The guiding research questions are outlined in the Purpose section. The Method section includes a description of the population, the sample, and data collection procedures, and the Adult Student College Retention Scale (ASCRS) used to collect data, the population, the sample, and data collection procedures. The Results section includes descriptions of selected demographic characteristics of the sample members, responses of the entire sample to the ASCRS items, and results of statistical tests used to determine whether the null hypothesis for each research question can be rejected. A discussion of the results follows and includes observations about each research question and how the results fit within the context of other published literature. Conclusions about combinations of results are drawn, and the report concludes with a discussion of implications for adult students , educational institutions, employers, and government policymakers.and leaders in higher education and business.BackgroundTheories of Adult Student RetentionFor many years, researchers sought to identify the factors that resulted in the highest possible retention rates for traditional-age college students. Tinto’s (1993) student integration model is probably the best known model and was frequently used in subsequent research. However, Bean and Metzner (1985) asserted that Tinto’s model could not be used to understand the attrition of nontraditional students. They based their assertion on research results indicating adult learners did not seek satisfaction of socialization needs through educational outlets, a main component of Tinto’s theory. Instead, Bean and Metzner’s model depicted relationships among background and defining variables (demographics), academic variables, and environmental variables (personal finances, work hours) that elicited academic and psychological outcomes (such as stress or goal commitment), which led to students’ decisions to remain in school or drop out. Bean and Metzner’s work followed Cross’s (1981) groundbreaking research. Although Cross’s Chain of Response (COR) model focused on factors that positively influence adults to participate in continuing education, she also identified a “barriers” factor that has been of particular interest to researchers. Barriers are categorized as situational (related to practical considerations such as loss of job or lack of transportation), institutional (inconvenient class schedule or office hours, unavailability of faculty members), and dispositional (low self-esteem, failure to adopt the role of “learner”). Although only a small percentage of participants reported dispositional factors, Fogerson (2001) reported Cross thought the percentage was artificially low, a product of erroneous sampling methodology and response bias. Participants may have reported situational factors (such as lack of time or child care) because they were more socially acceptable than dispositional factors like fear of failure or feelings of incompetence. Attrition factors related to psychosocial needs were identified by other researchers, but the constructs were not described consistently across studies. In reviewing anecdotal experiences, MacKinnon-Slaney (1994) identified psychosocial barriers to retention in a category labeled personal issues that included self-awareness, clarity of goals, and mastery of life transitions. Park and Choi (2009) studied adults in a particular online class and found their persistence was influenced by external factors including family and organizational support, and internal motivational factors such as relevance and satisfaction. Using a case study design, Müller (2008) found that the primary barrier to retention of adult women in an online academic program was related to multiple responsibilities arising from their various life roles. Feelings of anxiety, frustration, and isolation constituted another barrier for these women. Other researchers investigated the importance of adults expanding their self-identities to include the role of learner (Gallacher, Crossan, Field, & Merrill, 2002; Kasworm, 2008). All of these studies used small samples and focused on phenomena with limited boundaries, or were tentative conclusions synthesized from the literature. None of the findings have been tested for rigor using a large-scale quantitative design.One large-scale quantitative study similar to the one proposed here was undertaken by Darkenwald and Valentine (1985). However, they surveyed respondents age 16 years and older to analyze the obstacles that influenced their choice not to participate in continuing education of any kind. Although the six factors they identified included two within the psychosocial realm (personal problems and lack of confidence), it may be inaccurate to extrapolate the results to adults age 23 and older who are already enrolled in a course of study. Lifespan Theories and Generational Influences Although many theorists have studied multiple aspects of development for the 18- to 22-year-old student, a smaller number have conjectured that psychosocial development continues into the adult years. Erikson presented one of the first and most well-known theories about development over the lifespan (Torres, Howard-Hamilton, & Cooper, 2003) and coined the term psychosocial. The names of Erikson’s eight stages of development reflect the positive or negative outcome of the “crisis” experienced in the stage (Merriam et al., 2007). Although Erikson did not attach approximate age ranges to the stages, three of the stages occur in adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Self-Absorption, and Integrity vs. Despair. Erikson suggested that adults may return to earlier stages to re-resolve conflicts in different ways or more completely (Merriam et al., 2003). This idea may apply for adults returning to school and reestablishing the student role as part of their identity.Levinson divided the developmental tasks of adulthood into sequences of stable periods, during which life structures are consolidated and associated goals and values are pursued, and transitional periods, during which previous life structures are abandoned and new structures adopted as adults become more individuated and self-expressed (Wheeler-Scruggs, 2008). These sequences are grouped into four eras, three of which occur in adulthood: Early Adulthood (ages 17–45), Middle Adulthood (ages 40–65), and Late Adulthood (ages 60–death). Developmental tasks range from establishing tentative identity as an adult to questioning all goals, values, and choices at midlife, to reflecting on achievements and regrets (Kittrell, 1998). Sheehy’s (1995) description of women’s development in adulthood outlined some of the same passages as those reflected in Levinson’s theory. Membership in a generational cohort may also affect the kinds of issues experienced when reentering an educational environment. Research on generational cohorts has described how adults from different generations hold consistent sets of values and priorities (Kupperschmidt, 2000); these values and priorities could influence how adults navigate the psychosocial challenges present throughout life. Howe and Strauss (1991) defined a generation as “a cohort-group whose length approximates the spans of a phase of life and whose boundaries are fixed by a peer personality” (p. 60). Each generation moves through four different periods: Youth (age 0–21) acquire values, Rising Adults (age 22–43) serve institutions and test values, Midlifers (age 44–65) provide leadership and direction, and Elders (66–87) mentor and pass down values (Howe & Strauss, 1991). Researchers commonly use Howe & Strauss’s definitions for the five current generations, which are based on their birth years: Veterans (or GIs), born 1901 to 1924; Silents, born 1925 to 1942; Baby Boomers, born 1943 to 1960; Generation X, born 1961 to 1981; and Millennials, whose birth years began in 1982. There are at least three generations currently present in classrooms. At the time of this research, Baby Boomers are in the Midlifer phase of life (with just a few in the Elder phase), Gen X members are Midlifers and Rising Adults, and Millennials are Rising Adults.Each generation currently involved in degree-seeking programs is personified by certain sets of “values, attitudes, preferences, and behaviors” (Kupperschmidt, 2000, p. 66). Baby Boomers are intensely competitive and have a very strong work ethic (Delahoyde, 2009), whereas members of Gen X value independent problem solving and sufficient time for leisure activities (Walker et al., 2009). Millennials have only been considered adult learners since 2005, and are characterized as self-reliant, questioning, linear thinkers who believe respect must be earned, not automatically granted (Walker et al., 2009). These generational profiles have been used as a framework for investigating the learning styles and classroom activity preferences common to each generation (Coates, 2007; Delahoyde, 2009; Walker et al., 2006). However, Hansman and McAtee (2009) raised concerns about research focused on generational differences in the educational milieu. They noted that some writing seemed to be based on anecdotal observations instead of empirical research, and other observations seemed to ignore differences in race, gender, and socioeconomic level. Their call for more rigorous research about generational differences in adult education may be partly answered by the study.Given the amount of research supporting adult development and generational cohort theories, it is remarkable that very few studies of adult student retention have considered that retention factors, particularly psychosocial factors, might be influenced by the adult’s generational cohort affiliation or phase of life. One exception was Darkenwald and Valentine’s (1985) study, which identified two psychosocial factors, personal problems and lack of confidence, in a factor analysis of deterrents to participation in adult education. Attempting to correlate the factors with demographic descriptors, they found several “consistent, logical patterns” (p. 185). A strong positive correlation existed between age and lack of confidence and a strong negative correlation existed between previous education and lack of confidence. A negative correlation was also found between personal problems (e.g., trouble with childcare or personal health) and age. Purpose of the StudyThe purpose of the study was to examine the extent to which adult learners experienced specific psychosocial issues, the influence of the issues on their decision to continue their education, and the types of support they found useful in resolving these issues. Measurements were made of any variance that existed between generational cohort affiliation and the psychosocial issues experienced, the potential influence of the issues on decision to continue taking classes, and the effectiveness and importance of sources of personal support. Variance that existed between effectiveness of sources of support and decision to continue education was also measured. Because age (and thus generational cohort) may also be associated with extent of prior educational experience, the relationship between prior educational experience and the experience of psychosocial issues was also investigated. The research questions and hypotheses were as follows (see Figure 1):RQ1: How, if at all, do psychosocial issues experienced by adult learners vary based on membership in a generational cohort?H1A—Extent of experience of psychosocial issues differs significantly by generational cohort membership.RQ2: What relationship, if any, exists between past educational experience and psychosocial issues experienced as an adult learner? H2A—Extent of psychosocial issues experienced differs significantly by highest degree previously earned.H2C—Extent of psychosocial issues experienced differs significantly by time elapsed since last enrollment in a degree program.RQ3: What relationship exists between the experience of psychosocial issues and an adult learner's decision to continue or discontinue their education?H3A—Adult learners’ decision to continue taking classes varies significantly by the extent of psychosocial issues experienced. RQ4: How, if at all, do adult learners' perceptions of the effectiveness of sources of support vary based on membership in a generational cohort?H4A—Perceptions of the effectiveness of sources of support differ significantly by generational cohort membership.RQ5: How, if at all, does the decision to continue in college vary based on preferred sources of support?H5A—Adult learners’ decision to continue their college education differs significantly by their preferred sources of support.Generational Membership ● Silent (1925-1942) ● Baby boomer (1943-1960) ● Gen X (1961-1981) ● Millennial (1982-Present)Psychosocial Experiences ● Extent ● InfluencePast Educational Experiences ● Highest degree earned ● Recency of enrollmentPersonal Sources of Support ● Family/friends ● Work (supervisor, co-workers) ● School (faculty, counselors)Decision to Continue in CollegeRQ 4RQ 1RQ 5RQ 3RQ 2Figure 1. Model of research questions for the study.MethodPopulationThe population for the study consisted of adults over the age of 22 who were enrolled in degree programs at institutions across the United States. Because the study focused on psychosocial issues experienced by adult students, the population also included adults who had been enrolled in a degree program within the last 12 months who would still have recent memories of their experiences with psychosocial issues. SampleRespondents were recruited through two different methods. The first sampling frame included panelists obtained from Zoomerang Online Sample, a service provided by Zoomerang, a MarketTools company (MarketTools, 2011c). Zoomerang Online Sample has provided panelists to some of the largest companies that conduct consumer research, including Johnson & Johnson and the Los Angeles County Office of Education (MarketTools, 2011c). Zoomerang Online Sample is powered by TrueSample, a comprehensive technology designed to ensure survey respondents are “real, unique, and engaged” (MarketTools, Inc., 2011a, para. 1).For the second sampling method, university leaders across the country were recruited to assist in distributing the data collection instrument to adult students enrolled at their institutions. Nine institutions chose to participate directly in the study. A total of 7,280 participants gave consent to complete the survey. After 2,834 responses were deleted because they did not pass the screening criteria or were incomplete, there were 4,446 usable surveys.Data collectionAdult Student College Retention Scale (ASCRS). A new data collection instrument was developed to measure adult students’ perceptions of their experience of psychosocial issues and the effectiveness of certain types of personal support related to their academic work. Items for the ASCRS were developed after a thorough review of the literature and presented to a panel of subject matter experts (SME’s) for review. Based on their narrative comments and the overall content validity ratio of each item (Lawshe, 1975), a final instrument was developed. After SME validation, the instrument included demographic questions, three questions about 26 different psychosocial issues (78 questions total), and 18 items related to sources of personal support. A pilot study was performed to test the validity and reliability of the first iteration of the ASCRS, and a factor analysis yielded a five-factor solution for survey items measuring psychosocial issues experienced by adult students. The five identified factors were Intrusion in Routine, Academic Uncertainty, Lack of Support from Family/Friends, Lack of Support from Work Colleagues, and Uncertain Value of Present Knowledge. After items with low factor loading and/or low mean responses were deleted, combined with another item, or reworded, the final scale contained 14 questions about demographic status, 32 items about 16 psychosocial issues, 26 items about 13 sources of support, 1 question about intent to continue taking classes, and 3 open-ended questions. Main study data collection. Data were collected through Zoomerang Online panel and by individual institutions during April and May of 2011. All potential respondents received an email containing a hyperlink to the location of the instrument on the website. The first screen contained an informed consent statement that respondents were asked to read. Only respondents who proactively gave Informed Consent were given access to the data collection instrument. Screening questions included at the beginning of each survey filtered out potential respondents who did not meet the population criteria: at least 23 years old, currently enrolled in a degree-granting program or enrolled within the past year, and not enrolled in the institution from which pilot study respondents were recruited. Respondents who were screened out were thanked for their time and offered access to the study’s final report.Analyses conducted on the survey data include descriptive statistics (frequency distributions and measures of central tendency) and inferential statistics (e.g., chi-square and other pertinent nonparametric tests appropriate to categorical and ordinal data). The units of analysis for all data are individual adult students.ResultsCompleted surveys were received from 4,446 survey respondents. According to Mugo (n.d.), factors that influence the sample size selection include funding, the nature of the population, the nature of the variables, the nature of the analysis, the precision needed, the variance expected, and the number of operations to be performed. When the available population is plus or minus 500, a common approach is to sample 50%. When the available population is plus or minus 1,500, sampling 20% is appropriate, and when N is around 5,000, 400 is an appropriate sample size. Given the more than 8 million adult learners in the United States (NCES, 2010), a sample of 4,446 responses can yield results with a confidence level of 99% and a confidence interval of 2% (RaoSoft, 2011).Personal DemographicsThe respondents’ year of birth was used to determine their membership in a generational cohort. Members of Gen X and Millennial cohorts constituted 87% of the total sample (Gen X = 49%; Millennial = 38%); fewer members of the Baby Boomer (13%) and Silent (0.4%) cohorts were represented (see Figure 2). Because of the small number of participants from the Silent generation, further data about the group were not reported.Figure 2. Respondents by generational cohort.The respondents to the study were skewed in gender. Almost three quarters of the respondents (72%) were female (see Figure 3). According to NCES (2010) data for 2009, 61% of college students over the age of 24 were women, so the results of this study may not be generalizable to other segments of the adult college student population.Figure 3. Respondents by gender.Ten percent of respondents identified as Hispanic or Latino (see Figure 4), and the majority of respondents identified as either White (75%) or Black/African American (14%), as indicated in Figure 5.Figure 4. Respondents by ethnicity.Figure 5. Respondents by race.Figure 6 displays the marital status of respondents. When describing their marital status, equal percentages of respondents reported being single and married (42%). Ten percent reported that they were divorced, 2% were separated, 1% were widowed, and 3% indicated some other status. Figure 6. Respondents by marital status.Although just under half of the respondents were married, the sample skewed toward reporting they had no children (55%) living at home who were financially dependent upon them. Thirty-five percent reported having one or two children, 9% reported three or four children, and 1% of the sample reported more than four children were living at home and financially dependent upon them. Figure 7 shows these data. Figure 7. Respondents by number of financially dependent children still living at home.Employment DemographicsWhen asked about employment status, only 40% of the sample reported being employed full-time (see Figure 8). More respondents were unemployed (28%) than working part-time (23%), 2% were retired, and 7% reported some other employment situation. The relatively high percentage of unemployed respondents may have affected responses to survey items related to supervisors and work colleagues.Figure 8. Respondents by employment status.Education DemographicsRespondents represented more than 1,300 different postsecondary institutions across the United States. Figure 9 indicates the number and type of institutions represented. Public technical or community colleges were most frequently represented (39%), followed by public 4-year colleges or universities (25%). Eighteen percent of the represented institutions were private 4-year colleges and universities, and each other institution type accounted for less than 10% of the total institutions represented. Figure 9. Institutions represented by study participants.The percentage of respondents enrolled at each type of institution paralleled the percentages of institutions represented, as shown in Figure 10. Thirty-five percent of respondents were enrolled at public community or technical colleges, 31% were enrolled at public 4-year colleges or universities, 13% at private 4-year colleges or universities, and 11% at for-profit 4-year institutions. Respondent enrollment at other type of institutions was less than 5%.Figure 10. Respondents’ institutional affiliations.Over 80% of respondents reported being enrolled in either an associate’s (44%) or bachelor’s (41%) degree program (see Figure 11). Respondents enrolled in a master’s or doctoral degree program constituted only 11% and 4%, respectively, of the sample. Figure 11. Respondents by level of degree program.Only 15% of respondents reported no previous college experience, as seen in Figure 12. Most respondents (44%) had taken some college classes, whereas 18% held an associate’s degree, 18% held a bachelor’s degree, 4% held a master’s degree, and less than 1% had already earned a doctorate.Figure 12. Respondents by previous college experience.Figure 13 depicts the time lapse between each respondent’s last enrollment in a degree program and their current enrollment. The largest group of respondents (29%) reported being out of school for more than 10 years. Nineteen percent reported that 5 to 10 years had elapsed since their last enrollment, 22% reported that 2 to 5 years had elapsed since their last enrollment, and 10% reported that 1 to 2 years had elapsed since their last enrollment. For the remainder of the sample, 17% reported being out of school for one year or less, and 3% reported no break between their current enrollment and their previous enrollment.Figure 13. Time elapsed since respondents’ previous degree enrollment.Descriptive Results for Study VariablesThe main part of the Adult Student College Retention Scale contains multiple items describing psychosocial issues that students might experience related to their educational journey; items related to the sources of personal, work-related, and school-related support that may be available to them; and one item that asks about the respondent’s likelihood to continue taking college classes. Descriptive statistics illustrate how the entire sample of participants responded to each item.Responses to items about psychosocial issues. Two questions were asked about each psychosocial issue described on the ASCRS: “To what extent have you experienced this issue?” and “How might this issue influence your decision to continue or discontinue taking college classes?” A Likert-type scale was used to record responses. For data analysis, the five possible responses were collapsed into two categories, as shown in Table 1.Table 1Response Scales and Collapsed Scales for Survey Items About Psychosocial IssuesTo what EXTENT did you experience the issue described above?How might the issue listed above INFLUENCE YOUR DECISION TO CONTINUE OR DISCONTINUE taking college classes?Survey Response ScaleCollapsed ScaleSurvey Response ScaleCollapsed Scale1—Not at all1—Not at all, A slight extent1 -- No influence at all1—No influence at all, A little influence2—A slight extent2—A little influence3—Some extent2— Some extent, A moderate extent, An extreme extent3—Some influence2— Some influence, Moderate influence, Major influence4—A moderate extent4—Moderate influence5—An extreme extent5—Major influence??I never experienced the issue described above**Respondents who never experienced the issue were not included in data analysis.Table 2 displays the response patterns for the two questions and the percentage point differences for each issue. Almost three quarters of the participants (71.3%) indicated they experienced anxiety or stress about money spent on school-related expenses at least some of the time, and 40.8% indicated the issue might at least somewhat influence their decision to continue taking classes. The second most frequently experienced issue was anxiety about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones (58.5%); it was also the second most influential issue (29.2%). Approximately half of the sample experienced the next two issues: concern about having the intellectual ability to complete schoolwork (51.5%) and stress about the extent to which classes interfered with their normal routine (49.1%). Around 25% of respondents thought experiencing these issues might influence their decision to continue (27.1% and 24.7%, respectively).Another concern about academic competence ranked fifth: 42% of respondents feared that they must earn degrees to prove their competence, although only 25.3% thought it might somewhat influence their decision to continue. Just over 4 in 10 participants (40.4%) felt resentful about doing schoolwork instead of something more interesting, and fewer than 2 in 10 (18.8%) thought this might influence their decision to continue. The remaining 10 issues were experienced by less than 40% of the sample to some extent, and fewer than 3 in 10 respondents indicated that the issue might influence their decision to continue or discontinue classes.For each psychosocial issue, participants more frequently reported experiencing the issue (“Some extent” on the scale) than thinking the issue might influence (at least “Some influence” on the scale) their decision about continuing classes. Table 2 shows a comparison of the “experience” and “influence” responses for each psychosocial issue, along with the difference in percentage points between the two measurements. The differences between “experience” and “influence” ranged from 7 percentage points to more than 30.Table 2 Percentage of Respondents Who Experienced Each Issue to at Least Some Extent, and Percentage Who Thought the Issue Might Have at Least Some Influence on Their Decision to Continue Taking Classes, Ranked by Percentage Point DifferencesPsychosocial issueExtentInfluenceDifference (rank order, largest to smallest)Experiencing anxiety/stress about money spent on school-related expenses71.3%40.8%30.4Feeling anxious about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones58.5%29.2%29.2Experiencing stress while taking classes because they interfered with my normal routine49.1%24.7%24.4Worrying about my intellectual ability to successfully complete schoolwork51.5%27.1%24.3Feeling resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting40.4%18.8%21.6Feeling unable to develop collaborative relationships with other students35.0%15.3%19.7Feeling that my practical experience is not valued in the academic world38.7%20.0%18.7Feeling fearful that I must earn a degree to prove to others I am competent42.0%25.3%16.7Not spending enough time on work related activities39.4%23.9%15.5Feeling unclear about my goal for returning to school37.8%24.0%13.7Feeling I must earn a degree to meet the needs of others, as opposed to earning a degree for my own needs32.1%19.3%12.8Feeling angry or depressed about feedback given by an instructor on my work27.0%14.6%12.4Thinking that being back in school was too big of a risk for me to take30.2%17.8%12.4Lack of support or active discouragement from friends & loved ones31.0%20.0%11.0Resisting new information presented in classes because it conflicted with what I already knew19.3%11.1%8.2Responses to items about sources of support. Descriptive statistics reflect the responses to two questions asked about sources of support: “How effective is the source of support?” and “How important is the source of support” (whether you experienced it or not)? The questions measured two separate qualities: a source of support might be effective even though it is not particularly important, and an important source of support might not be particularly effective. The sources of support were grouped into three categories: those that were personal, school related, and work related. A Likert-type scale was used to record responses. For data analysis, the five possible responses were collapsed into two categories, as shown in Table 3.Table 3Response Scales and Collapsed Scales for Survey Items About Sources of SupportHow effective is this source of support?How important is this source of support (whether you experienced it or not)?Survey Response ScaleCollapsed ScaleSurvey Response ScaleCollapsed Scale1—Very ineffective1—Very ineffective, Somewhat ineffective, Neither effective nor ineffective1—Very unimportant1—No influence at all, A little influence2—Somewhat ineffective2—Somewhat unimportant3—Neither effective nor ineffective2— Somewhat effective, Very effective3—Neither important nor unimportant2—Some influence, Moderate influence, Major influence4—Somewhat effective4—Somewhat important5—Very effective5—Very important6—I have not experienced this source of support*??*Respondents who never experienced the issue were not included in data analysis.In response to the first question about effectiveness, respondents could choose the answer “I have not experienced this type of support.” These respondents were excluded when tabulating results for the effectiveness of support sources so that ratings of effectiveness came only from those who had experienced the support. Table 4 displays the cumulative percentage of respondents who rated each source of support as at least somewhat effective and the percentage who rated each source as at least somewhat important. More than three out of four respondents (76%) said their spouse or significant other was at least somewhat important as a source of support, and almost three out of four respondents (72%) rated their faculty members similarly effective. Eleven percentage points separated faculty members from the next highest rating of effectiveness, for academic counselors (61%). Four other sources of support were rated as at least somewhat effective by at least 50% of the respondents: children (56%), financial aid counselors (55%), primary supervisors (53%), and personal friends also taking classes (52%). Less than half of the participants rated the remaining six sources of support as at least somewhat effective.For every source of support, respondents were more likely to rate it as effective than as important. Once again, spouses or significant others (78%) and faculty members (76%) were rated as at least somewhat effective more often than other sources of support. Personal friends also taking college classes were cited as effective by 68% of respondents, followed closely by children (67%), academic counselors (64%), and primary supervisors (61%). Four other sources of support were rated as effective by more than half the respondents: financial aid counselors (59%), staff from academic department offices (56%), coworkers (53%), and other students in the same classes (50%).Table 4 Percentage of Respondents Who Rated Each Source of Support as at Least Somewhat Effective and at Least Somewhat Important, and Percentage Point Differences Between the Two Ratings (Ranked by Importance) Source of supportType of SupportAt least somewhat importantAt least somewhat effective% who have not experienced support from this sourceSpouse or significant otherPersonal76%78%21%Faculty membersSchool72%76%6%Academic counselorSchool61%64%13%ChildrenPersonal56%67%40%Financial aid counselorSchool55%59%22%Your primary supervisorWork53%61%14%Personal friends also taking college classesPersonal52%68%15%Staff from academic department officeSchool45%56%15%Other students in my classes who are not personal friends or co-workersSchool39%50%5%Co-workers at your organizationWork39%53%15%Personal friends not taking college classesPersonal38%47%9%Staff from Dean of Students or Student Activities OfficeSchool38%48%20%Staff from Non-Traditional or Adult Student Services OfficeSchool35%45%20%Responses to item about likelihood of continuing to take classes. One item on the ACSRS asked about how likely the respondent was to continue taking classes. Results indicated that almost 6 in 10 participants rated themselves extremely likely to continue classes (see Figure 14). Adding those who said they were likely to continue classes reflected that 75% felt strongly that they would continue their enrollment. Only 15% of respondents said they were unlikely to or definitely would not continue taking classes.Figure 14. Respondents by likelihood of continuing.Beyond reporting descriptive data for the entire sample’s responses to items related to the main study variables, additional statistical tests were used to answer each of the study’s research questions. The results of those tests are presented in the next section. Given the number of variables in the dataset and the large sample size, a low significance level (p < .01) was chosen. Results are presented in separate tables based on variable clusters. The strength of the relationships are determined as follows: weak (.01–.29), moderate (.30–.69), and strong (.70 –1.00). Research Question 1: Psychosocial Issues and Generational CohortThe first research question examined how adult learners' psychosocial issues varied based on membership in various generational cohorts. In separate questions, participants were asked to describe the extent to which they experienced each issue, and the influence the issue might have on their decision to continue taking classes. Chi-square tests compared the expected and observed distributions, whereas analysis of variance (ANOVA) compared the mean scores of Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Millennials. Differences in the extent to which issues were experienced. As shown in Table 5, both statistical tests indicated there were highly significant differences (p ≤ .01) in the extent to which Baby Boomer, Generation X, and Millennial adult learners reported experiencing 15 of the 16 psychosocial issues. The results support rejecting the null hypothesis for the first research question that adult students’ experience of psychosocial issues does not vary based on membership in a generational cohort.Table 5Statistical Comparison of Adult Learners’ Experience of Psychosocial Issues by Generational CohortPsychosocial issuePercentage of each generational cohort experiencing the issue to at least some extent2FpBaby BoomerGen XMillennialFeeling anxious about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones44.0%58.1%63.9%70.2623.78.00Not spending enough time on work related activities29.0%37.3%46.2%67.7122.90.00Lack of support or active discouragement from friends & loved ones22.0%30.7%34.3%31.5510.58.00Lack of support or active discouragement from my primary supervisor and/or other employees at work13.1%21.0%25.7%42.1914.19.00Experiencing anxiety/stress about money spent on school-related expenses60.1%69.8%77.1%73.0224.73.00Worrying about my intellectual ability to successfully complete schoolwork46.9%51.3%53.5%13.634.55.00Feeling unclear about my goal for returning to school29.2%36.0%42.9%41.1213.82.00Feeling resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting21.8%37.0%51.4%178.1361.84.00Thinking that being back in school was too big of a risk for me to take29.5%32.3%27.6%11.483.83.01Experiencing stress while taking classes because they interfered with my normal routine35.6%51.4%51.6%62.7821.21.00Feeling unable to develop collaborative relationships with other students25.0%33.1%40.9%52.9817.86.00Feeling fearful that I must earn a degree to prove to others I am competent27.7%39.9%50.0%98.9833.72.00Resisting new information presented in classes because it conflicted with what I already knew13.4%19.2%21.6%20.416.83.00Feeling angry or depressed about feedback given by an instructor on my work17.2%25.4%32.7%61.5720.80.00Feeling I must earn a degree to meet the needs of others, as opposed to earning a degree for my own needs18.2%29.7%40.2%108.3637.00.00Feeling that my practical experience is not valued in the academic world35.8%38.3%40.6%6.822.27.08Post hoc tests were conducted for all items that yielded significant p values to determine where significant differences existed between generational cohorts (Urdan, 2010). Results of Tukey HSD tests for the 10 issues experienced by at least 40% of a generational cohort are reported in Table 6. Tables showing ANOVA results and complete post hoc comparisons can be found in Appendix A. Table 6Comparison of Adult Learners’ Mean Scores for Experience of Psychosocial Issues by Generational CohortPsychosocial issueBaby Boomers(n = 559)Gen X(n = 2,140)Millennials(n = 1,664)MSDMSDMSDFeeling anxious about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones1.440.501.580.491.640.48Not spending enough time on work related activities1.290.451.370.481.460.50Experiencing anxiety/stress about money spent on school-related expenses1.600.491.700.461.770.42Worrying about my intellectual ability to successfully complete schoolwork1.470.501.510.501.530.50Feeling unclear about my goal for returning to school1.290.451.360.481.430.50Feeling resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting1.220.411.370.481.510.50Experiencing stress while taking classes because they interfered with my normal routine1.360.481.510.501.520.50Feeling unable to develop collaborative relationships with other students1.250.431.330.471.410.49Feeling fearful that I must earn a degree to prove to others I am competent1.280.451.400.491.500.50Feeling I must earn a degree to meet the needs of others, as opposed to earning a degree for my own needs1.180.391.300.461.400.49Note. Means collapsed to a 2-point scale, with 1 = Not at all or A slight extent and 2 = Some extent, A moderate extent, or An extreme extent.As shown in Table 6, Millennials reported feeling significantly more anxiety about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones than Baby Boomers (mean difference = .20, p = .00). Gen Xers also experienced more anxiety about this issue than Baby Boomers (mean difference =.14, p = .00). The issue of not spending enough time on work-related activities also yielded significant differences for generational cohorts. Millennials and Gen Xers were significantly more likely to report anxiety about not spending enough time on work-related activities than Baby Boomers (mean differences = .17 and .08, respectively; p = .00). Millennials were also significantly more likely than Gen Xers (mean difference = .09, p = .00) to report concerns about insufficient time for work.Millennials were significantly more likely to report anxiety/stress about money spent on school-related expenses than Baby Boomers (mean difference = .17, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .07, p = .00). Gen Xers were also significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to report stress about this issue (mean difference = .10, p = .00).Issues related to intellectual ability and goal clarity also showed unique results for different generations. Millennials were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say they worried about their intellectual ability to successfully complete schoolwork (mean difference = .07, p = .03). Millennials (mean difference = .14, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .07, p = .02) were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say they felt unclear about their goal for returning to school.Millennials were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers (mean difference = .30, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .14, p = .00) to say they felt resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting; Gen Xers were also significantly more likely than Baby Boomers (mean difference = .15, p = .00) to report this issue. Both younger generations were also significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say they experienced stress while taking classes because they interfered with their normal routine (Millennials’ mean difference = .16, p = .00; Gen Xers’ mean difference = .16, p = .00).Millennials (mean difference = .16, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .08, p = .00) were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say they felt unable to develop collaborative relationships with other students. In addition, Millennials were significantly more likely than Gen Xers to report similar concerns (mean difference = .08, p = .00). The same pattern was seen concerning the need to prove competence. Millennials (mean difference = .12, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .22, p = .00) were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to report they felt they needed to earn a degree to prove to others that they are competent. Millennials were also significantly more likely than Gen Xers (mean difference = .10, p = .00) to report this concern.Millennials (mean difference = .22, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .12, p = .00) were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say they felt they needed to earn a degree to meet the needs of others rather than to meet their own needs. Millennials (mean difference = .10, p = .00) were also significantly more likely than Gen Xers to express these concerns. Differences in the extent to which psychosocial issues might influence the decision to continue taking classes. Table 7 displays the frequency counts for each issue and the results of chi-square and ANOVA tests. Results indicated that there were highly significant differences between Baby Boomers, Generation Xers, and Millennials in their perceptions of how each psychosocial issue might influence their decision to continue taking classes.Table 7Statistical Comparison of Adult Learners’ Perception of the Influence of Psychosocial Issues on Decision to Continue, by Generational CohortPsychosocial issuePercentage of each generational cohort stating the issue might have at least some influence on their decision to continue classes2FpBaby BoomerGen XMillennialFeeling anxious about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones34.3%46.2%48.0%32.0410.750.00Not spending enough time on work related activities29.8%36.1%43.6%46.8115.770.00Lack of support or active discouragement from friends & loved ones21.1%32.6%39.1%59.9720.280.00Lack of support or active discouragement from my primary supervisor and/or other employees at work16.3%24.0%32.3%58.8319.910.00Experiencing anxiety/stress about money spent on school-related expenses56.6%61.2%68.2%35.0711.780.00Worrying about my intellectual ability to successfully complete schoolwork33.8%43.4%46.7%33.3911.210.00Feeling unclear about my goal for returning to school31.0%37.0%46.4%52.9917.890.00Feeling resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting16.0%28.6%35.9%81.2227.590.00Thinking that being back in school was too big of a risk for me to take25.6%31.0%30.6%6.952.320.07Experiencing stress while taking classes because they interfered with my normal routine29.0%40.1%41.2%34.0811.440.00Feeling unable to develop collaborative relationships with other students15.3%24.8%29.3%39.6913.350.00Feeling fearful that I must earn a degree to prove to others I am competent26.4%39.6%50.3%101.6334.740.00Resisting new information presented in classes because it conflicted with what I already knew10.7%18.3%24.3%46.9615.840.00Feeling angry or depressed about feedback given by an instructor on my work14.7%23.1%29.2%49.4716.680.00Feeling I must earn a degree to meet the needs of others, as opposed to earning a degree for my own needs17.0%30.8%41.5%113.0938.800.00Feeling that my practical experience is not valued in the academic world25.7%33.0%38.3%31.2110.480.00Post hoc tests were conducted for all items that yielded significant p values to determine where significant differences existed between generational cohorts. Results of Tukey HSD tests for the eight issues experienced by at least 40% of a generational cohort are reported in Table 8. Tables showing ANOVA results and complete post hoc comparisons can be found in Appendix B. Table 8Comparison of Adult Learners’ Mean Scores for Influence of Psychosocial Issues on Decision to Continue, by Generational CohortPsychosocial issueBaby Boomers(n = 559)Gen X(n = 2,140)Millennials(n = 1,664)MSDMSDMSDFeeling anxious about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones1.440.501.580.491.640.48Not spending enough time on work related activities1.290.451.370.481.460.50Experiencing anxiety/stress about money spent on school-related expenses1.600.491.700.461.770.42Worrying about my intellectual ability to successfully complete schoolwork1.470.501.510.501.530.50Feeling unclear about my goal for returning to school1.290.451.360.481.430.50Experiencing stress while taking classes because they interfered with my normal routine1.360.481.510.501.520.50Feeling fearful that I must earn a degree to prove to others I am competent1.280.451.400.491.500.50Feeling I must earn a degree to meet the needs of others, as opposed to earning a degree for my own needs1.180.391.300.461.400.49Note. Means collapsed to a 2-point scale, with 1 = No influence at all or A little influence and 2 = Some influence, Moderate influence, or Major influence.Similar patterns were seen for issues related to time spent with loved ones and time spent on work-related activity. Millennials (mean difference = .14, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .12, p = .00) were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say that feeling anxious about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones might have at least some influence on their decision to continue classes. For work-related activity, Millennials (mean difference = .14, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .06, p = .04) were again significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say the issue might have at least some influence on their decision to continue classes. The mean difference between Millennials and Gen Xers was also significant for this issue (mean difference = .08, p = .00).Millennials were significantly more likely than Gen Xers (mean difference = .07, p = .00) and Baby Boomers (mean difference = .12, p = .00) to say that experiencing anxiety/stress about money spent on school-related expenses might have at least some influence on their decision to continue classes.Millennials (mean difference = .13, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .1, p = .00) were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say that worrying about their intellectual ability to successfully complete schoolwork might have at least some influence on their decision to continue classes.Millennials were significantly more likely than Gen Xers (mean difference = .1, p = .00) and Baby Boomers (mean difference = .15, p = .00) to say that feeling unclear about their goal for returning to school might have at least some influence on their decision to continue classes.Millennials and Gen Xers differed significantly from Baby Boomers on issues related to the disruption of normal routine and proving competence to others. Millennials (mean difference = .12, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .11, p = .00) were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say that stress caused by classes interfering with their normal routine might have at least some influence on their decision to continue classes. Millennials (mean difference = .24, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .13, p = .00) were also significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say that feeling fearful about earning a degree to prove to others they are competent might have at least some influence on their decision to continue classes. The mean difference between Millennials and Gen Xers was also significant for this issue (mean difference = .11, p = .00).Millennials (mean difference = .25, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .14, p = .00) were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to say that feeling they must earn a degree to meet the needs of others, as opposed to meeting their own needs, might have at least some influence on their decision to continue classes. The mean difference between Millennials and Gen Xers was also significant for this issue (mean difference = .11, p = .00).Research Question 2: Psychosocial Issues and Past Educational ExperienceResearch Question 2 examined any relationship that existed between past educational experience and psychosocial issues experienced as an adult learner. Respondents’ past educational experience was measured two different ways. Respondents were asked to indicate their past experience based on the highest level of education they had previously completed and the length of time that had elapsed since their last enrollment in a degree program prior to their current enrollment (computed in months and transformed to ranges). Similar to Research Question 1, chi-square tests compared the expected and observed distributions, whereas ANOVA compared the mean scores of students with no previous college experience, some completed college classes, associate’s, and master’s degrees. Due to the low number of respondents with doctoral degrees, they were excluded from the analysis. For each measurement of past educational experience, the null hypothesis—that there is no difference in the experience of psychosocial issues—can be rejected.Extent of psychosocial issues by past educational experience. As indicated in Table 9, the psychosocial issues experienced by adult learners differed significantly depending on the extent of their past educational experience. Comparisons were made based on the highest level of education students had previously completed, and highly significant differences (p ≤ .01) were found for 9 of the 16 issues. Table 9Adult Learners Reporting the Extent of Psychosocial Issues Experienced by Past Educational ExperiencePsychosocial issuePercentage experiencing the issue to at least some extent by previous educational experience2FpNo previous college experienceSome college classesAssoc-iate's degreeBache-lor's degreeMaster's degreeFeeling anxious about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones57.4%54.2%65.4%61.1%66.0%37.337.520.00Not spending enough time on work related activities38.5%35.0%42.1%43.7%60.1%59.4012.030.00Lack of support or active discouragement from friends & loved ones31.3%31.2%33.5%28.0%32.4%6.631.330.25Lack of support or active discouragement from my primary supervisor and/or other employees at work21.6%19.7%24.1%23.1%29.3%20.454.100.00Experiencing anxiety/stress about money spent on school-related expenses64.7%70.4%73.7%74.9%77.7%27.075.440.00Worrying about my intellectual ability to successfully complete schoolwork57.9%52.7%52.4%43.9%44.1%34.026.850.00Feeling unclear about my goal for returning to school38.8%38.2%40.3%34.7%37.8%5.561.110.35Feeling resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting36.4%37.7%46.3%45.3%44.7%32.586.560.00Thinking that being back in school was too big of a risk for me to take30.9%31.1%29.2%27.8%33.5%6.461.290.26Experiencing stress while taking classes because they interfered with my normal routine46.6%48.8%51.8%49.5%51.6%4.510.900.48Feeling unable to develop collaborative relationships with other students31.8%35.1%38.5%35.4%31.9%9.271.860.10Feeling fearful that I must earn a degree to prove to others I am competent.39.1%44.3%44.3%36.1%39.9%19.363.880.00Resisting new information presented in classes because it conflicted with what I already knew20.3%17.4%20.4%19.8%28.2%20.324.080.00Feeling angry or depressed about feedback given by an instructor on my work27.3%25.7%27.7%28.2%35.6%11.172.240.05Feeling I must earn a degree to meet the needs of others, as opposed to earning a degree for my own needs29.9%33.3%35.7%28.2%30.9%13.462.700.02Feeling that my practical experience is not valued in the academic world39.1%39.8%40.8%33.8%38.3%15.093.020.01Figure 15 displays the issues for which significant differences existed and 40% or more of one subgroup experienced the issue to at least some extent. Respondents with master’s degrees were most likely to experience anxiety about not spending enough time with a spouse/significant other, not spending enough time on work, and school-related expenses. Participants who had previously earned associate’s degrees most frequently reported feeling resentment about doing schoolwork instead of something more interesting and feeling their practical experience was not valued. Those with no previous college experience were most frequently likely to report worrying about their intellectual ability. Respondents who had taken some classes but not earned a degree were most likely to report feeling fearful about earning a degree to prove their competence. Figure 15. Experience of psychosocial issues to some extent, by previous educational experience.Responses to the nine issues that varied significantly by past educational experience were further analyzed using Tukey HSD post hoc testing. Table 10 displays the means for each psychosocial issue, by previous educational attainment, in cases where at least 40% of one of the subgroups involved in the significant difference had experienced the issue. Tables showing ANOVA results and complete post hoc comparisons can be found in Appendix C.Table 10 Comparison of Adult Learners’ Mean Scores for Experience of Psychosocial Issues by Past Educational Experience Psychosocial issueNo previous college education (n = 686)Some college classes (n = 1,931)Associate's degree (n = 784)Bachelor's degree (n = 758)Master's degree (n = 188)MSDMSDMSDMSDMSDFeeling anxious about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones1.570.491.540.501.650.481.610.491.660.48Not spending enough time on work related activities1.380.491.350.481.420.491.440.501.600.49Experiencing anxiety/stress about money spent on school-related expenses1.650.481.700.461.740.441.750.431.780.42Worrying about my intellectual ability to successfully complete schoolwork1.580.491.530.501.520.501.440.501.440.50Feeling resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting1.360.481.310.461.290.461.280.451.340.47Feeling fearful that I must earn a degree to prove to others I am competent1.390.491.440.501.440.501.360.481.400.49Feeling that my practical experience is not valued in the academic world1.390.491.400.491.410.491.340.471.380.49Note. Means collapsed to a 2-point scale, with 1 = Not at all or A slight extent and 2 = Some extent, A moderate extent, or An extreme extent.Respondents with associate's degrees (mean difference = .11, p = .00), bachelor's degrees (mean difference = .07, p = .013), and master's degrees (mean difference = .12, p = .02) were significantly more likely than those who had taken some college classes to experience feeling anxious about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones to at least some extent. Those with associate's degrees were also more likely to experience this issue than those with no previous college experience (mean difference = .08, p = .02).Respondents holding master’s degrees were significantly more likely to experience stress from not spending enough time on work-related activities than those with bachelor’s degrees (mean difference = .16, p = .00), associate’s degrees (mean difference = .18, p = .00), those with some college classes (mean difference = .25, p = 00), and those with no previous college experience (mean difference = .22, p = .00). Those with bachelor’s degrees (mean difference = .09, p = .00) and associate’s degrees (mean difference = .07, p = .01) also reported experiencing this issue more often than those who had taken some college classes.Those with master’s (mean difference = .13, p = .01), bachelor’s (mean difference = .1, p = .00), and associate’s (mean difference = .09, p = .00) degrees were more likely than those with no previous college experience to report anxiety about money spent on school-related expenses.Respondents with bachelor’s degrees were least likely to worry about their intellectual ability to successfully complete schoolwork. Those with associate’s degrees (mean difference = .09, p = .01), some college classes (mean difference = .09, p = .00), and no previous college experience (mean difference = .14, p = .00) were more worried about this issue. A significant difference also existed between those with a master’s degree and those with no college experience, who were more likely to worry (mean difference = .14, p = .01).Those with associate’s degrees reported feeling more resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting than those with some college classes (mean difference = .09, p = .00) and those with no previous college experience (mean difference = .1, p = .02). Respondents with bachelor’s degrees were also more likely to report this issue than those with some college classes (mean difference = .08, p = .00) and those with no college experience (mean difference = .09, p = .01).Those with associate’s degrees (mean difference = .08, p = .02) and those with some college classes (mean difference = .08, p = .00) were more likely than those with bachelor’s degrees to feel fearful that they must earn a degree to prove their competence.Those who had taken some college classes were more likely than those with bachelor’s degrees to feel that their practical experience is not valued in the academic world (mean difference = .06, p = .04).Extent of psychosocial issues by time elapsed since last enrollment. A second factor related to past educational experience is the amount of time that has elapsed since a student was last enrolled before their current enrollment in a degree program. As indicated in Table 11, highly significant differences (p ≤ .01) were seen in the experience of 13 of the 16 psychosocial issues based on the time elapsed since past enrollment. Table 11Adult Learners Reporting the Extent of Psychosocial Issues Experienced by Elapsed Time Since Last EnrollmentPsychosocial issuePercentage experiencing the issue to at least some extent, by elapsed time since enrollment.2Fp01 mo–1 yr1–2 yrs2–5 yrs5–10 yrsOver 10 yrsFeeling anxious about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones50.8%59.8%62.0%63.9%58.4%52.8%35.087.06.00Not spending enough time on work related activities36.2%38.5%43.3%45.6%39.4%34.0%35.187.08.00Lack of support or active discouragement from friends & loved ones29.2%30.0%36.2%35.0%30.0%27.0%23.374.69.00Lack of support or active discouragement from my primary supervisor and/or other employees at work20.8%20.7%25.8%26.9%22.1%16.6%40.038.07.00Experiencing anxiety/stress about money spent on school-related expenses70.0%70.4%74.0%77.3%74.0%64.6%49.6410.03.00Worrying about my intellectual ability to successfully complete schoolwork44.6%52.4%51.7%52.6%49.3%51.6%4.720.94.45Feeling unclear about my goal for returning to school33.1%39.8%41.3%42.4%36.7%32.8%27.445.52.00Feeling resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting40.8%41.4%44.6%48.3%42.7%30.7%80.9816.48.00Thinking that being back in school was too big of a risk for me to take20.0%26.3%31.6%30.4%29.4%32.5%15.803.17.01Experiencing stress while taking classes because they interfered with my normal routine44.6%47.3%53.4%50.3%50.9%46.8%9.811.96.08Feeling unable to develop collaborative relationships with other students32.3%35.5%40.8%38.9%35.0%29.8%29.015.83.00Feeling fearful that I must earn a degree to prove to others I am competent38.5%42.0%48.8%46.7%44.3%34.4%50.6310.23.00Resisting new information presented in classes because it conflicted with what I already knew17.7%15.7%22.7%25.3%17.9%16.3%41.188.30.00Feeling angry or depressed about feedback given by an instructor on my work28.5%27.4%31.1%30.5%28.0%21.5%30.476.13.00Feeling I must earn a degree to meet the needs of others, as opposed to earning a degree for my own needs29.2%32.5%38.2%39.2%32.4%24.0%68.8613.97.00Feeling that my practical experiences is not valued in the academic world34.6%37.6%44.4%41.3%37.9%36.3%13.632.73.02Figure 16 displays the eight issues for which significant differences existed and 40% or more of one subgroup experienced the issue to at least some extent. Responses approximated a normal curve for each issue. Those who had been out of school for 1 to 2 years or 2 to 5 years were always more likely to experience each issue than other groups. Participants who had no enrollment lapse or who had been out of school for more than 10 years were always least likely to experience the issue. Figure 16. Experience of psychosocial issues to some extent, by time elapsed since previous enrollment.Responses to the eight significant issues that were experienced by at least 40% of one of the subgroups were further analyzed using Tukey HSD post hoc testing, as reflected in Table 12. Tables showing ANOVA results and complete post hoc comparisons can be found in Appendix D.Table 12 Comparison of Means for Adult Learners’ Experience of Psychosocial Issues, by Time Elapsed Since Last EnrollmentPsychosocial Issue0(n = 130)1–12(n = 764)13–24(n = 453)25–60(n = 951)61–120(n = 820)>120(n = 1,298)MSDMSDMSDMSDMSDMSDFeeling anxious about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones1.510.501.600.491.620.491.640.481.580.491.530.50Not spending enough time on work related activities1.360.481.380.491.430.501.460.501.390.491.340.47Experiencing anxiety/stress about money spent on school-related expenses1.700.461.700.461.740.441.770.421.740.441.650.48Feeling unclear about my goal for returning to school1.330.471.400.491.410.491.420.491.370.481.330.47Feeling resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting1.410.491.410.491.450.501.480.501.430.491.310.46Feeling unable to develop collaborative relationships with other students1.320.471.350.481.410.491.390.491.350.481.300.46Feeling fearful that I must earn a degree to prove to others I am competent1.380.491.420.491.490.501.470.501.440.501.340.48Feeling that my practical experience is not valued in the academic world1.350.481.380.481.440.501.410.491.380.491.360.48Note. Means collapsed to a 2-point scale, with 1 = Not at all or A slight extent and 2 = Some extent, A moderate extent, or An extreme extent.As indicated in Table 12, those who have been out of school between 1 month and 5 years had significantly more anxiety about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones than those who had been out of school more than 10 years. (For up to 1 year, mean difference = .07, p = .02; for 1–2 years, mean difference = .09, p = .03; for 2–5 years, mean difference = .11, p = .00.)Adult students who have been out of school between 1 and 5 years had significantly more anxiety about not spending enough time on work activities than those who had been out of school more than 10 years. (For 1–2 years, mean difference = .1, p = .01; for 2–5 years, mean difference = .12, p = .00.) Learners who were not enrolled for between 2 and 5 years also had more anxiety in this area than those who were out of school for one year or less.Those who have been out of school between 1 and 10 years had significantly more anxiety about money spent on school-related expenses than those who had been out of school more than 10 years. (For 1–2 years, mean difference = .1, p = .00; for 2–5 years, mean difference = .13, p = .00; for 5–10 years, mean difference = .1, p = .00.) In addition, those who had been out of enrollment for 1 month to 1 year were more anxious about school expenses than those who had been away for 2 to 5 years (mean difference = .07, p = .02).Students who have been out of school between 1 month and 5 years expressed significantly greater lack of clarity about their goal for returning to school than those who had been out of school more than 10 years.(For up to 1 year, mean difference = .07, p = .02; for 1–2 years, mean difference = .09, p = .02; for 2–5 years, mean difference = .1, p = .00.)Those who have been out of school between 1 month and 10 years felt significantly more resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting than those who had been out of school more than 10 years. (For up to 1 year, mean difference = .11, p = .00; for 1–2 years, mean difference = .14, p = .03; for 2–5 years, mean difference = .18, p = .00; for 5–10 years, mean difference = .12; p = .00.) In addition, those out of school for 1 month to 1 year felt more resentment than those out of school for 2 to 5 years (mean difference = .07, p = .04).Adult students who have been out of school between 1 and 5 years were significantly more likely to experience an inability to develop collaborative relationships with other students than those who had been out of school more than 10 years. (For 1–2 years, mean difference = .11, p = .03; for 2–5 years, mean difference = . 1, p = .00.)Table 12 indicates that those who have been out of school between 1 month and 10 years were significantly more fearful about earning a degree to prove their competence to others than those who had been out of school more than 10 years. (For those out of enrollment for 1 month to 1 year, mean difference = .08, p = .01; for 1–2 yrs, mean difference = .14, p = .00; for 2–5 years, mean difference = .12, p = .00; and for 5–10 years, mean difference = .1, p = .00.)Research Question 3: Learner’s Decision to Continue Their Education by Psychosocial Issues ExperiencedTo answer the research question about the nature of the relationship, if any, between an adult student’s decision to continue or discontinue their education and the extent to which they experienced psychosocial issues, chi-square tests were first conducted to compute the similarity or dissimilarity of distributions. Both variables used ordinal-level response scales, so a Spearman’s rho was computed to measure the existence and direction of any correlation between the responses to experience of psychosocial issue and decision to continue. Response scales were collapsed into two groups: for psychosocial issues, respondents either experienced the issue not at all/a slight extent, or some/moderate/extreme extent. Likelihood of continuing was collapsed into definitely will not/unlikely and somewhat likely/likely/extremely likely. As shown in Table 13, both statistical tests indicated there were highly significant relationships (p ≤ .01) between the decision to continue/discontinue education and the experience of 11 of the 16 psychosocial issues. The results support rejecting the null hypothesis for the third research question that no relationship exists between adult students’ experience of psychosocial issues and their decision to continue or discontinue their education.For each significant correlation, the relationship was negative: The more a respondent experienced the issue, the less likely they were to continue taking classes. Even though significant statistical relationships were found for 11 variables, each of the relationships was weak (< .3). The issues with the weakest significant correlations (–.04) with decision to continue were feeling resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting, experiencing stress while taking classes because they interfered with my normal routine, and feeling that my practical experience is not valued in the academic world. The strongest correlation was found between decision to continue and lack of support or active discouragement from my primary supervisor and/or other employees at work, at –.09.Table 13Statistical Comparison of Adult Learners’ Experience of Psychosocial Issues by Likelihood of Continuing ClassesPsychosocial issuePercentage who experienced the issue to at least some extent, by likelihood of continuing classes.2rpDefinitely will not or Unlikely toSomewhat, Likely or Extremely likely toFeeling anxious about not spending enough time with friends and loved ones62.1%57.9%3.94–0.030.05Not spending enough time on work related activities42.8%38.9%3.55–0.030.06Lack of support or active discouragement from friends & loved ones39.5%29.6%24.99–0.080.00Lack of support or active discouragement from my primary supervisor and/or other employees at work31.3%31.3%38.65–0.090.00Experiencing anxiety/stress about money spent on school-related expenses72.4%71.1%0.41–0.010.52Worrying about my intellectual ability to successfully complete schoolwork53.1%51.2%0.75–0.010.39Feeling unclear about my goal for returning to school46.4%36.3%23.70–0.070.00Feeling resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting44.9%39.7%6.01–0.040.01Thinking that being back in school was too big of a risk for me to take37.6%28.9%19.43–0.070.00Experiencing stress while taking classes because they interfered with my normal routine54.0%48.3%7.17–0.040.01Feeling unable to develop collaborative relationships with other students42.2%33.8%16.77–0.060.00Feeling fearful that I must earn a degree to prove to others I am competent37.3%31.2%3.73–0.030.05Resisting new information presented in classes because it conflicted with what I already knew24.6%18.4%13.50–0.060.00Feeling angry or depressed about feedback given by an instructor on my work32.5%26.1%11.30–0.050.00Feeling I must earn a degree to meet the needs of others, as opposed to earning a degree for my own needs37.3%31.2%9.20–0.050.00Feeling that my practical experience is not valued in the academic world43.9%37.9%8.38–0.040.00Research Question 4: Perceptions of Sources of Support by Generational CohortThe fourth research question was asked to determine if perceptions of the effectiveness of different sources of support varied based on membership in generational cohorts. Chi-square tests compared the expected and observed distributions, whereas analysis of variance (ANOVA) compared the mean scores of Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Millennials. As shown in Table 14, both statistical tests indicated there were highly significant differences (p ≤ .01) in the perceptions of Baby Boomer, Generation X, and Millennial adult learners about the effectiveness of eight sources of personal support. Respondents from the Silent generation were not included due to their low response rate. The null hypothesis that perceptions of effectiveness of sources of support do not vary based on generational cohort can be rejected.Respondents were also asked to rate the importance of each source of support. Because the results for that item were not used to answer any of the study’s main research questions, inferential tests were not applied to that data. Descriptive data summarizing the responses are reported in Table 14.Table 14Statistical Comparison of Adult Learners’ Perceptions of Effectiveness of Sources of Support by Generational Cohort Source of SupportType of SupportPercentage of each generational cohort rating the source of support as at least somewhat effective2FpBaby BoomerGen XMillennialSpouse or significant otherPersonal71.9%77.4%80.2%12.724.25.01ChildrenPersonal70.6%70.3%58.4%32.8411.07.00Personal friends also taking college classesPersonal60.9%65.1%74.3%45.0115.17.00Personal friends not taking college classesPersonal44.1%46.7%49.5%5.221.74.16Academic counselorSchool67.9%64.4%61.5%7.302.44.06Financial aid counselorSchool62.5%61.0%55.1%13.044.36.00Faculty membersSchool82.7%75.7%74.0%17.565.87.00Other students in my classes who are not personal friends or co-workersSchool55.9%51.9%46.7%17.195.75.00Staff from Non-Traditional or Adult Student Services OfficeSchool53.0%45.7%39.0%24.948.38.00Staff from academic department officeSchool60.2%55.5%52.7%8.152.72.04Staff from Dean of Students or Student Activities OfficeSchool52.7%48.7%46.8%4.061.35.26Your primary supervisorWork61.0%59.6%63.9%7.422.48.06Co-workers at your organizationWork50.0%50.3%57.1%15.795.28.00The significant differences among generational cohorts regarding their perceptions of the effectiveness of various sources of support are shown in Figure 17. Baby Boomers were most likely to rate the following five sources of support as effective as compared to Gen Xers and Millennials: children (70.6%), financial aid counselor (62.5%), faculty members (82.7%), other students in classes who are not friends or coworkers (55.9%), and staff from non-traditional or adult student services offices (53%). The three sources of support most likely to be named effective by Millennials were spouse/significant other (80.2%), personal friends also taking classes (49.5%), and coworkers (57.1%).Figure 17. Percentage of generational cohort members rating a source of support as at least somewhat effective (showing significant results only).To determine where significant differences existed between each generational cohort, post hoc tests were conducted for all items that yielded p values ≤ .01. Mean scores for each generational cohort are reported in Table 15. Tables showing ANOVA results and complete post hoc comparisons can be found in Appendix E.Table 15Mean Scores for Adult Students’ Perception of Effectiveness of Support, by Generational CohortSource of SupportType of SupportBaby Boomers(n = 559)Gen X(n = 2,140)Millennials(n = 1,664)Spouse or significant otherPersonal1.681.761.78ChildrenPersonal1.601.621.50Personal friends also taking college classesPersonal1.471.491.58Financial aid counselorSchool1.631.591.50Faculty membersSchool1.791.721.69Other students in my classes who are not personal friends or co-workersSchool1.451.411.35Staff from Non-Traditional or Adult Student Services OfficeSchool1.441.371.29Co-workers at your organizationWork1.361.391.40Note. Means collapsed to a 2-point scale, with 1 = Very ineffective, Somewhat ineffective, or Neither effective nor ineffective and 2 = Somewhat effective or Very effective.As indicated in Table 15, generational cohorts’ perception of effectiveness was different for two of the four sources of personal support. Millennials were significantly more likely to report receiving effective support from a spouse or significant other than Baby Boomers (mean difference = .08, p = .00). In contrast, Millennials were least likely to report receiving effective support from children when compared to Gen X (mean difference = –.12, p = .00) and Baby Boomers (mean difference = –.12, p = .00).Millennials were significantly more likely to report receiving effective support from personal friends also taking college classes than either Baby Boomers (mean difference = .13, p = .00) or Gen X (mean difference = .09, p = .00).Four of the seven sources of school-related support were given significantly different ratings of effectiveness by generational cohorts. Millennials were less likely than Gen X (mean difference = –.06, p = .01) and Baby Boomers (mean difference = –.07, p = .04) to report receiving effective support from a financial aid counselor. However, Baby Boomers were most likely to report receiving effective support from faculty members. The difference was significant when compared to Millennials (mean difference = .09, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .07, p = .01).Baby Boomers (mean difference = .09, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .05, p = .01) were significantly more likely than Millennials to report receiving effective support from other students in their classes who were not personal friends or coworkers. Baby Boomers (mean difference = .14, p = .00) and Gen Xers (mean difference = .07, p = .01) were also significantly more likely than Millennials to report receiving effective support from staff in the nontraditional or adult student services office. Table 15 reports that Millennials were significantly more likely than Gen Xers (mean difference = .07, p = .00) to report receiving effective support from one work-related source: coworkers at their organization. Research Question 5: Decision to Continue and Sources of SupportThe final research question was concerned with any relationship that exists between adult students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of sources of support and the likelihood they will continue or discontinue taking classes. The expected and observed distributions were compared using the chi-square statistic, and a Spearman’s rho test measured the existence and direction of any correlation between the responses to decision to continue taking classes and effectiveness of sources of support. Table 16 contains the descriptive statistics, chi-square results, Spearman’s rho (r), and significance level for each source of support.Highly significant relationships (p ≤ .01) were found between the decision to continue or discontinue taking classes and the perceived effectiveness of 4 of the 13 sources of support. Based on these results, the null hypothesis for the fifth research question can be rejected. Each of the significant correlations was positive, indicating that greater perceived effectiveness ratings were related to greater likelihood of continuing classes (and lower perceived effectiveness ratings were related to reduced likelihood of continuing classes). The strongest correlations (.06) were found for two sources of support: faculty members and staff from academic department office. The r value for correlation between effectiveness of support from spouse/significant other with likelihood of continuing was .05, and an r value of .04 described the correlation between effectiveness of support from other students in classes who are not friends or coworkers and likelihood of continuing. Even at a high confidence level (p ≤ .01), all significant correlations were less than .3, indicating weak effect sizes.Table 16Statistical Comparison of Adult Learners’ Perceptions of Effectiveness of Sources of Support by Likelihood of Continuing ClassesSource of SupportPercentage rating the source of support as at least somewhat effective, by likelihood of continuing classes2FrpDefinitely not/ Unlikely to continueSomewhat, Likely, Extremely likely to continueSpouse or significant other72.7%78.5%.008.73.05.00Children62.8%67.9%.053.92.04.05Personal friends also taking college classes64.0%69.2%.025.70.04.02Personal friends not taking college classes45.5%47.8%.311.03.02.31Academic counselor60.4%64.4%.073.33.03.07Financial aid counselor54.3%59.9%.025.53.04.02Faculty members70.0%77.0%.0013.46.06.00Other students in my classes who are not personal friends or co-workers45.3%51.2%.016.78.04.01Staff from Non-Traditional or Adult Student Services Office42.8%44.8%.450.56.01.45Staff from academic department office48.1%56.3%.0010.54.06.00Staff from Dean of Students or Student Activities Office46.1%49.2%.231.45.02.23Your primary supervisor46.1%49.2%.201.67.02.20Co-workers at your organization50.6%53.3%.281.17.02.28DiscussionThe purpose of the study was to investigate any relationships that might exist between psychosocial issues experienced and generational cohort membership, between psychosocial issues experienced and past educational experience, and between psychosocial issues experienced and decision to continue taking classes. In addition, any relationships that might exist between perceived effectiveness of sources of support and generational cohort membership, and perceived effectiveness of sources of support and decision to continue taking classes, were measured. In each case, the finding of significant relationships provided support for rejecting the null hypothesis. However, study results that end with reports of significance are not considered complete. A full understanding of relationships between variables must include consideration of the magnitude of the effect for each significant finding and the historical and practical context within which the study is situated. Considerations of effect sizes, literature related to the study’s constructs, and implications for practice are explored in this section.Psychosocial Issues and the Adult StudentExperiencing and resolving psychosocial issues is a lifelong process, according to many theorists (Torres et al., 2003). The challenge of psychosocial dilemmas can sometimes interfere with normal pursuits such as successful relationships, productive work, and lifelong learning. Leaders in higher education recognized many years ago that providing appropriate support to college students dealing with developmental issues could help ensure success in their educational endeavors (Evans, Forney, & Guido-DeBrito, 1998). For traditional college students, some degree of consistency exists in the developmental process because they are a relatively homogenous population in terms of age; only 4 years may separate the oldest from the youngest member of this cohort. As compared to traditional college students, adult students may be 50 years or more apart in age and differ on many other demographic variables as well. Although research indicates adults go through developmental stages, the increased range of age and lifestyle diversity has made it more difficult to understand the psychosocial issues that may hinder adults from successfully completing their degree programs. Instead of attempting to differentiate the needs of specific subgroups of adults, it has been more common to refer to “adult students” as if they were a homogenous group. The results of this study show many significant differences in the experience of psychosocial issues when adult students are subdivided into smaller groups based on generational cohorts (Research Question 1), past educational experience (Research Question 2), or the length of time that has elapsed since their last enrollment (Research Question 2). Although variance does exist in the psychosocial issues experienced based on these characteristics of adult learners, the differences in all cases were slight. Using only the significance statistic can be misleading, because the statistic reflects the size of the effect and that of the sample. With a very large sample such as the one used in this study, even a very small effect may be statistically significant (Coe, 2002). A closer look at the results and how they fit with extant literature can help determine implications for practice.Research Question 1: Psychosocial Issues and Generational Cohort MembershipBy separating results into demographic cohort groupings, evidence appears that adult students do not share the same experience. Beyond looking at the small mean differences between each cohort’s responses about each issue, some tentative observations can be made about the differences as a whole. Figure 18 indicates that Millennials experienced 15 out of 16 psychosocial issues to a significantly greater extent than Baby Boomers; Baby Boomers experienced every issue to a significantly lesser extent than Gen Xers and Millennials. Figure 18. Percentage of generational cohort members experiencing psychosocial issues to at least some extent.The same pattern was evident in responses about the influence each issue might have on the decision to continue taking classes. Figure 19 reflects that Millennials much more frequently thought an issue might have at least some influence on their decision to continue, and Baby Boomers were always least likely to report that an issue might have at least some influence on their decision to continue taking classes.Figure 19. Percentage of generational cohort members stating a psychosocial issue might have at least Some influence on their decision to continue classes.Parallels can be seen when comparing these results to previous theoretical work. Cavalli (2004) suggested that to study generational culture, life stage and age group both must be considered. Members of the Millennial cohort who participated in this study, currently age 23 to 29, are considered Rising Adults (Howe & Strauss, 1991) focused on serving institutions (such as work, marriage, and church) and testing values. Similarly, Erickson’s developmental theory would place them in the period of Intimacy vs. Isolation, during which they must determine how they fit into the world of institutions and relationships around them (Merriam et al., 2007). In this life phase, it seems possible that a number of psychosocial issues related to relationships, identity, and self-confidence would appear. In contrast, 51- to 68-year-old Baby Boomers are Midlifers, providing leadership and direction to younger age groups (Howe & Strauss, 1991) and, according to Erikson, encountering the challenge of generativity vs. stagnation, during which they must find some way to contribute to society and to the next generation (Merriam et al., 2007). Boomers have reached some level of comfort with their identity and their relationships with others. At the same time, they continue to practice the strong work ethic for which their generation is known (Delahoyde, 2009).Although the magnitude of the differences between these cohorts is small, it is clear that assuming all adult students are the same can result in misunderstanding the issues they face when returning to school. For instance, Millennial learners may need support for determining how they “fit” with the institution and how their role as a student may affect other relationships in their life. In contrast, Baby Boomers may find their niche in the academic community by finding ways to support and help others in the classroom. As each generational cohort ages, members also have more years of opportunity to continue their educational pursuits. Two measures of past educational experience were used to determine if past educational experience might be related to psychosocial issues experienced in their current enrollment (and be masked by the more obvious age variable).Research Question 2: Psychosocial Issues and Past Educational Experience Significant differences existed about the prevalence of certain psychosocial issues based on past educational attainment. For four of the issues—anxiety about not spending enough time with loved ones, not spending enough time on work, anxiety about school-related expenses, and resentment about doing schoolwork—people with higher degrees were generally more likely to experience each issue. All of these issues related to juggling priorities: school and loved ones, school and work, school and money, or school and routine. These competing priorities seemed to grow with each degree earned. A downward trajectory was indicated for one issue: People with more educational experience seemed least likely to worry about their intellectual capability, and this source of worry was progressively more common at each lower level of educational experience. These general trends may indicate that students in advanced degree programs need more assistance in balancing priorities, and people in less advanced programs need more assistance in strengthening their cognitive skills. Again, adult college students experience different kinds of issues and need different types of support depending on certain key subgroup characteristics.Significant differences also existed in the experience of psychosocial issues based on the amount of time that had elapsed since adult students’ last enrollment. The greatest significant difference in means was seen around the issue of feeling resentment about having to do schoolwork instead of doing something more interesting. The mean difference between those who had been out of school for 2 to 5 years and those who had been out more than 10 years was .18. This one result may indicate that those who decide to return to school after being out for a long period of time are more dedicated to earning their degree and less resentful about sacrificing other activities.Overall, participants who had been out of school for 1 to 5 years were always more likely to experience each significant psychosocial issue. These issues were least likely to be experienced by participants who had no enrollment lapse or who had been out of school for more than 10 years. Because these results were not cross-tabulated with age, it is unknown whether time lapse corresponds with age or generational cohort. However, the results may echo differences in life stage seen in the experience of psychosocial issues by generational cohorts. If those who had been out of school from 1 to 5 years are young adults balancing new careers, new long-term relationships, and perhaps young children, they may also be more susceptible to experiencing psychosocial issues when returning to school.Research Question 3: Psychosocial Issues and Decision to Continue Taking ClassesAny relationship between the experience of psychosocial issues and the decision to continue taking classes was measured in two different ways. An item on the ASCRS asked respondents to estimate the likelihood that they would continue taking classes in the future. Statistical tests were used to measure any relationship between responses to this item and responses to their experience of psychosocial issues. The results indicated that although the magnitude of the effects was very weak, there were significant negative correlations linking experience of psychosocial issues and likelihood of continuing. Descriptive data shed light on adult students’ perceptions of the influence psychosocial issues might have on their decision to continue. Sizeable gaps existed in respondents’ ratings of their experience of an issue and the extent to which that experience might affect their decision to continue. For the five issues experienced to at least some extent by more than 40% of the respondents (anxiety about school-related expenses, not spending enough time with friends/loved ones, interference with normal routine, intellectual ability to be successful, and resentment about doing schoolwork instead of something more interesting), the percentage of respondents who thought the issue might influence their decision to continue was at least 20 points lower. The issue thought to be most influential was anxiety about school-related expenses (40.8% thought it might influence their decision to continue), which may be a reflection of negative economic events occurring since 2008. These data suggest participants possess an optimistic, resilient attitude toward completing a degree program.This optimism flies in the face of most studies of retention for adult college students. Milam (2008) is just one of many researchers who reported a high noncompletion rate for adult and nontraditional students, noting that the 18-month retention rate for full-time enrollment was only 28.9% and 47.9% for part-time enrollment. The lack of alignment between the results of this study and other research may have occurred for several reasons. Perhaps, as Fogerson (2001) reported, adults are not likely to admit that they experience psychosocial issues, even in a study isolated to just such issues. Perhaps students do not withdraw from a degree program due to the effect of psychosocial issues—although this explanation runs contrary to many previous studies (Bean & Metzner, 1985; Boulanger, 2009; Cross, 1981; MacKinnon-Slaney, 1994; Müller, 2008; Park & Choi, 2009). Or perhaps experiencing the issue is not the main motivator to discontinue enrollment; rather, it is a life event that causes a dramatic uptick in the experience of the issue. For instance, lack of enough time with one’s spouse or significant other may be a constant, low-level concern; when a partner becomes ill or demands more time, that specific event may magnify their concern to an intolerable level leading to a decision to discontinue taking classes. There is support for this possibility from Pleskac et al. (2011), who found that a student’s sensitivity to a critical event or “shock” may predict the likelihood that they will drop out of school. The relationship between experiencing a shock and deciding to discontinue classes may explain why most adult students in this study were at least somewhat likely to continue their education; experiencing some chronic level of psychosocial discomfort is not as upsetting as an unexpected and critical event. A follow-up study in 6 to 12 months might elicit more data about students in this sample who decided to discontinue classes to determine if an unexpected shock event precipitated their leaving. Further, comparing reported experience of psychosocial issues in the current study to reasons for eventually deciding to discontinue classes may yield patterns suggesting which adult students are more likely to be sensitive to or more resilient to unexpected shocks.If there is truth in the idea that adult students experiencing psychosocial shocks are more likely to withdraw, leaders in higher education may want to clearly understand what sources of support are effective for and important to adult students. Leveraging adult students’ support network may positively affect their adjustment to the shock and enable them to continue their education.Sources of support for the adult student. The ASCRS included 13 sources of support an adult student might access: 4 personal sources, 7 school-related sources, and 2 work-related sources. Similar to the results for psychosocial issues, many significant differences were found in the ratings among members of generational cohorts of the effectiveness and importance of different sources of support. In each case, the magnitude of the difference was very weak and may have been due to the large sample size. Descriptive data for the entire sample and for generational groups indicates additional trends related to student support. Data indicated that over half of the respondents rated 7 sources of support as at least somewhat important. In contrast, 10 sources of support were rated as at least somewhat effective. The indication that importance was rated lower than efficacy overall may indicate that adult students assume a high degree of control for their own fate on their educational journey and do not see external sources of support as important as internal resources. Only two sources of support, spouses/significant others and faculty members, were seen as highly important, as evidenced by more than 70% of respondents rating them important. Research Question 4: Effectiveness of Sources of Support Among Generational CohortsThe ratings of effectiveness of sources of support by members of different generational cohort members were significantly different in eight cases, although the magnitude of the effects was very small. The largest mean difference was .13, signifying that Millennials were significantly more likely than Baby Boomers to report receiving effective support from personal friends also taking college classes. The significant differences between generational cohorts regarding their perceptions of the effectiveness of various sources of support seem to indicate a trend. Millennials were the least likely to rate as effective the five sources of support that Baby Boomers most frequently rated as effective. In turn, Millennials most frequently rated the remaining three sources of support as somewhat effective; Baby Boomers were least likely to rate them as effective. For each source of support with significant generational differences, Baby Boomer and Millennial scores were significantly different, and Gen Xers’ ratings were between the other two generations. For six issues, Gen Xers were significantly different from Millennials; they were significantly different from Baby Boomers in the extent to which they thought faculty provided effective support. Because Gen X results were almost always in between the results for Millennials and Baby Boomers, the differences may be the effect of age/maturation instead of the cultural differences between generational cohorts. As Cavalli (2004) noted, some differences that appear to be generational may differ based on the life experience or life stage of the individuals involved. Gen X responses were most often aligned with the responses of Baby Boomers, isolating Millennials as a particularly unique generation or age group with unique needs for support.Overall, Millennials were much less likely to rate any source of support as effective. Hershattler & Epstein (2010) noted that Millennials have high expectations of others to meet their needs, which may help explain this trend. They noted that Millennials have come to expect people and organizations to cater to their needs ever since the Baby Boomer generation matured and realized that the nation had failed Generation X. For that reason, Millennials tend to need more hand holding and structure. Being aware of this need should spur institutions to provide sufficient structure throughout the education cycle—from enrollment to graduation—to this increasingly large subgroup of adult students.Research Question 5: Correlation Between Effective Sources of Support and Likelihood of Continuing.A significant positive correlation existed between estimates of the likelihood of continuing and ratings of effectiveness for three sources of support: spouse/significant other, faculty members, and staff from academic department office. The more effective a respondent rated the source of support, the more likely they were to indicate the intention to continue taking classes. The magnitude of the effect was weak in each case, but these sources of support were also those rated at least somewhat effective by more than 50% of the sample. The data seem to indicate there is a slight tendency for those who experience effective support from these sources to also be more likely to continue their education. Greater differentiation was limited by the high percentage of respondents who indicated they were at least somewhat likely to continue taking classes.Educational institutions have a unique opportunity, these results suggest. Because faculty received high ratings for effectiveness and importance, and their effectiveness is positively correlated to adult students’ decision to continue, opportunities to leverage their influence might be considered, such as having them provide information about campus support services. Institutional leaders should also maximize the benefit of support received from academic department staff by making them more available and accessible to adult students, whose visits to campus are limited to their classrooms and occur only when offices are closed (Karp & Hughes, 2008; Rosenbaum, Deil-Amen, & Person, 2006). Last, educational institutions may need to find ways to reach out to adult students’ loved ones and gain their support. If spouses and significant others become more familiar with and affirming of the campus and its personnel, their support for their loved ones’ educational efforts may become even more effective.A final note about sources of support: One source may be conspicuous in its absence from reports of significance. Even though adults spend many hours of their waking lives at their job, the influence of the primary supervisor was noticeably absent from the results. The descriptive results indicate that only a little more than half of respondents (53%) thought their supervisor was at least somewhat important as a source of support, and almost 40% thought their supervisors were ineffective (39%). These moderate ratings indicate that support from a significant entity in the lives of adult students is neither nonexistent nor particularly compelling. Even though many organizations offer some kind of educational assistance to employees, such as tuition assistance (Society for Human Resource Management, 2009), money for fees and supplies (International Foundation for Employee Benefits Programs, 2006), and childcare and scholarships (Woodward, 2005), organizational assistance may not be the same as supervisor support. To realize the benefits accrued by more educated employees, business leaders may need to exploit the supervisor–employee relationship so that stronger visible support is offered. For supervisors to offer sincere support, organizational leaders must do their part to faciliate an atmosphere in which continued education is encouraged and rewarded, from executive leaders to human resources to individual work units.Study Limitations and Future Research RecommendationsConfidence in the results of the study may be affected by several variables related to the characteristics of the respondents and the design of the study. The sample was skewed in terms of gender, race, and number of dependent children. Women constituted 72% of the sample, 75% of the respondents were White, and 55% reported having no dependent children. Because these demographics may be important differentiators in the experience of psychosocial issues and perceptions of effectiveness of support, further data analysis may be required to determine if the skewness had an effect on the results.A second limitation may be self-selection bias. Those who choose to participate in ZoomPanel and completed the survey may have done so to earn the small incentive offered, and it is unknown if this group of people might have responded differently from other adult students. Similarly, it is unknown if students from the Zoomerang sampling frame differed in some substantive way from the sampling frame of the nine institutions who agreed to participate in the study.Asking participants to self-report the likelihood that they would continue taking classes could also be a limitation of the study. More valid results related to retention might have been obtained if students who had withdrawn from classes were actively sought out as respondents, and if results from students who were retained and those who withdrew were compared.A final potential limitation relates to the terminology and sequencing used in the ASCRS. Providing specific definitions for effectiveness and importance might have yielded more valid results, and refraining from asking about importance of support directly after respondents rated effectiveness of support may avoid a source of item bias.This study focused on differences between subgroups of adult students as defined by their generational cohort, their past educational attainment, and the time that had elapsed since their last enrollment. Although significant differences were found in response to each research question, those differences were slight and may have resulted from the large sample size as much as from actual differences between groups. Further research should focus on additional subgroupings of adult students according to other demographic characteristics to determine if other significant differences of greater magnitude exist. Respondents were asked to rate the effectiveness of different sources of personal, school-related, and work-related support in this study. Further research should be done to determine how adult students define effectiveness and if different types of effectiveness are available or desired from different sources of support. Some of the results from this study were based on self-reported predictions about the likelihood of continuing to take classes. A follow-up study to determine if participants actually continued or discontinued classes, and to explore the reasons why some students did not continue, could lead to the development of profiles that might help to predict retention and attrition.Conclusion and Recommendations for PracticeWithout an increase in degree-prepared citizens, 3 million jobs may go unfulfilled by 2018 due to lack of qualified candidates (Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl, 2010). President Obama underscored the need for more U.S. adults to possess academic degrees, and he has challenged the nation to have the highest proportion of college graduates in the world by 2020. To reach this goal, not only must more adults enroll in college; a much greater percentage must persist in college through degree attainment. Previous research has focused on a variety of barriers and threats to adult degree persistence. The purpose of this study was to use a large, nationwide sample to measure differences that existed among adult college students relative to the psychosocial issues they experienced while taking classes, the sources of support they found effective on their educational journey, and the likelihood that they would continue taking classes. The null hypothesis was rejected for each of the five research questions, indicating that significant differences exist among adult students based on their generational cohort, their past educational experience, the time that had elapsed since their last enrollment, and their perceptions of sources of support. Understanding these differences and their implications for practice may help improve the educational attainment of the more than 8 million adults currently enrolled in higher education institutions across the United States. Several trends that emerged from the data lead to recommendations for action. Adult students need targeted assistance, responsive to their particular needs and issues. To offer targeted assistance, educational institutions should:?Institute a form of new student orientation that is accessible and tailored to adult students. Younger adult students (Millennials) need assistance to determine their fit with the institution, and older adult students (Baby Boomers) can be encouraged to explore ways they can use their leadership and experience to support other students within the classroom and outside of it.?Provide a full range of services, including academic/cognitive support services for people in lower-level degree programs and priority-balancing support services for those in higher-level degree programs, to help all adult students develop increased agency with their educational efforts. Make sure those who work most closely with adult students understand the range of life situations they represent, and the concomitant diversity of issues and needs they experience.?Institute an “early alert” system for students who experience an unexpected and possibly insurmountable shock, so instant assistance is mobilized to make it easier for students to continue their education. University personnel who have the most frequent and direct contact with adult students—faculty and academic counselors—should be considered “first responders” in the system.?Recognize the unique characteristics of the Millennial generation by bringing appropriate services to adult students wherever possible, instead of expecting students to identify and find the appropriate office or person.?Leverage the importance and effectiveness of faculty member support, perhaps by having them provide students with information about other support services on campus.?Encourage staff from academic departments to make themselves available after normal office hours, and perhaps from a satellite location near to evening classrooms.?Provide opportunities for spouses/significant others to build their loyalty to the institution and support for the adult learner in their lives.Although reducing the job responsibilities of adult working learners may not be possible, organizations may provide instrumental and moral support in several important ways:?Make concrete educational assistance available in the form of tuition assistance, grants or loans for books and supplies, and flexible work schedules, and encourage employees to take advantage of the benefits to further their education.?Establish work climates in which supervisors and coworkers encourage, support, and recognize employees who are in school. ?Acknowledge the added value educated employees bring to the workplace in the presence of the students, their coworkers, and their loved ones when appropriate.Degree-holding citizens will be more important than ever as America slowly recovers from the recession. 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