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Selection, adaptation and advantage. Later-life health and wellbeing of English migrants to AustraliaWord count: 8010AbstractThis study investigates the long-term impact of English adult migration to Australia by comparing health and wellbeing outcomes in later life of English migrants to their counterparts who remained in England (non-migrants) and to native-born Australians. It traces the influence of selection, adaptation and advantage as three mechanisms that can influence migrant health in later life. The analysis utilises data for a cohort aged 60 to 64 years from the Australian Life Histories and Health (LHH) survey (n=1088), a sub-study of the Australian 45 and Up Study, in combination with a matched cohort from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA) (n=1139). Social rather than health characteristics were found to play a role in the selection of English migrants. English migrants reported higher subjective quality of life than English non-migrants, and better physical health than the Australian-born, but their mental health outcomes did not significantly differ from the other cohorts. The comparatively better later-life outcomes for the English migrants can partly be linked to advantage, as they hold higher prestige jobs than Australian-born at lower levels of education.1. IntroductionBetween 1945 and 1972, more than one million people migrated from the UK and Ireland to Australia, making them the largest immigrant group in the country up until this dayADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Statistics", "given" : "Australian Bureau of", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "title" : "Migration, Australia, 2015-16 cat. no. 3412.0", "type" : "article" }, "uris" : [ "", "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Statistics 2016)", "manualFormatting" : "(ABS 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Statistics 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Statistics 2016)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(ABS 2016). Earlier colonial settlers, transported convicts, and waves of British-assisted migration to Australia had already established a firm British presence in Australia. However, the bulk of Australian immigration and population growth occurred after World War II. Until the early seventies, immigration to Australia was deliberately restricted to Europeans under the ‘White Australia Policy, providing the context for a historically unique and ethnically specific mass migration, further strengthened by the assisted migration schemes financed by the Australian government ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jupp", "given" : "J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Migration Review", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1995" ] ] }, "page" : "207-228", "title" : "From'White Australia'to'part of Asia': recent shifts in Australian immigration policy towards the region", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "29" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Jupp 1995)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Jupp 1995)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Jupp 1995)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Jupp 1995). This paper focuses on the long-term impact of this specific migration by comparing the health and wellbeing of baby boomers on entry to later life of English who migrated to Australia, English who remained in England and Australian-born who stayed in Australia. A life course framework to study migrant health and wellbeing has the potential to yield particularly valuable insights into the interrelations between health and place ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1186/1742-7622-8-6", "ISBN" : "1742-7622 (Electronic)\\r1742-7622 (Linking)", "ISSN" : "1742-7622", "PMID" : "21843354", "abstract" : "Empirical findings show that morbidity and mortality risks of migrants can differ considerably from those of populations in the host countries. However, while several explanatory models have been developed, most migrant studies still do not consider explicitly the situation of migrants before migration. Here, we discuss an extended approach to understand migrant health comprising a life course epidemiology perspective.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Spallek", "given" : "Jacob", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zeeb", "given" : "Hajo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Razum", "given" : "Oliver", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Emerging Themes in Epidemiology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "1-8", "title" : "What do we have to know from migrants' past exposures to understand their health status? a life course approach", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "8" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Spallek et al. 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Spallek et al. 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Spallek et al. 2011)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Spallek et al. 2011). Adult migrants’ health and wellbeing in later life is influenced by early life in the country of origin, as well as experiences as an adult in the host society. This exposure to different country contexts at separate stages of the life course potentially results in marked health differences relative to their country of origin, as well as their host country. To disentangle the social processes underlying these possible differences, this paper focuses on three social mechanisms: selection, adaptation and (cumulative) advantage. First, migrants are a selective group in terms of the society they are leaving behind as well as the position they take up on arrival in their host society ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Borjas", "given" : "GJ", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Economic Review", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1987" ] ] }, "page" : "531-553", "title" : "Self-selection and the earnings of immigrants", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "77" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Borjas 1987)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Borjas 1987)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Borjas 1987)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Borjas 1987). Comparing the characteristics of migrants with those who stayed in the country of origin, provides an indication of those factors, early on in the life course, associated with the migration selection process ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1186/1742-7622-8-6", "ISBN" : "1742-7622 (Electronic)\\r1742-7622 (Linking)", "ISSN" : "1742-7622", "PMID" : "21843354", "abstract" : "Empirical findings show that morbidity and mortality risks of migrants can differ considerably from those of populations in the host countries. However, while several explanatory models have been developed, most migrant studies still do not consider explicitly the situation of migrants before migration. Here, we discuss an extended approach to understand migrant health comprising a life course epidemiology perspective.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Spallek", "given" : "Jacob", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zeeb", "given" : "Hajo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Razum", "given" : "Oliver", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Emerging Themes in Epidemiology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "1-8", "title" : "What do we have to know from migrants' past exposures to understand their health status? a life course approach", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "8" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12134-014-0340-x", "ISSN" : "14883473", "abstract" : "The existence of a healthy immigrant effect-where immigrants are on average healthier than the native born-is a widely cited phenomenon across a multitude of literatures including epidemiology and the social sciences. There are many competing explanations. The goals of this paper are twofold: first, to provide further evidence on the presence of the healthy immigrant effect across source and destination country using a set of consistently defined measures of health; and second, to evaluate the role of selectivity as a potential explanation for the existence of the phenomenon. Utilizing data from four major immigrant recipient countries, USA, Canada, UK, and Australia allows us to compare the health of migrants from each with the respective native born who choose not to migrate. This represents a much more appropriate counterfactual than the native born of the immigrant recipient country and yields new insights into the importance of observable selection effects. The analysis finds strong support for the healthy immigrant effect across all four destination countries and that selectivity plays an important role in the observed better health of migrants vis a vis those who stay behind in their country of origin.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kennedy", "given" : "Steven", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kidd", "given" : "Michael P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McDonald", "given" : "James Ted", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Biddle", "given" : "Nicholas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of International Migration and Integration", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "317-332", "title" : "The Healthy Immigrant Effect: Patterns and Evidence from Four Countries", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "16" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Spallek et al. 2011; Kennedy et al. 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Spallek et al. 2011; Kennedy et al. 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Spallek et al. 2011; Kennedy et al. 2015)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Spallek et al. 2011; Kennedy et al. 2015). Second, the profile of migrants compared with the host population tends to become less pronounced over time as adaption, integration and acculturation take place ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Berry", "given" : "JW", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Applied psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1997" ] ] }, "page" : "5-68", "title" : "Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "46" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1093/aje/155.5.478", "ISBN" : "6172780670", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Marmot", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Syme", "given" : "L S", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Epidemiology", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1976" ] ] }, "page" : "225-247", "title" : "Acculturation and coronary heart disease in japanese americans", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "104" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Berry 1997; Marmot & Syme 1976)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Berry 1997; Marmot & Syme 1976)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Berry 1997; Marmot & Syme 1976)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Berry 1997; Marmot & Syme 1976). However, if health differences between the migrant and host populations persist long after migration into later life, this may reflect relative lack of adaptation ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1186/1742-7622-8-6", "ISBN" : "1742-7622 (Electronic)\\r1742-7622 (Linking)", "ISSN" : "1742-7622", "PMID" : "21843354", "abstract" : "Empirical findings show that morbidity and mortality risks of migrants can differ considerably from those of populations in the host countries. However, while several explanatory models have been developed, most migrant studies still do not consider explicitly the situation of migrants before migration. 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Third, examining the advantages (or disadvantages) that migrants accumulate over their life course can enhance our understanding of the factors driving these possible health differences between migrants and the host population ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dannefer", "given" : "Dale", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Social Sciences", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "page" : "327-337", "title" : "Cumulative advantage/disadvantage and the life course: Cross-fertilizing age and social science theory", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "58" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.geoforum.2003.11.006", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Purkayastha", "given" : "Bandana", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Geoforum", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "page" : "181-196", "title" : "Skilled migration and cumulative disadvantage : the case of highly qualified Asian Indian immigrant women in the US", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "36" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Dannefer 2003; Purkayastha 2005)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Dannefer 2003; Purkayastha 2005)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Dannefer 2003; Purkayastha 2005)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Dannefer 2003; Purkayastha 2005). This paper proposes to trace the interplay between these three mechanisms by examining them jointly, rather than empirically pinning one of them down in detail. The historical mass migration under study, between two countries with a shared cultural, linguistic and ethnic background, was mainly economic and “chosen” in nature. This specific case of chosen migration between two relatively wealthy countries, has a number of theoretical implications for our study ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12134-014-0340-x", "ISSN" : "14883473", "abstract" : "The existence of a healthy immigrant effect-where immigrants are on average healthier than the native born-is a widely cited phenomenon across a multitude of literatures including epidemiology and the social sciences. There are many competing explanations. The goals of this paper are twofold: first, to provide further evidence on the presence of the healthy immigrant effect across source and destination country using a set of consistently defined measures of health; and second, to evaluate the role of selectivity as a potential explanation for the existence of the phenomenon. Utilizing data from four major immigrant recipient countries, USA, Canada, UK, and Australia allows us to compare the health of migrants from each with the respective native born who choose not to migrate. This represents a much more appropriate counterfactual than the native born of the immigrant recipient country and yields new insights into the importance of observable selection effects. The analysis finds strong support for the healthy immigrant effect across all four destination countries and that selectivity plays an important role in the observed better health of migrants vis a vis those who stay behind in their country of origin.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kennedy", "given" : "Steven", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kidd", "given" : "Michael P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McDonald", "given" : "James Ted", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Biddle", "given" : "Nicholas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of International Migration and Integration", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "317-332", "title" : "The Healthy Immigrant Effect: Patterns and Evidence from Four Countries", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "16" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.07.043", "ISBN" : "0277-9536", "ISSN" : "02779536", "PMID" : "20869798", "abstract" : "In this paper, we briefly review theories and findings on migration and health from the health equity perspective, and then analyse migration-related health inequalities taking into account gender, social class and migration characteristics in the adult population aged 25-64 living in Catalonia, Spain. On the basis of the characterisation of migration types derived from the review, we distinguished between immigrants from other regions of Spain and those from other countries, and within each group, those from richer or poorer areas; foreign immigrants from low-income countries were also distinguished according to duration of residence. Further stratification by sex and social class was applied. Groups were compared in relation to self-assessed health in two cross-sectional population-based surveys, and in relation to indicators of socio-economic conditions (individual income, an index of material and financial assets, and an index of employment precariousness) in one survey. Social class and gender inequalities were evident in both health and socio-economic conditions, and within both the native and immigrant subgroups. Migration-related health inequalities affected both internal and international immigrants, but were mainly limited to those from poor areas, were generally consistent with their socio-economic deprivation, and apparently more pronounced in manual social classes and especially for women. Foreign immigrants from poor countries had the poorest socio-economic situation but relatively better health (especially men with shorter length of residence). Our findings on immigrants from Spain highlight the transitory nature of the 'healthy immigrant effect', and that action on inequality in socio-economic determinants affecting migrant groups should not be deferred. \u00a9 2010 Elsevier Ltd.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Malmusi", "given" : "Davide", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Borrell", "given" : "Carme", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Benach", "given" : "Joan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social Science and Medicine", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "9", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "1610-1619", "title" : "Migration-related health inequalities: Showing the complex interactions between gender, social class and place of origin", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "71" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Kennedy et al. 2015; Malmusi et al. 2010)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Kennedy et al. 2015; Malmusi et al. 2010)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kennedy et al. 2015; Malmusi et al. 2010)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Kennedy et al. 2015; Malmusi et al. 2010). Because of the ease of immigration through the assisted migration schemes, which allowed British citizens to travel to Australia for ?10, the decision to migrate was mainly an individual one, through a process of self-selection ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12134-014-0340-x", "ISSN" : "14883473", "abstract" : "The existence of a healthy immigrant effect-where immigrants are on average healthier than the native born-is a widely cited phenomenon across a multitude of literatures including epidemiology and the social sciences. There are many competing explanations. The goals of this paper are twofold: first, to provide further evidence on the presence of the healthy immigrant effect across source and destination country using a set of consistently defined measures of health; and second, to evaluate the role of selectivity as a potential explanation for the existence of the phenomenon. 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The absence of marked differences in language and culture, which often act as barriers to integration ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1093/jrs/fen016", "ISBN" : "0951-6328 1471-6925", "ISSN" : "09516328", "abstract" : "Integration has become both a key policy objective related to the resettlement of refugees and other migrants, and a matter of significant public discussion. Coherent policy development and productive public debate are, however, both threatened by the fact that the concept of integration is used with widely differing meanings. Based on review of attempted definitions of the term, related literature and primary fieldwork in settings of refugee settlement in the UK, the paper identifies elements central to perceptions of what constitutes 'successful' integration. Key domains of integration are proposed related to four overall themes: achievement and access across the sectors of employment, housing, education and health; assumptions and practice regarding citizenship and rights; processes of social connection within and between groups within the community; and structural barriers to such connection related to language, culture and the local environment. A framework linking these domains is presented as a tool to foster debate and definition regarding normative conceptions of integration in resettlement settings. \u00a9 The Author [2008]. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ager", "given" : "Alastair", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Strang", "given" : "Alison", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Refugee Studies", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "166-191", "title" : "Understanding integration: A conceptual framework", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "21" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Ager & Strang 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Ager & Strang 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Ager & Strang 2008)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Ager & Strang 2008), would have made adaptation for English migrants easier. In terms of accumulation processes, the combination of a general Anglophilia in the ex-colony ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jones", "given" : "Katharin W.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2001" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "304", "publisher" : "Temple Univeristy Press", "publisher-place" : "Philadelphia", "title" : "Accent on Privilege. English Identities and Anglophilia in the U.S.", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Jones 2001)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Jones 2001)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Jones 2001)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Jones 2001), white privilege in an increasingly multicultural society ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1037/0278-7393.11.1-4.629", "ISBN" : "081334056X", "ISSN" : "1939-1285", "abstract" : "In this new and timely anthology on the experience of privilege in America\u2014as it relates to holding the identity of the dominant gender, class, race, and sexual preference\u2014sociologists Michael Kimmel and Abby Ferber, along with a wide range of contributors, challenge students to think more critically about the myriad inequalities in society and especially to become more aware of how the dynamics that create inequality for some also benefit others. Designed to be used in both introductory sociology and race, gender, and class courses, this exciting volume asks that privilege\u2014and students\u2019 own role in it\u2014become more visible. With both well-known and previously published pieces as well as new contributions, Privilege uses an \u201cintersectional approach\u201d to explore the ways in which race, class, gender and sexuality interact in the lives of those who are privileged by one or more of these identities. Kimmel and Ferber have brought together leading thinkers and writers on all of these dimensions, to examine both the parallels and the ruptures among these different but connected relationships. Writing both personally and analytically, these essays can bring students inside the experiences, and enable us all to begin to theorize our own lives, as well as to explore the ways in which these systems intersect in people\u2019s lives.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McIntosh", "given" : "Peggy", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Privilege: A Reader", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "page" : "147-160", "title" : "White Privilege and Male Privilege", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(McIntosh 2003)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(McIntosh 2003)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(McIntosh 2003)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(McIntosh 2003), and the high degree of social mobility in Australia ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.2202/1935-1682.1781", "ISSN" : "1935-1682", "abstract" : "Combining four surveys conducted over a forty year period, I calculate intergenerational earnings elasticities for Australia, using predicted earnings in parents\u2019 occupations as a proxy for actual parental earnings. In the most recent survey, the elasticity of sons\u2019 wages with respect to fathers\u2019 wages is around 0.2. Comparing this estimate with earlier surveys, I find little evidence that inter- generational mobility in Australia has significantly risen or fallen over time. Applying the same methodology to United States data, I find that Australian society exhibits more intergenerational mobility than the United States. My method appears to slightly overstate the degree of intergen- erational mobility; if the true intergenerational earnings elasticity in the United States is 0.4\u20130.6 (as recent studies have suggested), then the intergenerational earnings elasticity in Australia is probably around 0.2\u20130.3.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Leigh", "given" : "Andrew", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "page" : "28", "title" : "Intergenerational Mobility in Australia", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "7" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Leigh 2007)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Leigh 2007)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Leigh 2007)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Leigh 2007), created a fertile ground for the accumulation of advantages, rather than disadvantages for English migrants to Australia. As such, this study has the potential to illuminate our understanding of impacts on migrant health and wellbeing under “ideal” circumstances. This study investigates health in line with the WHO definition, which sees health as a multifaceted concept, encompassing positive aspects such as physical, mental and subjective wellbeing, instead of the mere absence of disease ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1590/S0042-96862002001200014", "ISBN" : "0042-9686 UL - ", "ISSN" : "00429686", "PMID" : "12571728", "abstract" : "Adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19-22 June, 1946; signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States (Official Records of the World Health Organization, no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Grad", "given" : "Frank P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Bulletin of the World Health Organization", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "12", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2002" ] ] }, "page" : "981-982", "title" : "The preamble of the constitution of the World Health Organization", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "80" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Grad 2002)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Grad 2002)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Grad 2002)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Grad 2002). The essential aspect of physical wellbeing to maintaining autonomy and independence in daily life is functional health, as it represent the influence chronic impairments have on everyday living ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Verbrugge", "given" : "LM", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jette", "given" : "AM", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social science & medicine", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1994" ] ] }, "title" : "The disablement process", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "38" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Verbrugge & Jette 1994)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Verbrugge & Jette 1994)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Verbrugge & Jette 1994)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Verbrugge & Jette 1994). Mental wellbeing relates to feelings which can be both positive (such as happiness) or negative (such as feeling depressed), while subjective wellbeing is a personal evaluation of one’s circumstances ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12062-014-9092-9", "ISSN" : "1874-7884", "PMID" : "25089162", "abstract" : "Subjective well-being can be measured in different ways, depending on the conceptual perspective one adopts. Hedonic well-being, emphasising emotions and evaluation, is often contrasted with eudemonic well-being, stressing self-actualisation and autonomy. In this paper we investigate the background, structure and compatibility of empirical measures of hedonic and eudemonic well-being in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA). We use a confirmatory factor approach to investigate the internal of structure of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale (CES-D), Satisfaction with Life scale (SWLS) and CASP, a measure of quality of life in old age. In a second step, we examine the higher order structure of well-being using these measures. Next to highlighting specific issues about the structure of these measures in connection to older populations, we illustrate that a threefold structure, distinguishing affective, cognitive and eudemonic aspects of well-being, is more informative than the two dimensional hedonic and eudemonic well-being that is often propagated.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vanhoutte", "given" : "Bram", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of population ageing", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014", "1" ] ] }, "page" : "1-20", "title" : "The Multidimensional Structure of Subjective Well-Being In Later Life.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "7" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Vanhoutte 2014)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Vanhoutte 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Vanhoutte 2014)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Vanhoutte 2014). Different mechanisms underlie the generation and maintenance of each dimension of health, which is why we consider each aspect side by side in the same framework.SelectionSelection, or the fact that “immigrants … do not make up a random sample of the population from the countries of origin” (Borjas 1987, p. 531), is a key aspect in the study of migration and migrant health ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.2105/AJPH.2006.100974", "ISSN" : "1541-0048", "PMID" : "18309141", "abstract" : "OBJECTIVES: We sought to quantify the extent of health selection (i.e., the degree to which potential immigrants migrate, or fail to migrate, on the basis of their health status) among contemporary US immigrant groups and evaluate the degree that selection explains variation in self-rated health among US legal permanent residents.\n\nMETHODS: Data came from the New Immigrant Survey 2003 cohort. We estimated the extent of positive and negative health selection through a unique series of questions asking immigrants in the United States to evaluate their health and compare it to that of citizens in their country of origin.\n\nRESULTS: The extent of positive health selection differed significantly across immigrant groups and was related to compositional differences in the socioeconomic profiles of immigrant streams.\n\nCONCLUSIONS: The salience of socioeconomic status and English-language ability in explaining health differentials across immigrant groups reinforces the importance of further research on the role of these factors in contributing to the health of immigrants above and beyond the need for additional attention to the health selection process.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Akresh", "given" : "Ilana Redstone", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Frank", "given" : "Reanne", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American journal of public health", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "11", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008", "11" ] ] }, "page" : "2058-64", "title" : "Health selection among new immigrants.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "98" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Borjas", "given" : "GJ", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Economic Review", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1987" ] ] }, "page" : "531-553", "title" : "Self-selection and the earnings of immigrants", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "77" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12134-014-0340-x", "ISSN" : "14883473", "abstract" : "The existence of a healthy immigrant effect-where immigrants are on average healthier than the native born-is a widely cited phenomenon across a multitude of literatures including epidemiology and the social sciences. There are many competing explanations. The goals of this paper are twofold: first, to provide further evidence on the presence of the healthy immigrant effect across source and destination country using a set of consistently defined measures of health; and second, to evaluate the role of selectivity as a potential explanation for the existence of the phenomenon. Utilizing data from four major immigrant recipient countries, USA, Canada, UK, and Australia allows us to compare the health of migrants from each with the respective native born who choose not to migrate. This represents a much more appropriate counterfactual than the native born of the immigrant recipient country and yields new insights into the importance of observable selection effects. The analysis finds strong support for the healthy immigrant effect across all four destination countries and that selectivity plays an important role in the observed better health of migrants vis a vis those who stay behind in their country of origin.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kennedy", "given" : "Steven", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kidd", "given" : "Michael P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McDonald", "given" : "James Ted", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Biddle", "given" : "Nicholas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of International Migration and Integration", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "317-332", "title" : "The Healthy Immigrant Effect: Patterns and Evidence from Four Countries", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "16" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-4", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1111/tmi.12610", "ISSN" : "13602276", "PMID" : "26426523", "abstract" : "OBJECTIVE: Firstly, to map out and compare all-cause and cause-specific mortality patterns by migrant background in Belgium; and secondly, to probe into explanations for the observed patterns, more specifically into the healthy-migrant, acculturation and the migration-as-rapid-health-transition theories. METHODS: Data comprise individually linked Belgian census-mortality follow-up data for the period 2001-2011. All official inhabitants aged 25-54 at time of the census were included. To delve into the different explanations, differences in all-cause and chronic- and infectious-disease mortality were estimated using Poisson regression models, adjusted for age, socioeconomic position and urbanicity. RESULTS: First-generation immigrants have lower all-cause and chronic-disease mortality than the host population. This mortality advantage wears off with length of stay and is more marked among non-Western than Western first-generation immigrants. For example, Western and non-Western male immigrants residing 10 years or more in Belgium have a mortality rate ratio for cardiovascular disease of 0.72 (95% CI 0.66-0.78) and 0.59 (95% CI 0.53-0.66), respectively (vs host population). The pattern of infectious-disease mortality in migrants is slightly different, with rather high mortality rates in first-generation sub-Saharan Africans and rather low rates in all other immigrant groups. As for second-generation immigrants, the picture is gloomier, with a mortality disadvantage that disappears after control for socioeconomic position. CONCLUSION: Findings are largely consistent with the healthy-migrant, acculturation and the migration-as-rapid-health-transition theories. The convergence of the mortality profile of second-generation immigrants towards that of the host population with similar socioeconomic position indicates the need for policies simultaneously addressing different areas of deprivation.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vandenheede", "given" : "Hadewijch", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Willaert", "given" : "Didier", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Grande", "given" : "Hannelore", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Simoens", "given" : "Steven", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vanroelen", "given" : "Christophe", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Tropical Medicine & International Health", "id" : "ITEM-4", "issue" : "12", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015", "12" ] ] }, "page" : "1832-1845", "title" : "Mortality in adult immigrants in the 2000s in Belgium: a test of the \u2018healthy-migrant\u2019 and the \u2018migration-as-rapid-health-transition\u2019 hypotheses", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-5", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.11.040", "ISSN" : "1873-5347", "PMID" : "24565140", "abstract" : "The existing literature has often underscored the \"healthy migrant\" effect and the \"salmon bias\" in understanding the health of migrants. Nevertheless, direct evidence for these two hypotheses, particularly the \"salmon bias,\" is limited. Using data from a national longitudinal survey conducted between 2003 and 2007 in China, we provide tests of these hypotheses in the case of internal migration in China. To examine the healthy migrant effect, we study how pre-migration self-reported health is associated with an individual's decision to migrate and the distance of migration. To test the salmon bias hypothesis, we compare the self-reported health of migrants who stay in destinations and who return or move closer to home villages. The results provide support for both hypotheses. Specifically, healthier individuals are more likely to migrate and to move further away from home. Among migrants, those with poorer health are more likely to return or to move closer to their origin communities.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lu", "given" : "Yao", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Qin", "given" : "Lijian", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social science & medicine (1982)", "id" : "ITEM-5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014", "2" ] ] }, "page" : "41-8", "publisher" : "Elsevier Ltd", "title" : "Healthy migrant and salmon bias hypotheses: a study of health and internal migration in China.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "102" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Akresh & Frank 2008; Borjas 1987; Kennedy et al. 2015; Vandenheede et al. 2015; Lu & Qin 2014)", "manualFormatting" : "(Akresh & Frank 2008; Borjas 1987; Kennedy et al. 2015; Lu & Qin 2014; Vandenheede et al. 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Akresh & Frank 2008; Borjas 1987; Kennedy et al. 2015; Vandenheede et al. 2015; Lu & Qin 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Akresh & Frank 2008; Borjas 1987; Kennedy et al. 2015; Vandenheede et al. 2015; Lu & Qin 2014)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Akresh & Frank 2008; Borjas 1987; Kennedy et al. 2015; Lu & Qin 2014; Vandenheede et al. 2015). One important and often investigated criterion for selection at the individual level is physical health: moving country typically requires being in good physical health, and the labour migration policies responsible for most of the large-scale post-war migration movements emphasized it as one of the main conditions for migration. In addition to physical health a range of educational, social and psychological characteristics are also likely to play a role in migrant selection ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Borjas", "given" : "George J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Migration Review", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1989" ] ] }, "page" : "457-485", "title" : "Economic Theory and International Migration", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "23" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12134-014-0340-x", "ISSN" : "14883473", "abstract" : "The existence of a healthy immigrant effect-where immigrants are on average healthier than the native born-is a widely cited phenomenon across a multitude of literatures including epidemiology and the social sciences. There are many competing explanations. The goals of this paper are twofold: first, to provide further evidence on the presence of the healthy immigrant effect across source and destination country using a set of consistently defined measures of health; and second, to evaluate the role of selectivity as a potential explanation for the existence of the phenomenon. Utilizing data from four major immigrant recipient countries, USA, Canada, UK, and Australia allows us to compare the health of migrants from each with the respective native born who choose not to migrate. This represents a much more appropriate counterfactual than the native born of the immigrant recipient country and yields new insights into the importance of observable selection effects. The analysis finds strong support for the healthy immigrant effect across all four destination countries and that selectivity plays an important role in the observed better health of migrants vis a vis those who stay behind in their country of origin.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kennedy", "given" : "Steven", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kidd", "given" : "Michael P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McDonald", "given" : "James Ted", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Biddle", "given" : "Nicholas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of International Migration and Integration", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "317-332", "title" : "The Healthy Immigrant Effect: Patterns and Evidence from Four Countries", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "16" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Borjas 1989; Kennedy et al. 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Borjas 1989; Kennedy et al. 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Borjas 1989; Kennedy et al. 2015)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Borjas 1989; Kennedy et al. 2015). For example, high educational levels or specific skills and professions can enable people to migrate to countries with better living conditions (Kennedy et al. 2015). In the post-war migration to Australia, being white, in good physical health and under 45 years old were the main prerequisites for access to the assisted migration schemes, and British migrants were a fairly select group, possessing skill and income levels above the British average ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Appleyard", "given" : "R T", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1964" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "255", "publisher" : "Australian National University Press", "publisher-place" : "Canberra", "title" : "British Emigration to Australia", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Appleyard 1964)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Appleyard 1964)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Appleyard 1964)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Appleyard 1964). Rarely captured in migration statistics, individual differences in psychological or personality characteristics, such as the propensity to take risks, the motivation to leave one’s country and the resolve to succeed in the host society, are potentially very decisive in determining who chooses to migrate. An equally selective return migration of unhealthy, less able, or less motivated migrants, known as the “salmon bias” ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Abraido-Lanza", "given" : "AF", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American journal of public health", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "10", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1999" ] ] }, "page" : "1543-1548", "title" : "The Latino mortality paradox: a test of the\" salmon bias\" and healthy migrant hypotheses.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "89" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Abraido-Lanza 1999)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Abraido-Lanza 1999)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Abraido-Lanza 1999)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Abraido-Lanza 1999), has been raised as a secondary selection, reinforcing the primary selection. According to Appleyard (1964), about 25 percent of British post-war migrants returned to the UK within a couple of years after migration, but about a third to half of the returned re-emigrated to Australia, spawning the nick name of “boomerang migrants”. This substantial return migration is probably due to the ease of assisted migration, and reflects that many departed to Australia temporarily, never meaning to stay permanently ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hammerton", "given" : "a James", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thomson", "given" : "Alistair", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Manchester University Press", "publisher-place" : "Manchester", "title" : "Ten pound Poms. Australia's invisible migrants", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "", "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hammerton & Thomson 2005)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hammerton & Thomson 2005)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hammerton & Thomson 2005)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Hammerton & Thomson 2005). This paper examines the consequences of migration after a substantial period of time, such that effects of selection should have stabilised. In sum, the selection hypothesis entails migrants having better physical health, higher levels of human capital and higher motivation than the general population in their country of origin ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Chiswick", "given" : "BR", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Economic Review", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1999" ] ] }, "title" : "Are immigrants favorably self-selected?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "89" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12134-014-0340-x", "ISSN" : "14883473", "abstract" : "The existence of a healthy immigrant effect-where immigrants are on average healthier than the native born-is a widely cited phenomenon across a multitude of literatures including epidemiology and the social sciences. There are many competing explanations. The goals of this paper are twofold: first, to provide further evidence on the presence of the healthy immigrant effect across source and destination country using a set of consistently defined measures of health; and second, to evaluate the role of selectivity as a potential explanation for the existence of the phenomenon. Utilizing data from four major immigrant recipient countries, USA, Canada, UK, and Australia allows us to compare the health of migrants from each with the respective native born who choose not to migrate. This represents a much more appropriate counterfactual than the native born of the immigrant recipient country and yields new insights into the importance of observable selection effects. The analysis finds strong support for the healthy immigrant effect across all four destination countries and that selectivity plays an important role in the observed better health of migrants vis a vis those who stay behind in their country of origin.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kennedy", "given" : "Steven", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kidd", "given" : "Michael P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McDonald", "given" : "James Ted", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Biddle", "given" : "Nicholas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of International Migration and Integration", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "317-332", "title" : "The Healthy Immigrant Effect: Patterns and Evidence from Four Countries", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "16" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Chiswick 1999; Kennedy et al. 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Chiswick 1999; Kennedy et al. 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Chiswick 1999; Kennedy et al. 2015)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Chiswick 1999; Kennedy et al. 2015).The primary and most important selection is the selection of more healthy and able English people as migrants. A secondary selection, of migrants who re-migrated to England, after experiencing the challenges associated with settling and the possible temporary nature of migration, possibly amplifies this primary selection process.We expect English migrants to have been selected on the basis of health and social background, and as such have had better childhood health, and high levels of education than English who stayed in England. As selection effects are concerned primarily with comparing those who migrate with those who remain in their country of origin, we make no hypothesis in relation to how English migrants might differ from Australians here, but rather explore these differences below in section 1.3 on Advantage.1.2 AdaptationAdaptation is the process of change through which individuals become better suited to their environments ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Berry", "given" : "JW", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Applied psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1997" ] ] }, "page" : "5-68", "title" : "Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "46" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Berry 1997)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Berry 1997)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Berry 1997)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Berry 1997). Acculturation to new cultural codes or integration in the educational and labour markets reflect, respectively, the cultural and structural contexts to which migrants have to adapt ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1353/foc.2011.0004", "ISBN" : "1054-8289", "ISSN" : "10548289", "PMID" : "21465862", "abstract" : "Alejandro Portes and Alejandro Rivas examine how young immigrants are adapting to life in the United States. They begin by noting the existence of two distinct pan-ethnic populations: Asian Americans, who tend to be the offspring of high-human-capital migrants, and Hispanics, many of whose parents are manual workers. Vast differences in each, both in human capital origins and in their reception in the United States, mean large disparities in resources available to the families and ethnic communities raising the new generation. Research on the assimilation of these children falls into two theoretical perspectives. Culturalist researchers emphasize the newcomers' place in the cultural and linguistic life of the host society; structuralists, their place in the socioeconomic hierarchy. Within each camp, views range from darkly pessimistic\u2014that disadvantaged children of immigrants are simply not joining the Ameri-can mainstream\u2014to optimistic\u2014that assimilation is taking place today just as it has in the past. A middle ground is that although poorly endowed immigrant families face distinct barriers to upward mobility, their children can overcome these obstacles through learning the language and culture of the host society while preserving their home country language, values, and customs.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Portes", "given" : "Alejandro", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Rivas", "given" : "Alejandro", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Future of Children", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "219-246", "title" : "The adaptation of migrant children", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "21" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Portes & Rivas 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Portes & Rivas 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Portes & Rivas 2011)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Portes & Rivas 2011). Several types of adaptation can be distinguished and depend on varying skills in different life domains. Successful psychological adaptation, indicated by good mental health, depends strongly on personality characteristics, life events and social support. Sociocultural adaptation can be facilitated by cultural knowledge, social contact and intergroup attitudes, while acquiring a satisfying job can be seen as economic adaptation ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Berry", "given" : "JW", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Applied psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1997" ] ] }, "page" : "5-68", "title" : "Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "46" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Berry 1997)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Berry 1997)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Berry 1997)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Berry 1997). In the case of health, adaptation paradoxically involves the attenuation of migrants’ initial advantages over the population of their host country. This so-called “Healthy Migrant Effect” has been illustrated in terms of physical health ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Marmot", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Adelstein", "given" : "A M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bulusu", "given" : "L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Lancet", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1984" ] ] }, "page" : "1455-1457", "title" : "Lessons from the study of immigrant mortality", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "AIHW", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Bulletin No. 2 AIHW Cat NO AUS 27", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2002" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "1-12", "publisher-place" : "Canberra", "title" : "Australian health inequalities: birthplace", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Marmot et al. 1984; AIHW 2002)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Marmot et al. 1984; AIHW 2002)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Marmot et al. 1984; AIHW 2002)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Marmot et al. 1984; AIHW 2002), chronic illness ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12134-014-0340-x", "ISSN" : "14883473", "abstract" : "The existence of a healthy immigrant effect-where immigrants are on average healthier than the native born-is a widely cited phenomenon across a multitude of literatures including epidemiology and the social sciences. There are many competing explanations. The goals of this paper are twofold: first, to provide further evidence on the presence of the healthy immigrant effect across source and destination country using a set of consistently defined measures of health; and second, to evaluate the role of selectivity as a potential explanation for the existence of the phenomenon. Utilizing data from four major immigrant recipient countries, USA, Canada, UK, and Australia allows us to compare the health of migrants from each with the respective native born who choose not to migrate. This represents a much more appropriate counterfactual than the native born of the immigrant recipient country and yields new insights into the importance of observable selection effects. The analysis finds strong support for the healthy immigrant effect across all four destination countries and that selectivity plays an important role in the observed better health of migrants vis a vis those who stay behind in their country of origin.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kennedy", "given" : "Steven", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kidd", "given" : "Michael P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McDonald", "given" : "James Ted", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Biddle", "given" : "Nicholas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of International Migration and Integration", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "317-332", "title" : "The Healthy Immigrant Effect: Patterns and Evidence from Four Countries", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "16" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Kennedy et al. 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Kennedy et al. 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kennedy et al. 2015)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Kennedy et al. 2015), mental health ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISSN" : "03801489", "abstract" : "Growing international evidence supports the epidemiological paradox that immigrants have better overall health than non-immigrants, including lower levels of depression. But whether length of residence in the host population modifies this effect on depression is not well understood. We examine a large, heterogeneous sample of Canadians to investigate three possible trajectories of depression within the immigrant population. We present hypotheses testing if the depression rate among immigrants improves, deteriorates, or undergoes non- linear change over time. Our results confirm the so-called \u201chealthy migrant effect\u201d and show that visible minority immigrants are especially healthy. However, soon after arrival in Canada, depression among immigrants increases for several decades. Policy implications of the findings are discussed.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wu", "given" : "Zheng", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schimmele", "given" : "Christoph M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Canadian Studies in Population", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "page" : "271-295", "title" : "The Healthy Migrant Effect on Depression: Variation over Time?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "32" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Wu & Schimmele 2005)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Wu & Schimmele 2005)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Wu & Schimmele 2005)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Wu & Schimmele 2005) and mortality ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1111/tmi.12610", "ISSN" : "13602276", "PMID" : "26426523", "abstract" : "OBJECTIVE: Firstly, to map out and compare all-cause and cause-specific mortality patterns by migrant background in Belgium; and secondly, to probe into explanations for the observed patterns, more specifically into the healthy-migrant, acculturation and the migration-as-rapid-health-transition theories. METHODS: Data comprise individually linked Belgian census-mortality follow-up data for the period 2001-2011. All official inhabitants aged 25-54 at time of the census were included. To delve into the different explanations, differences in all-cause and chronic- and infectious-disease mortality were estimated using Poisson regression models, adjusted for age, socioeconomic position and urbanicity. RESULTS: First-generation immigrants have lower all-cause and chronic-disease mortality than the host population. This mortality advantage wears off with length of stay and is more marked among non-Western than Western first-generation immigrants. For example, Western and non-Western male immigrants residing 10 years or more in Belgium have a mortality rate ratio for cardiovascular disease of 0.72 (95% CI 0.66-0.78) and 0.59 (95% CI 0.53-0.66), respectively (vs host population). The pattern of infectious-disease mortality in migrants is slightly different, with rather high mortality rates in first-generation sub-Saharan Africans and rather low rates in all other immigrant groups. As for second-generation immigrants, the picture is gloomier, with a mortality disadvantage that disappears after control for socioeconomic position. CONCLUSION: Findings are largely consistent with the healthy-migrant, acculturation and the migration-as-rapid-health-transition theories. The convergence of the mortality profile of second-generation immigrants towards that of the host population with similar socioeconomic position indicates the need for policies simultaneously addressing different areas of deprivation.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vandenheede", "given" : "Hadewijch", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Willaert", "given" : "Didier", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Grande", "given" : "Hannelore", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Simoens", "given" : "Steven", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vanroelen", "given" : "Christophe", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Tropical Medicine & International Health", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "12", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015", "12" ] ] }, "page" : "1832-1845", "title" : "Mortality in adult immigrants in the 2000s in Belgium: a test of the \u2018healthy-migrant\u2019 and the \u2018migration-as-rapid-health-transition\u2019 hypotheses", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "", "", "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Abraido-Lanza", "given" : "AF", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American journal of public health", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "10", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1999" ] ] }, "page" : "1543-1548", "title" : "The Latino mortality paradox: a test of the\" salmon bias\" and healthy migrant hypotheses.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "89" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Marmot", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Adelstein", "given" : "A M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bulusu", "given" : "L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Lancet", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1984" ] ] }, "page" : "1455-1457", "title" : "Lessons from the study of immigrant mortality", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Vandenheede et al. 2015; Abraido-Lanza 1999; Marmot et al. 1984)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Vandenheede et al. 2015; Abraido-Lanza 1999; Marmot et al. 1984)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Vandenheede et al. 2015; Abraido-Lanza 1999; Marmot et al. 1984)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Vandenheede et al. 2015; Abraido-Lanza 1999; Marmot et al. 1984). The health advantage is not limited to migrants from a “poor” to a “rich” country, but also exists among migrants within a country ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.06.017", "ISBN" : "0277-9536 (Print)\\r0277-9536 (Linking)", "ISSN" : "02779536", "PMID" : "18639967", "abstract" : "Previous studies show migrants are generally healthier than the populations in receiving societies, a result generally attributed to the positive selection of migrants on health. This hypothesis, however, has not been adequately evaluated due to lack of adequate data. In this article, using high-quality longitudinal data from Indonesia, the health selectivity hypothesis, also referred to as the healthy migrant hypothesis, is examined with respect to internal migration. Specifically, this study explores whether pre-migration health status affects the likelihood of migration by comparing those from the sending population who do and do not move. Results show that migrants in Indonesia tend to be selected with respect to health and that this selection is robust to household unobserved heterogeneity. However, the strength and direction of the health-migration association vary by types of migration and dimensions of health. \u00a9 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lu", "given" : "Yao", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social Science and Medicine", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "8", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "1331-1339", "title" : "Test of the 'healthy migrant hypothesis': A longitudinal analysis of health selectivity of internal migration in Indonesia", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "67" }, "uris" : [ "", "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Lu 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Lu 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Lu 2008)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Lu 2008), as well as for migrants from one “western” country to another ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1111/tmi.12610", "ISSN" : "13602276", "PMID" : "26426523", "abstract" : "OBJECTIVE: Firstly, to map out and compare all-cause and cause-specific mortality patterns by migrant background in Belgium; and secondly, to probe into explanations for the observed patterns, more specifically into the healthy-migrant, acculturation and the migration-as-rapid-health-transition theories. METHODS: Data comprise individually linked Belgian census-mortality follow-up data for the period 2001-2011. All official inhabitants aged 25-54 at time of the census were included. To delve into the different explanations, differences in all-cause and chronic- and infectious-disease mortality were estimated using Poisson regression models, adjusted for age, socioeconomic position and urbanicity. RESULTS: First-generation immigrants have lower all-cause and chronic-disease mortality than the host population. This mortality advantage wears off with length of stay and is more marked among non-Western than Western first-generation immigrants. For example, Western and non-Western male immigrants residing 10 years or more in Belgium have a mortality rate ratio for cardiovascular disease of 0.72 (95% CI 0.66-0.78) and 0.59 (95% CI 0.53-0.66), respectively (vs host population). The pattern of infectious-disease mortality in migrants is slightly different, with rather high mortality rates in first-generation sub-Saharan Africans and rather low rates in all other immigrant groups. As for second-generation immigrants, the picture is gloomier, with a mortality disadvantage that disappears after control for socioeconomic position. CONCLUSION: Findings are largely consistent with the healthy-migrant, acculturation and the migration-as-rapid-health-transition theories. The convergence of the mortality profile of second-generation immigrants towards that of the host population with similar socioeconomic position indicates the need for policies simultaneously addressing different areas of deprivation.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vandenheede", "given" : "Hadewijch", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Willaert", "given" : "Didier", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Grande", "given" : "Hannelore", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Simoens", "given" : "Steven", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vanroelen", "given" : "Christophe", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Tropical Medicine & International Health", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "12", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015", "12" ] ] }, "page" : "1832-1845", "title" : "Mortality in adult immigrants in the 2000s in Belgium: a test of the \u2018healthy-migrant\u2019 and the \u2018migration-as-rapid-health-transition\u2019 hypotheses", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Vandenheede et al. 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Vandenheede et al. 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Vandenheede et al. 2015)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Vandenheede et al. 2015). It erodes as differences with the host population wane with increasing length of stay and over generations ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1111/tmi.12610", "ISSN" : "13602276", "PMID" : "26426523", "abstract" : "OBJECTIVE: Firstly, to map out and compare all-cause and cause-specific mortality patterns by migrant background in Belgium; and secondly, to probe into explanations for the observed patterns, more specifically into the healthy-migrant, acculturation and the migration-as-rapid-health-transition theories. METHODS: Data comprise individually linked Belgian census-mortality follow-up data for the period 2001-2011. All official inhabitants aged 25-54 at time of the census were included. To delve into the different explanations, differences in all-cause and chronic- and infectious-disease mortality were estimated using Poisson regression models, adjusted for age, socioeconomic position and urbanicity. RESULTS: First-generation immigrants have lower all-cause and chronic-disease mortality than the host population. This mortality advantage wears off with length of stay and is more marked among non-Western than Western first-generation immigrants. For example, Western and non-Western male immigrants residing 10 years or more in Belgium have a mortality rate ratio for cardiovascular disease of 0.72 (95% CI 0.66-0.78) and 0.59 (95% CI 0.53-0.66), respectively (vs host population). The pattern of infectious-disease mortality in migrants is slightly different, with rather high mortality rates in first-generation sub-Saharan Africans and rather low rates in all other immigrant groups. As for second-generation immigrants, the picture is gloomier, with a mortality disadvantage that disappears after control for socioeconomic position. CONCLUSION: Findings are largely consistent with the healthy-migrant, acculturation and the migration-as-rapid-health-transition theories. The convergence of the mortality profile of second-generation immigrants towards that of the host population with similar socioeconomic position indicates the need for policies simultaneously addressing different areas of deprivation.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vandenheede", "given" : "Hadewijch", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Willaert", "given" : "Didier", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Grande", "given" : "Hannelore", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Simoens", "given" : "Steven", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vanroelen", "given" : "Christophe", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Tropical Medicine & International Health", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "12", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015", "12" ] ] }, "page" : "1832-1845", "title" : "Mortality in adult immigrants in the 2000s in Belgium: a test of the \u2018healthy-migrant\u2019 and the \u2018migration-as-rapid-health-transition\u2019 hypotheses", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.07.043", "ISBN" : "0277-9536", "ISSN" : "02779536", "PMID" : "20869798", "abstract" : "In this paper, we briefly review theories and findings on migration and health from the health equity perspective, and then analyse migration-related health inequalities taking into account gender, social class and migration characteristics in the adult population aged 25-64 living in Catalonia, Spain. On the basis of the characterisation of migration types derived from the review, we distinguished between immigrants from other regions of Spain and those from other countries, and within each group, those from richer or poorer areas; foreign immigrants from low-income countries were also distinguished according to duration of residence. Further stratification by sex and social class was applied. Groups were compared in relation to self-assessed health in two cross-sectional population-based surveys, and in relation to indicators of socio-economic conditions (individual income, an index of material and financial assets, and an index of employment precariousness) in one survey. Social class and gender inequalities were evident in both health and socio-economic conditions, and within both the native and immigrant subgroups. Migration-related health inequalities affected both internal and international immigrants, but were mainly limited to those from poor areas, were generally consistent with their socio-economic deprivation, and apparently more pronounced in manual social classes and especially for women. Foreign immigrants from poor countries had the poorest socio-economic situation but relatively better health (especially men with shorter length of residence). Our findings on immigrants from Spain highlight the transitory nature of the 'healthy immigrant effect', and that action on inequality in socio-economic determinants affecting migrant groups should not be deferred. \u00a9 2010 Elsevier Ltd.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Malmusi", "given" : "Davide", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Borrell", "given" : "Carme", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Benach", "given" : "Joan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social Science and Medicine", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "9", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "1610-1619", "title" : "Migration-related health inequalities: Showing the complex interactions between gender, social class and place of origin", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "71" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Vandenheede et al. 2015; Malmusi et al. 2010)", "manualFormatting" : "(Krupinski 1984; Malmusi et al. 2010; Vandenheede et al. 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Vandenheede et al. 2015; Malmusi et al. 2010)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Vandenheede et al. 2015; Malmusi et al. 2010)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Krupinski 1984; Malmusi et al. 2010; Vandenheede et al. 2015), which points to adaptation as an important process underlying this erosion. Adaptation in this sense captures the influence of current circumstances on earlier determinants of health and wellbeing. Changes in diet, health behaviours and in the physical environment, have been identified as the main causal pathways for adaptation of physical health ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Krupinski", "given" : "Jerzy", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social Science & Medicine", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "Table 2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1984" ] ] }, "page" : "927-937", "title" : "Changing patterns of migration and their influence on the health of migrants", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "18" }, "uris" : [ "", "", "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Krupinski 1984)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Krupinski 1984)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Krupinski 1984)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Krupinski 1984). Personal expectations, cultural values and changes in the social environment are thought to influence more subjective mental health outcomes such as psychological wellbeing ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "Article", "ISBN" : "1067-3229 (Print)", "ISSN" : "1067-3229", "PMID" : "10902095", "abstract" : "The Hispanic population in the United States continues to expand rapidly due primarily to a large flow of immigrants from Mexico. Historical observations of disadvantage in the immigrant population, when compared to the native population, had helped to shape prevailing theories on immigration and mental health. However, data emerging from new research on Mexican Americans have come to challenge the old idea that immigrants are necessarily disadvantaged. The goal of this article is to review these new studies critically, to draw conclusions concerning the relationship between immigration and psychopathology, and to offer potential explanations for the major findings. We review five recent large-scale studies that examined the prevalence of mental disorders among Mexican-born immigrants and U.S.-born Mexican Americans in the United States. Results of these studies are inconsistent with traditional tenets on the relationship among immigration, acculturation, and psychopathology. They show that Mexico-born immigrants, despite significant socioeconomic disadvantages, have better mental health profiles than do U.S.-born Mexican Americans. Possible explanations for the better mental health profile of Mexican immigrants include research artifacts such as selection bias, a protective effect of traditional family networks, and a lower set of expectations about what constitutes \"success\" in America. The elevated rates of psychopathology in U.S.-born Mexican Americans may be related to easier access to abused substances and an elevated frequency of substance abuse among the U.S.-born.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Escobar", "given" : "J I", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nervi", "given" : "C Hoyos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gara", "given" : "M a", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Harvard review of psychiatry", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "page" : "64-72", "title" : "Immigration and mental health: Mexican Americans in the United States.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "8" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Escobar et al. 2000)", "manualFormatting" : "(Escobar, Nervi, & Gara, 2000)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Escobar et al. 2000)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Escobar et al. 2000)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Escobar, Nervi, & Gara, 2000).The health effects of migration processes are often distorted by the fact that migration involves the meeting of two different cultures, which can entail language barriers, racism, differential health care access as well as different health behaviours. However, for the English baby boomers migrating to Australia, this was much less the case given the extent of shared culture, language and ethnicity between Australian-born Australians and English migrants ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12134-014-0340-x", "ISSN" : "14883473", "abstract" : "The existence of a healthy immigrant effect-where immigrants are on average healthier than the native born-is a widely cited phenomenon across a multitude of literatures including epidemiology and the social sciences. There are many competing explanations. The goals of this paper are twofold: first, to provide further evidence on the presence of the healthy immigrant effect across source and destination country using a set of consistently defined measures of health; and second, to evaluate the role of selectivity as a potential explanation for the existence of the phenomenon. Utilizing data from four major immigrant recipient countries, USA, Canada, UK, and Australia allows us to compare the health of migrants from each with the respective native born who choose not to migrate. This represents a much more appropriate counterfactual than the native born of the immigrant recipient country and yields new insights into the importance of observable selection effects. The analysis finds strong support for the healthy immigrant effect across all four destination countries and that selectivity plays an important role in the observed better health of migrants vis a vis those who stay behind in their country of origin.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kennedy", "given" : "Steven", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kidd", "given" : "Michael P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McDonald", "given" : "James Ted", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Biddle", "given" : "Nicholas", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of International Migration and Integration", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "317-332", "title" : "The Healthy Immigrant Effect: Patterns and Evidence from Four Countries", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "16" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Kennedy et al. 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Kennedy et al. 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kennedy et al. 2015)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Kennedy et al. 2015). British migrants to Australia have been called invisible migrants because of their similarity to Australian-born Australians and they face relatively few cultural adaptations ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jupp", "given" : "J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "216", "publisher" : "Cambridge University Press", "publisher-place" : "Cambridge", "title" : "The English in Australia", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Jupp 2004)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Jupp 2004)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Jupp 2004)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Jupp 2004). Nevertheless, the change in circumstances still leaves migrants with having to construct a new life and identity, although the story of the English migrants is often one of success under these new conditions ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1080/14443050109387665", "ISSN" : "1444-3058", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hammerton", "given" : "a James", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Coleborne", "given" : "Catharine", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Australian Studies", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "January 2015", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2001" ] ] }, "page" : "86-96", "title" : "Ten-pound poms revisited: Battlers\u2019 tales and British migration to Australia, 1947-1971", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "25" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hammerton & Coleborne 2001)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hammerton & Coleborne 2001)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hammerton & Coleborne 2001)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Hammerton & Coleborne 2001).In sum, we expect adaptation in psychological wellbeing and quality of life of the English migrants to Australian population levels, as the initial shock of migrating and adapting is in the past for most English baby boomer migrants, and would have led to a return to England when insurmountable. In terms of health and illness, we expect either no or a small healthy migrant effect, as this effect erodes over time, and most migrant baby boomers will have resided in Australia for a long time. 1.3 Advantage Cumulative (dis)advantage is the idea that “initial comparative advantage … [leads to] successive increments of advantage such that the gaps between the haves and the have-nots … widen” ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Merton", "given" : "RK", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Science", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3810", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1968" ] ] }, "page" : "56-63", "title" : "The Matthew effect in science", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "159" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Merton 1968)", "manualFormatting" : "(Merton 1968, p. 606)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Merton 1968)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Merton 1968)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Merton 1968, p. 606). As a key concept for the life course perspective, it emphasises that early life conditions set in motion a complex cascade of direct and indirect influences that can accentuate disparities ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISSN" : "0277-9536", "PMID" : "9783866", "abstract" : "This paper investigates the social and economic circumstances of childhood that predict the probability of survival to age 85 among African-Americans. It uses a unique study design in which survivors are linked to their records in U.S. Censuses of 1900 and 1910. A control group of age and race-matched children is drawn from Public Use Samples for these censuses. It concludes that the factors most predictive of survival are farm background, having literate parents, and living in a two-parent household. Results support the interpretation that death risks are positively correlated over the life cycle.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Preston", "given" : "S H", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hill", "given" : "M E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Drevenstedt", "given" : "G L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social science & medicine (1982)", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "9", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1998", "11" ] ] }, "page" : "1231-46", "title" : "Childhood conditions that predict survival to advanced ages among African-Americans.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "47" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ben-shlomo", "given" : "Yoav", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kuh", "given" : "Diana", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International journal of epidemiology", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2002" ] ] }, "page" : "285-293", "title" : "A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology : conceptual models , empirical challenges and interdisciplinary perspectives", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "31" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12062-015-9138-7", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kendig", "given" : "Hal L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nazroo", "given" : "James", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Population Ageing", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "1-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "1-7", "title" : "Life Course Influences on Inequalities in Later Life : Comparative Perspectives", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "9" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Preston et al. 1998; Ben-shlomo & Kuh 2002; Kendig & Nazroo 2016)", "manualFormatting" : "(Ben-shlomo & Kuh 2002; Kendig & Nazroo 2016; Preston et al. 1998)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Preston et al. 1998; Ben-shlomo & Kuh 2002; Kendig & Nazroo 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Preston et al. 1998; Ben-shlomo & Kuh 2002; Kendig & Nazroo 2016)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Ben-shlomo & Kuh 2002; Kendig & Nazroo 2016; Preston et al. 1998). Direct paths between childhood circumstances and adult health can have both harmful or protective effects, while indirect paths can involve associated environmental effects or selection processes ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISSN" : "0277-9536", "PMID" : "9783866", "abstract" : "This paper investigates the social and economic circumstances of childhood that predict the probability of survival to age 85 among African-Americans. It uses a unique study design in which survivors are linked to their records in U.S. Censuses of 1900 and 1910. A control group of age and race-matched children is drawn from Public Use Samples for these censuses. It concludes that the factors most predictive of survival are farm background, having literate parents, and living in a two-parent household. Results support the interpretation that death risks are positively correlated over the life cycle.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Preston", "given" : "S H", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hill", "given" : "M E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Drevenstedt", "given" : "G L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social science & medicine (1982)", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "9", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1998", "11" ] ] }, "page" : "1231-46", "title" : "Childhood conditions that predict survival to advanced ages among African-Americans.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "47" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Preston et al. 1998)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Preston et al. 1998)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Preston et al. 1998)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Preston et al. 1998). Long-term effects of early life health and socioeconomic environment occur mainly indirectly, through mechanisms of accumulation of advantage ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.07.003", "ISSN" : "0277-9536", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Shen", "given" : "Ke", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zeng", "given" : "Yi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social Science & Medicine", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "page" : "207-214", "publisher" : "Elsevier Ltd", "title" : "Direct and indirect effects of childhood conditions on survival and health among male and female elderly in China", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "119" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12062-015-9127-x", "ISSN" : "1874-7884", "PMID" : "27069518", "abstract" : "The influence of early life, accumulation and social mobility on wellbeing in later life in the U.S. and England is investigated. Using cross-sectional data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) and the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA), we estimate multivariate regressions of hedonic and eudemonic measures of wellbeing on these life course mechanisms, controlling for age, gender, ethnic background, partnership status, health and wealth. On the level of the life course mechanisms, there is mixed evidence regarding the critical impact of early life, strong evidence for an association between accumulation and eudemonic wellbeing and a moderate negative effect of downward social mobility. While the relation between hedonic wellbeing and life course mechanisms is unclear or in a different direction than anticipated, eudemonic wellbeing is clearly related to accumulation and mobility in both countries and to early life in the U.S. On the societal level, the major observation is that the life course has a larger influence in the U.S. than in England.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vanhoutte", "given" : "Bram", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nazroo", "given" : "James", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of population ageing", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "157-177", "title" : "Life Course Pathways to Later Life Wellbeing: A Comparative Study of the Role of Socio-Economic Position in England and the U.S.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "9" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.socscimed.2003.08.028", "ISSN" : "0277-9536", "PMID" : "15047075", "abstract" : "A growing literature demonstrates life course influences on health in early old age. The present paper is the first to examine whether similar processes also influence quality of life in early old age. The question is theorised in terms of structured dependency and third age, and the life course pathways by which people arrive at these destinations in later life. The issues are investigated in a unique data set that contains health and life course information on some 300 individuals mostly aged 65-75 years, enhanced in 2000 by postal survey data on quality of life. Several types of life course effect are identified at conventional levels of statistical significance. Long-term influences on quality of life, however, are less marked than those on health. Quality of life in early old age appears to be influenced primarily by current contextual factors such as material circumstances and serious health problems, with the influence of the life course limited mostly to its shaping of an individual's circumstances in later life. The implication for policy is that disadvantage during childhood and adulthood does not preclude good quality of life in early old age.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Blane", "given" : "David B.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Higgs", "given" : "P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hyde", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wiggins", "given" : "Richard D.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social science & medicine (1982)", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "11", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004", "6" ] ] }, "page" : "2171-9", "title" : "Life course influences on quality of life in early old age.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "58" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-4", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12062-015-9132-0", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kendig", "given" : "Hal L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Loh", "given" : "Vanessa", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Loughlin", "given" : "Kate O", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Byles", "given" : "Julie", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nazroo", "given" : "James Y", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Population Ageing", "id" : "ITEM-4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "49-67", "title" : "Pathways to Well-Being in Later Life : Socioeconomic and Health Determinants Across the Life Course of Australian Baby Boomers", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "9" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Shen & Zeng 2014; Vanhoutte & Nazroo 2016; Blane et al. 2004; Kendig et al. 2016)", "manualFormatting" : "(Blane et al. 2004; Kendig et al. 2016; Shen & Zeng 2014; Vanhoutte & Nazroo 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Shen & Zeng 2014; Vanhoutte & Nazroo 2016; Blane et al. 2004; Kendig et al. 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Shen & Zeng 2014; Vanhoutte & Nazroo 2016; Blane et al. 2004; Kendig et al. 2016)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Blane et al. 2004; Kendig et al. 2016; Shen & Zeng 2014; Vanhoutte & Nazroo 2016). From a life course perspective on inequality, disadvantage means exposure to risk, while advantage means exposure to opportunity ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dannefer", "given" : "Dale", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Sociological Forum", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1987" ] ] }, "page" : "211-236", "title" : "Aging as intracohort differentiation: Accentuation, the Matthew effect, and the life course", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Dannefer 1987)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Dannefer 1987)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Dannefer 1987)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Dannefer 1987). These indirect pathways of selection to opportunities or risks are most straightforward in their effects on the labour market in the context of career opportunities. As stated earlier, migrants often possess skills and motivation that exceed those of the destination country’s population, which means they have the potential to outperform them ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Borjas", "given" : "GJ", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Economic Review", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1987" ] ] }, "page" : "531-553", "title" : "Self-selection and the earnings of immigrants", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "77" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Borjas 1987)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Borjas 1987)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Borjas 1987)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Borjas 1987). Early advantage can lead to steeper, more successful career paths, and better kinds of jobs with more prestige, which potentially provide more material wealth and less exposure to risk and occupational hazards. The mechanism of increasing inequalities building on initial disparities can help us trace the connection between selection and adaptation in migration processes. Selection establishes or reinforces the initial differences between migrants and the host population, while adaptation is a continuous taking stock of them. Understanding how these group differences enable opportunities or enhance risk exposure in the context of work for a given level of education, both of which are strong predictors of health and high wellbeing, is the core rationale for studying cumulative disadvantage in migrants.In the framework of this study, English migrants to Australia may have had a head start in comparison with Australian-born Australians, unlike many other groups of migrants. Arriving in a former colony, with its cultural compass firmly pointing towards England, gave English migrants access to privileged networks and positions ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jones", "given" : "Katharin W.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2001" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "304", "publisher" : "Temple Univeristy Press", "publisher-place" : "Philadelphia", "title" : "Accent on Privilege. English Identities and Anglophilia in the U.S.", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "", "", "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Jones 2001)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Jones 2001)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Jones 2001)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Jones 2001), even if they were perceived to be “whinging Poms” by Australians, complaining about the harder conditions and risks compared to the UK ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hammerton", "given" : "a James", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thomson", "given" : "Alistair", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Manchester University Press", "publisher-place" : "Manchester", "title" : "Ten pound Poms. Australia's invisible migrants", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "", "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hammerton & Thomson 2005)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hammerton & Thomson 2005)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hammerton & Thomson 2005)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Hammerton & Thomson 2005). As the majority of migrants found work in urban environments, heavy industry or mining projects, all occupational sectors with high job mobility and social promotion, it should be possible to trace differences in occupational mobility between migrants and Australians within social strata. In conclusion, studying processes of advantage can assist in understanding how selection at the time of migration, through initial differences with the host population, can lead to further group differences in later life even after many years of possible assimilation and adaptation. We expect English migrants to have arrived with an initial health and socioeconomic advantage over the Australian-born, due to positive selection, which should have been converted into higher job prestige over the life course, resulting in better health and wellbeing outcomes.2. Data and Methods2.1 DataWe combined two datasets focused on ageing, that were designed with cross-national comparisons in mind: the fifth wave of the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA; Steptoe, Breeze, Banks, & Nazroo, 2013) and the Australian Life Histories and Health (LHH) survey (Kendig et al., 2014), both collected in 2011. ELSA is a longitudinal study which used the Health Survey for England (Mindell et al., 2012) from 1998, 1999, and 2001 as a sampling frame for its first wave in 2002, together containing 16,983 eligible respondents aged 50 or over (Taylor, 2007). Of these eligible respondents, 11,392 took part in the survey resulting in an individual fieldwork response rate of 67% for wave 1 core members (Taylor, 2007). In the fifth wave, 8,982 respondents from this first cohort were eligible to be interviewed, of which 6,173 took part in the study, reflecting a study response rate (conditional on participation in wave one) of 69% (Blake et al., 2015). The individual response rate for first cohort respondents in wave 5, taking into account those who died or moved out of the UK during the course of the study, is 78%, with 6,477 productive interviews over 8,263 eligible respondents issued to the field (Blake et al., 2015). LHH was conducted as a sub-study of the Sax Institute’s 45 and Up Study, which used Australia's national public health insurance database (formerly Medicare Australia) as a sampling frame to recruit over 260,000 residents aged 45 years and older from the state of New South Wales (NSW), Australia (Banks et al., 2008). To be eligible for LHH, participants had to be born between 1947 and 1951, have completed the baseline 45 and Up questionnaire in 2008, but not taken part in a prior sub-study ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004476", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kendig", "given" : "Hal L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Byles", "given" : "Julie E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Loughlin", "given" : "Kate O", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nazroo", "given" : "James Y", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mishra", "given" : "Gita", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Noone", "given" : "Jack", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Loh", "given" : "Vanessa", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Forder", "given" : "Peta M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "BMJ Open", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "page" : "e004476", "title" : "Adapting data collection methods in the Australian Life Histories and Health Survey : a retrospective life course study", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "4" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Kendig et al. 2014)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Kendig et al. 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kendig et al. 2014)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Kendig et al. 2014). A stratified random sample of 2800 potential respondents who met these criteria was selected, with deliberate oversampling of participants born in England, to enable comparisons with ELSA, and oversampling of males to adjust for expected gender differences in participation; 1261 participants took part in the LHH survey, reflecting an overall response rate of 45%. An important difference between both surveys lies in the method used to collect data: ELSA is collected mainly through a face-to-face interview, with an additional self-completion paper questionnaire, while LHH was collected through a mail survey and telephone interview ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004476", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kendig", "given" : "Hal L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Byles", "given" : "Julie E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Loughlin", "given" : "Kate O", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nazroo", "given" : "James Y", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mishra", "given" : "Gita", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Noone", "given" : "Jack", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Loh", "given" : "Vanessa", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Forder", "given" : "Peta M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "BMJ Open", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "page" : "e004476", "title" : "Adapting data collection methods in the Australian Life Histories and Health Survey : a retrospective life course study", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "4" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Kendig et al. 2014)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Kendig et al. 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kendig et al. 2014)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Kendig et al. 2014). A second important difference between the studies is that ELSA is a national study focused on English people aged 50 and up, while LHH is a specific sub-sample of the early baby boomers born between 1947 and 1951 living in the state of New South Wales, Australia. However, the LHH sample has been shown to be broadly representative of the Australian population, with the exception of some over-representation of higher educated and professional classes ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004476", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kendig", "given" : "Hal L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Byles", "given" : "Julie E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Loughlin", "given" : "Kate O", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nazroo", "given" : "James Y", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mishra", "given" : "Gita", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Noone", "given" : "Jack", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Loh", "given" : "Vanessa", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Forder", "given" : "Peta M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "BMJ Open", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "page" : "e004476", "title" : "Adapting data collection methods in the Australian Life Histories and Health Survey : a retrospective life course study", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "4" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Kendig et al. 2014)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Kendig et al. 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kendig et al. 2014)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Kendig et al. 2014). To ensure our findings are robust to these sample selection biases, we used weights in all our analysis. To match the age range of the LHH cohort, only ELSA respondents (n=1139) born between 1947 and 1951 in England were included in this comparative analysis. The possibility of examining English migrants who returned to England, was investigated. Although 16 percent of the matched ELSA cohort reported residence outside of the UK during their lifetime, less than one percent had lived in Australia. We excluded participants in LHH who migrated before they were 18 years old (as we study adult migration), were born in the UK but not England (to ensure comparability with ELSA), or migrated after the year 2000 (to ensure the migration is not temporary and some adaptation has taken place), resulting in a sample of 1088 respondents (865 Australian-born, 223 English migrants). Most of the English migrants (70.0%) in the LHH sample migrated to Australia in early adulthood before the age of 30, compared to only eight percent who migrated after the age of 40. The historical timing of migration of our sample is important to understand life course effects, with about 70 percent of the migrants migrating between 1966 and 1980. 2.2 Outcome MeasuresThe main health and wellbeing outcomes assessed in both LHH and ELSA included measures of quality of life, mental health and physical health. Quality of life was measured using the validated 15-item version of the CASP-19 scale ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1080/1360786031000101157", "ISBN" : "1360786031", "ISSN" : "1360-7863", "PMID" : "12775399", "abstract" : "Quality of life is the subject of much research. However it lacks an agreed theoretical basis. In studies with older populations(ill) health has been used as a proxy measure for quality of life (QoL). We have developed a needs satisfaction measure of QoL in early old age. Our measure has four ontologically grounded domains: conal, autonomy, pleasure, and self-realization. The measure was piloted with focus groups, a self-completion pilot, and cognitive interview testing. This produced a 22-item scale that was included in a postal questionnaire and sent to 286 people aged 65-75 years.A 92% response rate was achieved. The scale was reduced to 19 items on the basis of statistical analysis. The domains have Cronbach's alphas between 0.6 and 0.8. Correlations between the four domains range from 0.4 to 0.7. A second order factor analysis revealed a single latent QoL factor. The scores for the 19-item scale are well distributed along the range although they exhibit a slight negative skew. Concurrent validity was assessed using the Life Satisfaction Index--wellbeing. A strong and positive association was found between the two scales (r= 0.6, p = 0.01). The CASP-19 appears to be a useful scale for measuring QoL in older people.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hyde", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wiggins", "given" : "Richard D.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Higgs", "given" : "Paul", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Blane", "given" : "David B.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Aging & mental health", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003", "5" ] ] }, "page" : "186-94", "title" : "A measure of quality of life in early old age: the theory, development and properties of a needs satisfaction model (CASP-19).", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "7" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12062-014-9092-9", "ISSN" : "1874-7884", "PMID" : "25089162", "abstract" : "Subjective well-being can be measured in different ways, depending on the conceptual perspective one adopts. Hedonic well-being, emphasising emotions and evaluation, is often contrasted with eudemonic well-being, stressing self-actualisation and autonomy. In this paper we investigate the background, structure and compatibility of empirical measures of hedonic and eudemonic well-being in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA). We use a confirmatory factor approach to investigate the internal of structure of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale (CES-D), Satisfaction with Life scale (SWLS) and CASP, a measure of quality of life in old age. In a second step, we examine the higher order structure of well-being using these measures. Next to highlighting specific issues about the structure of these measures in connection to older populations, we illustrate that a threefold structure, distinguishing affective, cognitive and eudemonic aspects of well-being, is more informative than the two dimensional hedonic and eudemonic well-being that is often propagated.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vanhoutte", "given" : "Bram", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of population ageing", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014", "1" ] ] }, "page" : "1-20", "title" : "The Multidimensional Structure of Subjective Well-Being In Later Life.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "7" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hyde et al. 2003; Vanhoutte 2014)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hyde et al. 2003; Vanhoutte 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hyde et al. 2003; Vanhoutte 2014)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Hyde et al. 2003; Vanhoutte 2014), while the shortened 8-item Centre for Epidemiologic Studies – Depression Scale (CES-D scale; ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Radloff", "given" : "L S", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Applied psychological measurement", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1977" ] ] }, "page" : "285-401", "title" : "The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "1" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Radloff 1977)", "manualFormatting" : "Radloff 1977; Steptoe, Demakakos et al. 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Radloff 1977)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Radloff 1977)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }Radloff 1977; Steptoe, Demakakos et al. 2012) was used as an indicator of poor mental health, and the 10-item physical function scale from the Short Form Health Survey (SF-36; ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ware", "given" : "JE", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kosinski", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Keller", "given" : "SD", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1994" ] ] }, "publisher" : "The Health Institute, New England Medical Centre", "publisher-place" : "Boston, MA", "title" : "SF-36 physical and mental health summary scales: A user's manual .", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Ware et al. 1994)", "manualFormatting" : "Ware et al. 1994)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Ware et al. 1994)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Ware et al. 1994)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }Ware et al. 1994) was used as an indicator of physical health limitations. Quality of life scores ranged from 6 to 45 (M =35.4, SD =7.3). Mental health scores from the CES-D ranged from 0 to 8 (M =1.3, SD =1.9), indicating the total number of depressive symptoms experienced in the past week. Given that about half the sample indicated having no functional physical or health limitations, physical health was scored as a binary variable where 0 = no physical limitations, and 1 = one or more physical limitations. 2.3 Retrospective Life Course MeasuresAs both the Australian and English survey populations were only contacted later in adulthood, data on earlier life course influences were collected retrospectively in both the LHH and ELSA studies. The measures included as explanatory variables in this analysis were chosen to reflect important health and social influences from different stages of the life course. Childhood health was assessed retrospectively with a single item asking ‘Would you say that your health during your childhood was excellent, very good, good, fair, or poor?’ Answers were recoded into a binary measure, with 1 indicating excellent, very or good health and 0 indicating fair or poor health. Social position in early adulthood was indicated by highest educational level (0 = high school or lower, 1 = certificate or diploma, 2 = degree or higher), which has been closely linked to migration selection. It is important to keep in mind that participation in secondary education was more common in Australia than in the UK in the period our cohort was attending school: about 38% of 16 year olds were attending school in Australia ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Burke", "given" : "G", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Spaull", "given" : "A.D.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "2001 Year Book Australia", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2001" ] ] }, "page" : "433-446", "publisher" : "Australian Bureau of Statistics", "publisher-place" : "Canberra, ACT", "title" : "Australian schools: participation and funding 1901 to 2000", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Burke & Spaull 2001)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Burke & Spaull 2001)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Burke & Spaull 2001)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Burke & Spaull 2001), compared to 25% in the UK ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bolton", "given" : "P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "number" : "SN/SG/4252", "number-of-pages" : "20", "title" : "Education: historical statistics", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Bolton 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Bolton 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Bolton 2012)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Bolton 2012). Social position in late adulthood was indicated by participants’ current subjective social status, partnership status and club membership. These three measures reflect two different types of resources (social status and social support) important for later life health and wellbeing. Subjective social status was measured by the MacArthur scale ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1037/0278-6133.19.6.613", "ISBN" : "0278-6133 (Print)\\r0278-6133 (Linking)", "ISSN" : "0278-6133", "PMID" : "11129365", "abstract" : "A new measure of subjective socioeconomic status (SES) was examined in relation to self-rated physical health in pregnant women. Except among African Americans, subjective SES was significantly related to education, household income, and occupation. Subjective SES was significantly related to self-rated health among all groups. In multiple regression analyses, subjective SES was a significant predictor of self-rated health after the effects of objective indicators were accounted for among White and Chinese American women; among African American women and Latinas, household income was the only significant predictor of self-rated health. After accounting for the effects of subjective SES on health, objective indicators made no additional contribution to explaining health among White and Chinese American women; household income continued to predict health after accounting for subjective SES among Latinas and African American women.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ostrove", "given" : "J M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Adler", "given" : "N E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kuppermann", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Washington", "given" : "a E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "page" : "613-618", "title" : "Objective and subjective assessments of socioeconomic status and their relationship to self-rated health in an ethnically diverse sample of pregnant women.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "19" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Ostrove et al. 2000)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Ostrove et al. 2000)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Ostrove et al. 2000)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Ostrove et al. 2000), which asks the respondent where they would rank themselves on the social ladder, and is a commonly used measure to look at social position in later life ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.038", "ISSN" : "0277-9536", "PMID" : "18440111", "abstract" : "Studies have suggested that subjective social status (SSS) is an important predictor of health. This study examined the link between SSS and health in old age and investigated whether SSS mediated the associations between objective indicators of socioeconomic status and health. It used cross-sectional data from the second wave (2004-2005) of the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing, which were collected through personal interviews and nurse visits. The study population consisted of 3368 men and 4065 women aged 52 years or older. The outcome measures included: self-rated health, long-standing illness, depression, hypertension, diabetes, central obesity, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, fibrinogen, and C-reactive protein. The main independent variable was SSS measured using a scale representing a 10-rung ladder. Wealth, education, and occupational class were employed as covariates along with age and marital status and also, in additional analyses, as the main independent variables. Gender-specific logistic and linear regression analyses were performed. In age-adjusted analyses SSS was related positively to almost all health outcomes. Many of these relationships remained significant after adjustment for covariates. In men, SSS was significantly (p<or=0.05) related to self-rated health, depression, and long-standing illness after adjustment for all covariates, while its association with fibrinogen became non-significant. In women, after adjusting for all covariates, SSS was significantly associated with self-rated health, depression, long-standing illness, diabetes, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, but its associations with central obesity and C-reactive protein became non-significant. Further analysis suggested that SSS mediated fully or partially the associations between education, occupational class and self-reported and clinical health measures. On the contrary, SSS did not mediate wealth's associations with the outcome measures, except those with self-reported health measures. Our results suggest that SSS is an important correlate of health in old age, possibly because of its ability to epitomize life-time achievement and socioeconomic status.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Demakakos", "given" : "Panayotes", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nazroo", "given" : "JY", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Breeze", "given" : "Elizabeth", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Marmot", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social science & medicine", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008", "7" ] ] }, "page" : "330-40", "title" : "Socioeconomic status and health: the role of subjective social status.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "67" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Demakakos et al. 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Demakakos et al. 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Demakakos et al. 2008)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Demakakos et al. 2008). Scores ranged from 0 to 10 (M =6.2, SD =1.7), with higher scores indicating higher social position. As a measure of social support, having a partner (0 = no, 1 = yes) can be an important resource when coping with the stresses of later life ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISSN" : "0033-2909", "PMID" : "3901065", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Cohen", "given" : "S", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wills", "given" : "T a", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Psychological bulletin", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1985", "9" ] ] }, "page" : "310-57", "title" : "Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "98" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Cohen & Wills 1985)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Cohen & Wills 1985)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Cohen & Wills 1985)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Cohen & Wills 1985). Club membership can help us understand how sociability and social connections beyond having a partner might contribute to later life health and wellbeing ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1017/S0144686X14001561", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jivraj", "given" : "Stephen", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nazroo", "given" : "James", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Barnes", "given" : "Matt", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Ageing and Society", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "924-945", "title" : "Short- and long-term determinants of social detachment in later life Short- and long-term determinants of social detachment in later life", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "36" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Jivraj et al. 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Jivraj et al. 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Jivraj et al. 2016)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Jivraj et al. 2016). Table 1 below lists the descriptive statistics of both outcome and explanatory variables by group. There were significant group differences in physical health limitations and quality of life, but not in the number of depressive symptoms. Self-rated health as a child did not significantly differ between the three cohorts, but all the other explanatory variables did. Interestingly, English non-migrants had the greatest proportion of people with either the highest or lowest educational qualifications, while English migrants had the highest proportion of certificate and diploma qualifications, though this was similar to the Australian-born cohort. In terms of their current situation, English non-migrants have a lower subjective social status, and lower levels of club membership. Australian-born are more likely to be partnered and be a member of a club, while English migrants have the highest subjective social status, and are least likely to be partnered. ***Table 1 about here***2.4 Methods A three-step analytic approach was used to examine how the processes of selection, adaptation and accumulation might affect health and wellbeing in later life.Selection The first step was to establish whether there were selection differences at the time of migration between English migrants to Australia and English non-migrants on the one hand, and Australian-born Australians on the other hand. To do so, we examined whether information valid at the time of migration, such as age, gender, level of education, and childhood health can predict group membership in a multinomial logistic regression. This will establish which characteristics played a role in the selection for migration as well as clarify the position of English migrants in comparison to Australians when they arrived. AdaptationThe second step aimed to explain current differences in later life health outcomes between the three different cohorts (Australian-born Australians, English migrants and English non-migrants) by investigating the relative importance of early life, education and current economic and social circumstances for the three separate outcomes: quality of life, mental health (depressive symptoms), and physical function. This allows us to investigate to what extent adaptation, in the form of current life circumstances, influences the advantage in terms of health and wellbeing established earlier in the life course. Each outcome was assessed separately using a series of multiple linear or logistic regressions. Model 1 for each outcome examined group differences in age and gender. Controlling for age and group differences, each consecutive model examines (a set of) variables related to a specific life phase, respectively childhood circumstances (Model 2), educational achievement (Model 3) and current circumstances (Model 4). In the final model (Model 5), all predictors were entered simultaneously to examine the unique contribution of each variable.AdvantageThe third step was to examine whether there was evidence of advantage by looking at mid-life differences between English migrants and Australians. Given the generally cumulative nature of occupational prestige and work trajectories, cohort differences in occupational prestige of participants’ main job were examined, within educational strata, using the Australian socioeconomic index (AUSEI06) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1177/1440783309103342", "ISBN" : "1440-7833", "ISSN" : "1440-7833", "abstract" : "This article provides an overview of the development of a new occupational status scale, the Australian Socioeconomic Index 2006 (AUSEI06). This is the latest in the series of ANU scales, which since 1965 have provided a means for researchers to convert data coded in accordance with official occupational classifications into occupational status scores. The ANU scales have been widely used in fields such as sociology, education, economics and health. The new scale has been developed in response to the introduction of the Australian and New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations (ANZSCO) by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Recent changes in the structure of the labour market are taken into account through the use of 2006 Australian Census data for scale development. In addition, the naming convention of the scale has been revised in order to better reflect its nature: the Australian (AU) Socioeconomic Index (SEI) 2006 (06) or AUSEI06.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McMillan", "given" : "J.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Beavis", "given" : "a.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jones", "given" : "F. L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Sociology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "123-149", "title" : "The AUSEI06: A new socioeconomic index for Australia", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "45" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(McMillan et al. 2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(McMillan et al. 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(McMillan et al. 2009)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(McMillan et al. 2009). This data was only available for English migrants and Australians from the LHH sample. 3. Results 3.1 SelectionThe results of the multinomial logistic regression presented in Table 2 shows that compared to the English non-migrants (who stayed in England), English migrants to Australia were born slightly later and tended to be better educated, but were no different in terms of gender and childhood health. This suggests a social selection of the educated rather than a health selection of English migrants to Australia. A second point worth noting is that the English with a certificate or diploma were more likely to migrate, but not those with a degree. This underlines the non-linear relation between education and emigration, with only a specific level of education leading to higher chances of migration. The only significant difference between English migrants and Australian-born Australians is that English migrants are more likely to be female.***Table 2 about here***3.2 Adaptation The results from our regression analysis of quality of life (Table 3) show that quality of life of English migrants is higher than that of both Australians and English non-migrants (Model 1). This advantage remains when controlling for early life circumstances (Model 2), education (Model 3), current circumstances (Model 4), and all of these together in the final model (Model 5). The difference with the English non-migrants who remained in England shrinks substantially when current circumstances are included in the model (Models 4 and 5), suggesting that this may be an important explanatory factor for differences in quality of life. Across the three cohorts, the influence of early life circumstances and education diminishes when current measures are included in the final model. This suggests an indirect pathway from favourable childhood circumstances and better education to higher social status in midlife as a plausible life course mechanism leading to better quality of life. ***Table 3, 4 and 5 about here***The prevalence of depressive symptoms did not differ significantly between the three cohorts (see Table 4). While gender and education were significant predictors when entered separately (Models 2 and 3), only early life and current circumstances remained significant in the final model, though the effect of early life was slightly attenuated. Using (zero-inflated) poisson regression, to account for the non-normal distribution of CES-D, yielded substantively similar, but slightly weaker associations. Consistent with other literature ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISSN" : "0882-7974", "PMID" : "10879576", "abstract" : "Meta-analysis is used to synthesize findings from 286 empirical studies on the association of socioeconomic status (SES), social network, and competence with subjective well-being (SWB) in the elderly. All three aspects of life circumstances are positively associated with SWB. Income is correlated more strongly with well-being than is education. The quality of social contacts shows stronger associations with SWB than does the quantity of social contacts. Whereas having contact with friends is more strongly related to SWB than having contact with adult children, there are higher associations between life satisfaction and quality of contact with adult children when compared with quality of friendships. Moderating influences of gender and age on the effects of SES, social network, and competence on SWB are also investigated.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pinquart", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "S\u00f6rensen", "given" : "S", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Psychology and aging", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000", "6" ] ] }, "page" : "187-224", "title" : "Influences of socioeconomic status, social network, and competence on subjective well-being in later life: a meta-analysis.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "15" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Pinquart & S\u00f6rensen 2000)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Pinquart & S\u00f6rensen 2000)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Pinquart & S\u00f6rensen 2000)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Pinquart & S?rensen 2000), it appears that differences in current social status and partnership mediate gender, early life, and educational differences.Table 5 shows the analysis investigating physical health in later life. Compared to English migrants, Australians are more likely to report having one or more physical function limitations. This difference is not attenuated when controlling for possible other influences across the models. Similarly, gender, childhood health and education were all significant predictors of physical health limitations when analysed either separately or simultaneously in the final model. Subjective social status has a non-linear association with physical health in the full model: while middle social status was related to fewer limitations than low social status, high social status was not.The fact that the association between social status and physical health weakens in the full model suggests the role of current circumstances in later life health is partly determined by earlier segments of the life course, such as education. Except for mental health, for which host and origin society have similar levels, English migrants have not adapted to the Australian-born levels of quality of life and physical health, so that their “migrant effect” has not attenuated. 3.3 Advantage The third step in our analysis explores differences in occupational prestige between English migrants and Australians by educational level, as an examination of cumulative advantage. ***Figure 1 about here***Compared to English migrants, Australians scored significantly lower in occupational prestige (50.3 v. 55.4, t(1081)=-2.8, p=.006). Further investigation stratified by educational level (Figure 1) illustrates that this is mainly true for the least educated groups. While differences are absent for middle and high educational levels, in the lowest educational group the English migrants tend to have been working in positions with more societal prestige than the Australian-born (49.8 v. 42.1, t(266)=-2.6, p=.012). Supporting our hypothesis of cumulative mid-life differences in occupational class between English migrants and Australians, English migrants were less likely than Australian-born Australians to report having had a paid job for six months or more that involved doing heavy labour or physically demanding work (22.9% v. 30.0%, χ2 = 4.43, p = .035), workplace danger or injury risk (22.3% v. 33.3%, χ2 = 10.07, p = .002), leaving the job because of ill health or disability (4.5% vs. 11.5%, χ2 = 9.58, p = .002), or feeling that their health had been affected by their job (7.2% v. 18.8%, χ2 = 17.34, p < .001). It is possible that the cumulative effects of these occupational differences may lay at the basis of the later life differences in physical limitations between the English migrants and Australian-born. 4. Discussion and conclusionsThis study has investigated how three interrelating mechanisms connected to migration - selection, adaptation and cumulative advantage - can help in understanding how health and wellbeing of adult migrants differs from that of their counterparts in their host country as well as their country of origin. The first section of results suggests that selection at time of migration was based on social rather than health criteria, with educational level rather than childhood health being a significant early life predictor of migration to Australia. An important caveat here is that childhood health is retrospectively reported, and biases in this reporting might vary between migrants and non-migrants. The fact that we see a specific level of education, having a certificate or diploma, associated with migration, rather than higher levels of education leading to higher chances of migration, reinforces the social selection interpretation. Aspiring middle classes, with an above average level of education for English standards, were more likely to emigrate, in line with the demographic evidence from the period of peak migration ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Appleyard", "given" : "R T", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1964" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "255", "publisher" : "Australian National University Press", "publisher-place" : "Canberra", "title" : "British Emigration to Australia", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Appleyard 1964)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Appleyard 1964)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Appleyard 1964)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Appleyard 1964). The higher educated English elite might have seen more risks than benefits associated with migration, while those with a lower educational level might not have possessed the necessary resources to build up a new life in Australia. We stress that education should be seen as a relative rather than absolute selection criterion: English migrants lost their educational advantage when arriving in Australia, as average levels of education for Australian born participants were higher. A limitation of our study is that only “successful” migrants are observed, which reflects the ‘salmon bias’, and that we cannot investigate experiences during the substantial period between migration and observation of outcomes. While the literature on English immigration to Australia does suggest substantial return migration, as well as re-emigration ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Appleyard", "given" : "R T", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1964" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "255", "publisher" : "Australian National University Press", "publisher-place" : "Canberra", "title" : "British Emigration to Australia", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Richardson", "given" : "Alan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1974" ] ] }, "publisher" : "ANU Press", "publisher-place" : "Canberra, ACT", "title" : "British Immigrants and Australia: a Psycho-social inquiry", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hugo", "given" : "Graeme", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1994" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Australian Government Publishing Service", "publisher-place" : "Canberra, ACT", "title" : "The economic implications of emigration from Australia", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-4", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hammerton", "given" : "a James", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thomson", "given" : "Alistair", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Manchester University Press", "publisher-place" : "Manchester", "title" : "Ten pound Poms. Australia's invisible migrants", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Appleyard 1964; Richardson 1974; Hugo 1994; Hammerton & Thomson 2005)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Appleyard 1964; Richardson 1974; Hugo 1994; Hammerton & Thomson 2005)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Appleyard 1964; Richardson 1974; Hugo 1994; Hammerton & Thomson 2005)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Appleyard 1964; Richardson 1974; Hugo 1994; Hammerton & Thomson 2005), our representative sample of baby boomers living in England shows little evidence of return migration from Australia to England, with less than one percent reporting having lived in Australia for at least 6 months. This is consistent with findings from empirical studies of return migration that suggest that “salmon bias” is too weak to substantially alter the size and direction of selection effects ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.11.040", "ISSN" : "1873-5347", "PMID" : "24565140", "abstract" : "The existing literature has often underscored the \"healthy migrant\" effect and the \"salmon bias\" in understanding the health of migrants. Nevertheless, direct evidence for these two hypotheses, particularly the \"salmon bias,\" is limited. Using data from a national longitudinal survey conducted between 2003 and 2007 in China, we provide tests of these hypotheses in the case of internal migration in China. To examine the healthy migrant effect, we study how pre-migration self-reported health is associated with an individual's decision to migrate and the distance of migration. To test the salmon bias hypothesis, we compare the self-reported health of migrants who stay in destinations and who return or move closer to home villages. The results provide support for both hypotheses. Specifically, healthier individuals are more likely to migrate and to move further away from home. Among migrants, those with poorer health are more likely to return or to move closer to their origin communities.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lu", "given" : "Yao", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Qin", "given" : "Lijian", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social science & medicine (1982)", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014", "2" ] ] }, "page" : "41-8", "publisher" : "Elsevier Ltd", "title" : "Healthy migrant and salmon bias hypotheses: a study of health and internal migration in China.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "102" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s11113-008-9087-4", "ISSN" : "0167-5923", "PMID" : "19122882", "abstract" : "A great deal of research has focused on factors that may contribute to the Hispanic mortality paradox in the United States. In this paper, we examine the role of the salmon bias hypothesis - the selective return of less-healthy Hispanics to their country of birth - on mortality at ages 65 and above. These analyses are based on data drawn from the Master Beneficiary Record and NUMIDENT data files of the Social Security Administration. These data provide the first direct evidence regarding the effect of salmon bias on the Hispanic mortality advantage. Although we confirm the existence of salmon bias, it is of too small a magnitude to be a primary explanation for the lower mortality of Hispanic than NH white primary social security beneficiaries. Longitudinal surveys that follow individuals in and out of the United States are needed to further explore the role of migration in the health and mortality of foreign-born US residents and factors that contribute to the Hispanic mortality paradox.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Turra", "given" : "Cassio M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Elo", "given" : "Irma T", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Population research and policy review", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008", "1" ] ] }, "page" : "515-530", "title" : "The Impact of Salmon Bias on the Hispanic Mortality Advantage: New Evidence from Social Security Data.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "27" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Abraido-Lanza", "given" : "AF", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American journal of public health", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "10", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1999" ] ] }, "page" : "1543-1548", "title" : "The Latino mortality paradox: a test of the\" salmon bias\" and healthy migrant hypotheses.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "89" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Lu & Qin 2014; Turra & Elo 2008; Abraido-Lanza 1999)", "manualFormatting" : "(Abraido-Lanza 1999; Lu & Qin 2014; Turra & Elo 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Lu & Qin 2014; Turra & Elo 2008; Abraido-Lanza 1999)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Lu & Qin 2014; Turra & Elo 2008; Abraido-Lanza 1999)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Abraido-Lanza 1999; Lu & Qin 2014; Turra & Elo 2008). In a second step we investigated to which extent English migrants have adapted to Australian levels of later life quality of life, mental health and physical function. By examining if group differences in later life exist, and if they can be explained by factors operating at different stages of the life course, we place adaptation in contrast with the early life selection mechanism. Differences between English migrants, non-migrants and Australians were found in terms of subjective quality of life and physical function limitations, and remained after controlling for all covariates; however, no differences were found in terms of depressive symptoms. The latter finding is consistent with prior epidemiological research ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/S0165-0327(02)00040-X", "ISBN" : "01650327", "ISSN" : "01650327", "PMID" : "12798255", "abstract" : "Background: Community surveys have reported prevalence of depressive disorders in adult populations since the 1970s. Until recently, no epidemiological studies of the same magnitude have been conducted to provide a profile of the adult population in Australia. This study examines the current (30-day) prevalence and correlates of major depression in the adult Australian population using data from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-being, and compares the results with other national studies. Methods: Data were derived from a national sample of 10 641 people 18-75+ years of age surveyed using the computerised version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview Version 2.1. Results: The overall weighted prevalence of current (30-day) major depression was 3.2% with the highest rate (5.2%) being found in females in mid life. This rate is between those of the USA National Comorbidity Survey and the Epidemiological Catchment Area study, and similar to the British Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. The strongest correlates for reported current major depression include being unemployed, smoking, having a medical condition, followed by being in mid life, previously married, and female. Living with a partner and drinking 1 to 2 glasses of alcohol per day were least correlated. Some correlates of major depression relate to social disadvantage and lifestyle issues. Limitations: The study design does not allow definition of direction of causality. Conclusion: Lowering the prevalence rate of major depression will require close attention to public health approaches to address the relationships between smoking, social isolation, poor health, mood and physical well-being. The best focus for this approach may be primary care settings. \u00a9 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wilhelm", "given" : "Kay", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mitchell", "given" : "Philip", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Slade", "given" : "Tim", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Brownhill", "given" : "Suzanne", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Andrews", "given" : "Gavin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Affective Disorders", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "page" : "155-162", "title" : "Prevalence and correlates of DSM-IV major depression in an Australian national survey", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "75" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Wilhelm et al. 2003)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Wilhelm et al. 2003)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Wilhelm et al. 2003)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Wilhelm et al. 2003), which finds no differences in depressive symptoms between England and Australia. English migrants reported significantly higher quality of life than both English non-migrants and Australians, being closer to their fellow Australians than to the English. The strongest explanatory factor was current circumstances, which substantially weakened associations with earlier aspects of the life course. In line with recent studies ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1186/1471-2458-12-628", "ISSN" : "1471-2458", "PMID" : "22873945", "abstract" : "ABSTRACT:", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Niedzwiedz", "given" : "Claire L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "V", "family" : "Katikireddi", "given" : "Srinivasa", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pell", "given" : "Jill P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mitchell", "given" : "Richard", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "BMC public health", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012", "1" ] ] }, "page" : "628", "publisher" : "BMC Public Health", "title" : "Life course socio-economic position and quality of life in adulthood: a systematic review of life course models.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "12" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12062-015-9127-x", "ISSN" : "1874-7884", "PMID" : "27069518", "abstract" : "The influence of early life, accumulation and social mobility on wellbeing in later life in the U.S. and England is investigated. Using cross-sectional data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) and the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA), we estimate multivariate regressions of hedonic and eudemonic measures of wellbeing on these life course mechanisms, controlling for age, gender, ethnic background, partnership status, health and wealth. On the level of the life course mechanisms, there is mixed evidence regarding the critical impact of early life, strong evidence for an association between accumulation and eudemonic wellbeing and a moderate negative effect of downward social mobility. While the relation between hedonic wellbeing and life course mechanisms is unclear or in a different direction than anticipated, eudemonic wellbeing is clearly related to accumulation and mobility in both countries and to early life in the U.S. On the societal level, the major observation is that the life course has a larger influence in the U.S. than in England.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vanhoutte", "given" : "Bram", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nazroo", "given" : "James", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of population ageing", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "157-177", "title" : "Life Course Pathways to Later Life Wellbeing: A Comparative Study of the Role of Socio-Economic Position in England and the U.S.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "9" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s12062-015-9132-0", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kendig", "given" : "Hal L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Loh", "given" : "Vanessa", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Loughlin", "given" : "Kate O", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Byles", "given" : "Julie", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nazroo", "given" : "James Y", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Population Ageing", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "49-67", "title" : "Pathways to Well-Being in Later Life : Socioeconomic and Health Determinants Across the Life Course of Australian Baby Boomers", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "9" }, "uris" : [ "", "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Niedzwiedz et al. 2012; Vanhoutte & Nazroo 2016; Kendig et al. 2016)", "manualFormatting" : "(Kendig et al. 2016; Niedzwiedz et al. 2012; Vanhoutte & Nazroo 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Niedzwiedz et al. 2012; Vanhoutte & Nazroo 2016; Kendig et al. 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Niedzwiedz et al. 2012; Vanhoutte & Nazroo 2016; Kendig et al. 2016)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Kendig et al. 2016; Niedzwiedz et al. 2012; Vanhoutte & Nazroo 2016), this suggests a life course pathway to quality of life might be operating from good early life circumstances, through higher educational achievement, resulting in higher subjective social status, which translates into higher quality of life. English migrants had better physical function than Australians, on a similar level as English non-migrants. Childhood health, educational level and subjective social status all had strong independent associations with later life physical function. The substantial effects of different life course episodes suggest a series of cumulative ‘insults’ as well as protective factors could be at play in later life physical function, with exposure to risk in each life phase having a broadly independent effect ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ben-shlomo", "given" : "Yoav", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kuh", "given" : "Diana", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International journal of epidemiology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2002" ] ] }, "page" : "285-293", "title" : "A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology : conceptual models , empirical challenges and interdisciplinary perspectives", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "31" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1093/ije/dyh224", "ISBN" : "0300-5771 (Print)\\n0300-5771 (Linking)", "ISSN" : "03005771", "PMID" : "15256527", "abstract" : "BACKGROUND: Recent research in social epidemiology has established the importance of considering the accumulation of advantage and disadvantage across the life course when examining adult health outcomes. This paper examines (1) accumulation across trichotomous categories of socioeconomic position (SEP), and (2) accumulation in analysis stratified by adult SEP. METHODS: Data are from the Whitehall II study. Each participant was categorized as having high (0), intermediate (1), or low (2) SEP at three time points in the life course, leading to 27 socioeconomic trajectories. These trajectories were summarized to yield a scale ranging from 0 (high SEP at all three time points) to 6 (low SEP at all three time points). Logistic regression was used to examine odds of incident coronary heart disease (CHD), poor mental and physical functioning, and minor psychiatric disorder. RESULTS: There was a graded linear relationship between accumulation of socioeconomic exposure and health. Men with a score of 6 had increased odds of CHD (2.53, 95% CI: 1.3, 5.1), poor physical functioning (2.19, 95% CI: 1.4, 4.1), and poor mental functioning (2.60, 95% CI: 1.4, 4.9) compared with men with a score of 0. In women there was an accumulation effect for CHD and physical functioning. No cumulative effect of SEP on minor psychiatric disorder was observed. The effects of accumulation were weaker in analyses stratified by adult SEP, with early deprivation followed by high adult SEP particularly detrimental for CHD. CONCLUSIONS: The health effects of socioeconomic disadvantage accumulate over the life course. In addition to accumulation effects, analysis stratified by adult SEP also provided support for the critical period and the pathway model.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Singh-Manoux", "given" : "Archana", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ferrie", "given" : "Jane E.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Chandola", "given" : "Tarani", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Marmot", "given" : "Michael", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Journal of Epidemiology", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004", "10" ] ] }, "page" : "1072-1079", "title" : "Socioeconomic trajectories across the life course and health outcomes in midlife: Evidence for the accumulation hypothesis?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "33" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Ben-shlomo & Kuh 2002; Singh-Manoux et al. 2004)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Ben-shlomo & Kuh 2002; Singh-Manoux et al. 2004)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Ben-shlomo & Kuh 2002; Singh-Manoux et al. 2004)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Ben-shlomo & Kuh 2002; Singh-Manoux et al. 2004). In line with the literature ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Abraido-Lanza", "given" : "AF", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American journal of public health", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "10", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1999" ] ] }, "page" : "1543-1548", "title" : "The Latino mortality paradox: a test of the\" salmon bias\" and healthy migrant hypotheses.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "89" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.11.040", "ISSN" : "1873-5347", "PMID" : "24565140", "abstract" : "The existing literature has often underscored the \"healthy migrant\" effect and the \"salmon bias\" in understanding the health of migrants. Nevertheless, direct evidence for these two hypotheses, particularly the \"salmon bias,\" is limited. Using data from a national longitudinal survey conducted between 2003 and 2007 in China, we provide tests of these hypotheses in the case of internal migration in China. To examine the healthy migrant effect, we study how pre-migration self-reported health is associated with an individual's decision to migrate and the distance of migration. To test the salmon bias hypothesis, we compare the self-reported health of migrants who stay in destinations and who return or move closer to home villages. The results provide support for both hypotheses. Specifically, healthier individuals are more likely to migrate and to move further away from home. Among migrants, those with poorer health are more likely to return or to move closer to their origin communities.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lu", "given" : "Yao", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Qin", "given" : "Lijian", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social science & medicine (1982)", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014", "2" ] ] }, "page" : "41-8", "publisher" : "Elsevier Ltd", "title" : "Healthy migrant and salmon bias hypotheses: a study of health and internal migration in China.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "102" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1111/tmi.12610", "ISSN" : "13602276", "PMID" : "26426523", "abstract" : "OBJECTIVE: Firstly, to map out and compare all-cause and cause-specific mortality patterns by migrant background in Belgium; and secondly, to probe into explanations for the observed patterns, more specifically into the healthy-migrant, acculturation and the migration-as-rapid-health-transition theories. METHODS: Data comprise individually linked Belgian census-mortality follow-up data for the period 2001-2011. All official inhabitants aged 25-54 at time of the census were included. To delve into the different explanations, differences in all-cause and chronic- and infectious-disease mortality were estimated using Poisson regression models, adjusted for age, socioeconomic position and urbanicity. RESULTS: First-generation immigrants have lower all-cause and chronic-disease mortality than the host population. This mortality advantage wears off with length of stay and is more marked among non-Western than Western first-generation immigrants. For example, Western and non-Western male immigrants residing 10 years or more in Belgium have a mortality rate ratio for cardiovascular disease of 0.72 (95% CI 0.66-0.78) and 0.59 (95% CI 0.53-0.66), respectively (vs host population). The pattern of infectious-disease mortality in migrants is slightly different, with rather high mortality rates in first-generation sub-Saharan Africans and rather low rates in all other immigrant groups. As for second-generation immigrants, the picture is gloomier, with a mortality disadvantage that disappears after control for socioeconomic position. CONCLUSION: Findings are largely consistent with the healthy-migrant, acculturation and the migration-as-rapid-health-transition theories. The convergence of the mortality profile of second-generation immigrants towards that of the host population with similar socioeconomic position indicates the need for policies simultaneously addressing different areas of deprivation.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vandenheede", "given" : "Hadewijch", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Willaert", "given" : "Didier", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Grande", "given" : "Hannelore", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Simoens", "given" : "Steven", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vanroelen", "given" : "Christophe", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Tropical Medicine & International Health", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "12", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015", "12" ] ] }, "page" : "1832-1845", "title" : "Mortality in adult immigrants in the 2000s in Belgium: a test of the \u2018healthy-migrant\u2019 and the \u2018migration-as-rapid-health-transition\u2019 hypotheses", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Abraido-Lanza 1999; Lu & Qin 2014; Vandenheede et al. 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Abraido-Lanza 1999; Lu & Qin 2014; Vandenheede et al. 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Abraido-Lanza 1999; Lu & Qin 2014; Vandenheede et al. 2015)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Abraido-Lanza 1999; Lu & Qin 2014; Vandenheede et al. 2015) our findings confirm the “healthy migrant” hypothesis, although the results from the analysis on selection suggests this may be due to social rather than health selection at time of migration. While the healthy migrant effect has been observed to diminish over time ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1111/tmi.12610", "ISSN" : "13602276", "PMID" : "26426523", "abstract" : "OBJECTIVE: Firstly, to map out and compare all-cause and cause-specific mortality patterns by migrant background in Belgium; and secondly, to probe into explanations for the observed patterns, more specifically into the healthy-migrant, acculturation and the migration-as-rapid-health-transition theories. METHODS: Data comprise individually linked Belgian census-mortality follow-up data for the period 2001-2011. All official inhabitants aged 25-54 at time of the census were included. To delve into the different explanations, differences in all-cause and chronic- and infectious-disease mortality were estimated using Poisson regression models, adjusted for age, socioeconomic position and urbanicity. RESULTS: First-generation immigrants have lower all-cause and chronic-disease mortality than the host population. This mortality advantage wears off with length of stay and is more marked among non-Western than Western first-generation immigrants. For example, Western and non-Western male immigrants residing 10 years or more in Belgium have a mortality rate ratio for cardiovascular disease of 0.72 (95% CI 0.66-0.78) and 0.59 (95% CI 0.53-0.66), respectively (vs host population). The pattern of infectious-disease mortality in migrants is slightly different, with rather high mortality rates in first-generation sub-Saharan Africans and rather low rates in all other immigrant groups. As for second-generation immigrants, the picture is gloomier, with a mortality disadvantage that disappears after control for socioeconomic position. CONCLUSION: Findings are largely consistent with the healthy-migrant, acculturation and the migration-as-rapid-health-transition theories. The convergence of the mortality profile of second-generation immigrants towards that of the host population with similar socioeconomic position indicates the need for policies simultaneously addressing different areas of deprivation.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vandenheede", "given" : "Hadewijch", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Willaert", "given" : "Didier", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Grande", "given" : "Hannelore", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Simoens", "given" : "Steven", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vanroelen", "given" : "Christophe", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Tropical Medicine & International Health", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "12", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015", "12" ] ] }, "page" : "1832-1845", "title" : "Mortality in adult immigrants in the 2000s in Belgium: a test of the \u2018healthy-migrant\u2019 and the \u2018migration-as-rapid-health-transition\u2019 hypotheses", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s11113-008-9087-4", "ISSN" : "0167-5923", "PMID" : "19122882", "abstract" : "A great deal of research has focused on factors that may contribute to the Hispanic mortality paradox in the United States. In this paper, we examine the role of the salmon bias hypothesis - the selective return of less-healthy Hispanics to their country of birth - on mortality at ages 65 and above. These analyses are based on data drawn from the Master Beneficiary Record and NUMIDENT data files of the Social Security Administration. These data provide the first direct evidence regarding the effect of salmon bias on the Hispanic mortality advantage. Although we confirm the existence of salmon bias, it is of too small a magnitude to be a primary explanation for the lower mortality of Hispanic than NH white primary social security beneficiaries. Longitudinal surveys that follow individuals in and out of the United States are needed to further explore the role of migration in the health and mortality of foreign-born US residents and factors that contribute to the Hispanic mortality paradox.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Turra", "given" : "Cassio M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Elo", "given" : "Irma T", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Population research and policy review", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008", "1" ] ] }, "page" : "515-530", "title" : "The Impact of Salmon Bias on the Hispanic Mortality Advantage: New Evidence from Social Security Data.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "27" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Vandenheede et al. 2015; Turra & Elo 2008)", "manualFormatting" : "(Turra & Elo 2008; Vandenheede et al. 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Vandenheede et al. 2015; Turra & Elo 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Vandenheede et al. 2015; Turra & Elo 2008)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Turra & Elo 2008; Vandenheede et al. 2015), it is remarkable that it is still noticeable in a cohort which migrated on average 34 years ago. The third step of our analysis used data only available for Australians and English migrants to explore the nature of cumulative advantage, by investigating differences in occupational prestige between both groups. English migrants tended to have relatively higher prestige jobs than Australians, particularly among those with lower levels of education. Given that jobs requiring only minimal levels of education provide less income, as well as being most risky in terms of occupational hazards, it is plausible that the more prestigious career paths of English migrants may play a role both in their higher subjective quality of life and lower physical health limitations relative to Australians. One possible explanation is that English with specific skill sets were encouraged to migrate in order to fill particular gaps in the labour market ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hammerton", "given" : "a James", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thomson", "given" : "Alistair", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Manchester University Press", "publisher-place" : "Manchester", "title" : "Ten pound Poms. Australia's invisible migrants", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hammerton & Thomson 2005)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hammerton & Thomson 2005)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hammerton & Thomson 2005)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Hammerton & Thomson 2005). A second possibility is that English migrants benefitted from positive bias, in a combination of white privilege (compared to other European migrants) and general Anglophilia in Australia, which allowed them to climb the social ladder faster ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jones", "given" : "Katharin W.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2001" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "304", "publisher" : "Temple Univeristy Press", "publisher-place" : "Philadelphia", "title" : "Accent on Privilege. English Identities and Anglophilia in the U.S.", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Jones 2001)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Jones 2001)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Jones 2001)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Jones 2001). These initial advantages over time developed into substantially better career paths, as we have shown. One of the more important limitations of our study is that the English migrant sample is too small to explore interactions in detail. Specifically investigating how gender affects the mechanisms found would be very relevant. In addition, our analysis is limited by the available comparable information in both surveys, and future comparative research would benefit from examining a broader array of variables from each life stage. As we use retrospective data, it is possible that bias in childhood health reporting does not fully account for childhood health circumstances.The added value of this study is that it illustrates the relevance of examining migration from a life course perspective, investigating health and wellbeing in later life according to the exposure to different country contexts at distinct life stages. A further contribution is that it demonstrates how multiple datasets can be combined in innovative ways to answer questions and enable cross-national comparisons that would be difficult to examine with a single primary data source. Our study opens up some broader points of discussion about the health effects of migration, as we examined the specific migration from England to Australia under the ‘White Australia’ policy and its aftermath. The complicated intertwining of selection, adaptation and cumulative (dis)advantage shaped the life course of English migrants to Australia and defines the extent to which their later life health differs from those who remained in England and their Australian-born counterparts. We illustrate that migrants are not necessarily caught between catching up with the host society and distancing themselves from their country of origin, but that it is possible to adopt the best characteristics of both worlds. 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