MNG 112: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION



MNG 112: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

STUDENT NOTES 9

WORKING IN TEAMS

GENERAL

Today we look at working in teams. By now you would have realized that working with others is a vital part of every job, which will always pose communication challenges.

Robert Reich in his book Tales of a New America, describes the importance of teamwork in an increasingly technological age:

Rarely do even Big Ideas emerge any longer from the solitary labours of genius. “Modern science and technology is too complicated for one brain. It requires groups of astronomers, physicists, and computer programmers to discover new dimensions of the universe: teams of microbiologists, oncologists, and chemists to unravel the mysteries of cancer. With ever more frequency, Nobel prizes are awarded to collections of people. Scientific papers are authored by platoon of researchers.”

No matter how brilliant you are, being a solo player is not an option in today’s business world. Gary Kaplan (Owner of a California recruiting firm):

“The single combat warrior, that bright and purposeful worker, tends to suck up a lot of oxygen in an organization. And now they’re often seen as too innovative and too difficult.”

Even though groups can be effective that does not mean they will always succeed. Some are monumental time wasters and others produce poor results.

So far in this course every lesson we looked at covered fundamental communication skills needed in the work environment. These will always be useful, but there are special characteristics that distinguish communication in groups. In this lesson we will learn about some, and how to apply them when you work in groups and teams.

A well conceived and managed work group has several advantages over the same number of individuals working alone. These include:

a. Greater productivity. The old saying “two heads are better than one”

still holds true. Well conceived and efficiently operating groups produce more

solutions than individuals working alone.

b. Greater accuracy. A group of people working together from sales,

marketing, design, engineering, and manufacturing to produce a new product is

more likely to consider all the important angles than one or two people.

c. More enthusiasm from the members who created them. People are

more committed to a decision when they have participated in it.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS AND TEAMS

While we use the word group to refer to any assembly of people, in the work place it is used differently. Not all collections of people in the work environment are groups. A work group is a small, interdependent collection of people with a common identity who interact with one another, usually face to face over time to reach a goal. The characteristics of work groups are:

a. Size. Anything larger than 20 people loses the properties of a group.

Research shows that a number of companies found that 10-man groups produce better results at a quicker rate. There are several reasons why size doesn’t translate into effectiveness:

(1) People begin to act in formal ways.

(2) Members have fewer chances to participate since a few talkative members are likely to dominate.

(3) Quieter members lose their identity and can become less committed to the group.

(4) Coalitions can form, leading to members becoming more concerned with their side winning than tackling the challenge at hand.

Communication experts suggest that the optimal size for small decision making is five or seven members.

b. Interaction. A collection of people working at their desks is merely co-

acting until the individuals begin to exchange information with each other. A

project manager and a marketing manager who don’t communicate might

duplicate each other’s efforts, with both conducting marketing research.

c. Interdependence. Group members not only interact with each other, they

depend on one another.

A room of telephone salespeople working on a commission has little effect on each other and cannot be called a group. However, workers in a restaurant can be called a group. If the waiters fail to take orders accurately, the cooks will have to fix meals twice; if the cooks do not prepare meals on time or correctly, the servers’ tips will decline.

One manager let employees know how valuable they are with the following memo:

You arx a Kxy Pxrson

Xvxn though my typxwritxr is an old modxl, it works vxry wxll – xxcxpt for onx kxy. You would think that with all thx othxr kxys functioning propxrly, onx kxy not working would hardly bx noticxd; but just onx kxy out of whack sxxms to ruin thx wholx xffort.

You may say to yoursxlf – wxll I’m only onx pxrson. No onx will noticx if I don’t do my bxst. But it doxs makx a diffxrxncx bxcausx to bx xffxctivx an organization nxxds activx participation by xvxry onx to thx bxst of his or hxr ability.

So thx nxxt timx you think you arx not important, rxmxmbxr my old typx-writxr. You arx a kxy pxrson.

d. Duration. A group that interacts over a period of time develops particular

characteristics such as shared standards of appropriate behaviour that all are

expected to meet. Expectations involve how promptly meetings begin, what

contribution each member is expected to make to certain routine tasks, what kind

of humour is appropriate, and so on.

e Identity. Members share a common identity as they feel that their image

is tied to the way the group is regarded.

WHAT MAKES A GROUP A TEAM

Not every group is a team. A true team has all the attributes of a group and more. Communication researchers Carl Larson and Frank LaFusto capture the sum of what distinguishes a group from a team:

“It is a sense of loyalty and dedication to the team; it is an unrestrained sense of excitement and enthusiasm about the team. It is a willingness to do anything that has to be done to help the team succeed. It is an intense identification with a group of people. It is a loss of self. “Unified commitment? It is very difficult to understand unless you’ve experienced it. And even if you have experienced it, it is difficult to put it into words.”

Larson and LaFusto pent some three years interviewing members of 75 teams that included a Mount Everest expedition, a cardiac surgery team, the presidential commission that studied the space shuttle Challenger accident, the group that developed the IBM personal computer and two championship football teams. They identified several characteristics that distinguish a team from a group and these are:

a. Clear and inspiring shared goals. They know why the team exists and

share the belief that the purpose is important. Ineffective groups have either lost

sight of their purpose or do not believe that the goal is truly important.

b. A results-driven structure. They organize themselves to get the job

done, know what is expected of them and do what is necessary to accomplish the

task. Less effective groups either are not organized at all or are structured in an

inefficient manner, and their members don’t care enough about the results to do

what is necessary to get the job done.

c. Competent team members. They have the skill necessary to accomplish

their goals. Less effective groups lack people possessing one or more key skills.

d. Unified commitment. They share a commitment to the job and one

another, and put the team’s goals above their personal interest.

e. Collaborative climate. Another word for collaboration is teamwork. Team members trust and support one another while members of unsuccessful groups look out for themselves before they consider their teammates.

f. Standards of excellence. Doing outstanding work is a norm and each

member is expected to give of his best. With less successful groups getting by

with the minimum amount of effort is the standard.

g. External support and recognition. They need an appreciative audience

that recognizes their efforts and provided the resources necessary to get the job

done. The audience may be a boss or the public the group was created to serve.

Without recognition and support they are likely to become handicapped and

demoralized.

h. Principled leadership. Winning teams usually have leaders who can

create a vision of the group’s purpose, create the changes necessary to get the job done, and have the ability to unleash the talent of team members.

TYPES OF GROUPS AND TEAMS

Until recently the only kind of group combination occurred in a face to face setting. In recent years technology has expanded the number of ways people can collaborate. The types of groups and teams are:

a. Face to Face Teams. This happens when teams work together in person. It provides feedback that is synchronous (occurring at the same time) and this affords personal interaction. This is why personal interaction is still the preferred mode for most executives. Face to face teams do have challenges though: getting the group together at one time can be difficult, especially if they have busy schedules or work far apart. Additionally, teams can spend considerable time socializing and so waste time.

b. Virtual Teams. (Dispersion) These are groups that transcend boundaries of location and time, with members often interacting in ways other than face to face interaction. Computer networks are the common method for members to keep in touch. (Ford Motor Company use virtual teams to span the globe with workers in Italy and Germany, five hours ahead of the plant in Michigan, doing their work and handing it off at the end of their day to those in Michigan who then hand it back. The result is a 14-hour work day instead of eight.) Virtual teamwork enables people to work together in ways that wouldn’t otherwise be possible because distance becomes unimportant. Another advantage of it is the leveling of status differences as rank is much less prominent than with face to face groups.

APPROACHES TO WORKING IN GROUPS AND TEAMS

Throughout most of the history of organizations it was the common view the one ingredient in effective group functioning was the presence of a leader who could motivate members and make final decisions. Recently another approach to group functioning that puts most or all of the power in the hands of members has been recognized. This gives rise to two approaches that are common in today’s work place: centralized and de-centralized leadership. It is necessary to understand how communication operates in each one.

CENTRALISED LEADERSHIP

What qualities make leaders effective? While many leaders perform their role effortlessly and people seem to follow them naturally, others seem to rule by sheer force. Research has revealed that there are different approaches to leadership. Some of these are:

a. Traits Approach. This is based on the belief that all leaders posses common traits that lead to their effectiveness. Though research in the 1930s did identify that certain traits did seem common in most leaders, such as physical attractiveness, sociability, desire for leadership, originality, and intelligence, it was also found that a person possessing these characteristics would not necessarily become a leader.

b. Style Approach. Research in the 1940s seeking to determine whether the designated leader could choose a way of communicating that would increase effectiveness, identified three managerial styles:

(1) Authoritarian – the use of legitimate, coercive and reward power to control members.

(2) Democratic – where members are invited to help make decisions.

(3) Laissez-faire – the designated leader gives up the power of that position and transforms the group into a leaderless collection of equals.

Which approach produces the best results? Contemporary research suggests that members of groups with democratic leadership are slightly more satisfied than those run by autocratic leaders. However it should be noted that groups with autocratic leaders were more productive in stressful situations, while democratically led groups did better when the conditions were non-stressful. One of the best known stylistic approaches is the Leadership Grid by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton, which shows that good leadership depends on the skillful management of the task and the relationships between group members. Ultimately, the most effective leader is one who adopts a style that shows a high concern for both the results and the people.

c. Contingency Approaches. These are based on the idea that the best leadership style is flexible, that is it changes from one situation to the next. For example, a manager who successfully guides a project team developing an advertising campaign might flop as a trainer or personnel officer. One model of contingency or situational leadership is the life cycle theory that was developed by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard. This is an approach to understanding leadership that suggests a leader’s concern for tasks and relationships ought to vary, depending on the readiness of the subordinate to work independently.

Therefore, a worker with a low level of readiness to work independently needs a style of leadership that is highly directive and task related. As the worker becomes more proficient the manager eventually withdraws task related supervision and focuses more on the relationship by offering socio-emotional support.

d. Leadership Emergence. This approach to centralized leadership can occur when within groups there are emergent leaders. Emergent leaders may be chosen by the members of a group either officially or unofficially. Communication researcher Ernest Bormann who studied how emergent leaders gain influence, especially in newly formed groups, concluded that a group selects a leader by the method of residues; that is a process of elimination in which potential candidates are gradually rejected for one reason or another until only one remain. The process of elimination occurs in two phases. In the first unsuitable members are rejected. Rejection can come from a number of reasons such as quietness, dogmatism – expressing opinions in strong and unqualified terms, or even incompetence. In the second the remaining candidates would then jockey for leadership, in some instances by co-opting support from other group members. To emerge as a group leader research has indicated that the following types of behaviour can help you assert your influence:

(1) Participate early and often.

(2) Demonstrate your competence.

(3) Don’t push too hard.

(4) Provide a solution in a time of crisis.

DECENTRALISED LEADERSHIP

When most people think of leadership, they visualize a single person with an official title, what social scientists call a designated leader. In the 1990s many organizations moved away from an exclusive focus on working groups managed closely by higher-ups or the authoritarian model and started relying on Self Directed Teams, which are: groups who are responsible for managing their own behaviour to get a task done.

Self directed teams can comprise persons who perform the same type of work such as sales, marketing, or engineering.

Self Directed Teams can also be cross –functional, that is consisting of persons from different parts of an organization who contribute their own expertise to solve a complex problem. (Hewlett Packard used cross functional teams to design and produce the DeskJet 1200C full colour, high speed inkjet printer.)

Some Self Directed Teams are formed on an ad hoc basis, working together long enough to tackle a problem and then dissolving. Many successful companies rely on ad hoc teams, and contemporary trends indicate that as companies reduce the ranks of the middle managers, the ability of teams to work independently becomes more important.

WHEN TO USE SELF DIRECTED TEAMS

Self directed teams work best for relatively complex jobs that require a variety of perspectives. For example, a group developing a new product can profit from the perspectives of representatives from every part of the business: engineers, finance, sales, people, and marketing. Self directed teams has less value for simple, repetitive tasks like assembly line work or day to day data processing.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF DIRECTED TEAMS

Self directed teams possess qualities that are different from hierarchical working groups. Some are:

a. They set their own goals and inspect their own work.

b. They plan, control, and improve their own work processes.

c. They often create their own schedules and review their performances.

d. They may prepare their own budgets and coordinate their work with other

departments.

e. They frequently are responsible for acquiring any new training they might need.

f. They may hire their own replacements or assume responsibility for disciplining their own members.

g. They take responsibility for the quality of their products or services.

SHARED POWER IN GROUPS

Whether or not a group has a centralized or decentralized leadership, every member has the power to shape events. Power comes in several forms, and in most groups each member possesses one or more types. Some types of power are:

a. Position Power. This is the ability to influence that comes from the

position one holds. While legitimate power usually belongs to designated leaders,

people in lesser positions sometimes possess it, depending on the circumstances.

In some cultures legitimate power often comes with age so that the eldest member

has the right to make decisions and speak first.

b. Coercive Power. This is the power to punish for failing to do another’s

bidding. Designated leaders have it but it is also possessed by other members too,

even though it may be subtle.

c. Reward Power. This is the flip side of coercive power and it is the ability

to reward. While designated leaders control the most obvious rewards such as

pay and promotion, other members have reward power too that come in the form

of social payoffs such as increased goodwill and voluntary assistance on the job.

d. Expert Power. This comes from the group’s recognition of a member’s

expertise in a certain area.

e. Referent Power. This refers to the influence members hold due to the

way others in the group feel about them; their respect, attraction, or liking.

f. Information Power. This is the ability of some members to influence a

group because of the information they possess. This information is different from

the kind of knowledge that gives rise to expert knowledge and comes from having

access to otherwise obscure knowledge that is valuable to others in the group.

g. Connection Power. This is being able to wield influence because of

connections one has to influential or important persons inside and outside the

organization.

If we look at all the types of power we can make an accurate statement that, “What counts is who you know (connection power), what you know (information and expert power), who respects you (referent power), and who you are (legitimate power).”

FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Another way every member can shape the way a group operates is by acting in whatever way is necessary to help get the job done. This approach is called the “functional perspective” because it defines influence in terms of fulfilling essential functions that are necessary for the group to do its job. There are two types of functional roles : Task roles – these play an important part in accomplishing the job at hand; and Relational roles – these help keep the interaction between members running smoothly.

When a group is not operating effectively it is necessary to determine which functions are lacking. See Handout #1.

PROBLEM SOLVING COMMUNICATION

Researchers have developed several methods for helping groups solve problems and make decisions effectively. By taking advantage of these methods, groups can come up with the highest quality work possible. Groups have the best chance of developing high quality solutions to problems when they follow a systematic method for solving problems. One of the best known approaches is the reflective thinking sequence, developed some 80 years ago by John Dewey, which is a seven step process:

a. Define the Problem. It is necessary to understand the problem before finding a solution.

b. Analyze the Problem. To discover the causes and extent of the problem.

c. Establish criteria for a solution. Spend some time identifying the characteristics for a good solution.

d. Consider possible solutions to the problem.

e. Decide on a solution.

f. Implement the solution.

g. Follow up the solution.

STAGES IN GROUP PROBLEM SOLVING

The reflective thinking sequence does not consider how the relationships between individual members can make it difficult for them to follow the systematic problem solving approach. As groups conduct business their discussions are likely to move through several phases characterized by different types of communication. Aubrey Fisher identified four of these stages; orientation, conflict, emergence, and reinforcement.

a. Orientation Phase. This is a time of testing the waters as members may

not know one another very well and are cautious about making statements that

might offend. Communication is therefore tentative. This stage is important as it

serves to establish the group norms that govern the group’s communication.

b. Conflict Phase. This is the time when members take a strong stand on the

issue and defend their positions against others. Disagreement is likely to be

greatest in this phase as the norms of politeness formed during the orientation

phase may weaken as debate occurs. There is the risk that personal feelings will

interfere with rational decision making. Some groups never escape this phase and

productivity suffers. Communication is very polarized in this phase.

c. Emergence Phase. This occurs when members end their disagreement

and solve the problem. The final decision may be enthusiastically welcomed by

all, even though some may have compromised. Communication during this phase

is less polarized as members back off from their previously held positions.

Comments like, “I can live with that,” and “Let’s give it a try,” are common.

Harmony is the theme.

e. Reinforcement Phase. At this point members not only accept the

decision but also actively endorse it and present evidence to support it.

Communication during this phase is very supportive.

In real life groups do not necessarily follow this four step process neatly as the patterns of communication in the past can influence present and future communication. Teams with a high degree of conflict might have trouble reaching emergence, for example, while a group that is highly cohesive might experience little disagreement.

DECISION MAKING METHODS

In making decisions there are a number of ways to do these:

a. Consensus. This is a collective decision that every member is willing to support. Consensus has advantages and disadvantages. While it has the broadest base of support, it requires cooperation, takes time to arrive at since it requires a commitment to listen carefully to other ideas, and there must be a win-win attitude. For relatively minor issues the cost in time and frustration isn’t always worth the effort to get a consensus decision.

b. Majority Vote. While consensus requires the agreement of the entire group, a majority vote only needs the support of the plurality of members. While it works well for minor issues, it is usually not the best approach for important decisions.

c. Minority Decision. This is where a few members make a decision affecting the entire group. This is good if the minority has the confidence of the larger group.

d. Expert Opinion. This is the use of one with expert knowledge.

f. Authority Rule. This is the designated leader having the final decision. NB This does not mean that the leader is necessarily autocratic as he may listen to ideas and suggestions before making a decision.

The choice of each decision making method depends on the following factors:

a. What type of decision is being made?

b. How important is the decision.

c. How much time is available?

d. What are the personal relationships among members?

EFFECTIVE COMUNICATION IN GROUPS AND TEAMS

To aid effective communication in a group or team it is necessary to:

a. Recognise Both Group and Personal Goals. Groups are most efficient

when members can reach their personal goals. This can happen when there is

convergence of group and individual goals. When they do not then problems are

likely to occur.

b. Promote Desirable Norms. Norms are informal and often unstated rules

about what behaviour is appropriate in a group. When members violate norms

they can create a crisis for the team. It is good to create desirable norms early and

comply with established norms whenever possible.

c. Promote an Optimal Level of Cohesiveness. Cohesiveness is the degree

to which members feel part of a group or want to remain with the group.

Cohesiveness can be promoted by: having shared or compatible goals; making

progress toward goals; shared norms and values; minimal feelings of threat

among members; interdependence among members; competition from outside the

group; and shared group experiences.

d. Avoid Excessive Conformity. Conformity can come about because of

groupthink, which is an unwillingness to critically examine ideas for the sake

of harmony. Bad group decisions can be made because of too much conformity.

e. Encourage Creativity. One way to boost creativity is to have

brainstorming sessions. Brainstorming rules are:

(1) All evaluation and criticism of ideas is forbidden during the early phases of the process.

(2) Wild and crazy ideas are encouraged.

(3) Quantity and not quality of ideas is the goal

(4) New combinations of ideas are sought.

END

MNG 112: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

HANDOUT # 1

FUNCTIONAL ROLES OF GROUP MEMBERS

TASK FUNCTIONS

1. Information Giver. Offers facts, evidence, personal experience, and other knowledge relevant to group task.

2. Information Seeker. Asks other members for task-related information.

3. Opinion Giver. States personal opinions, attitudes, and beliefs.

4. Opinion Seeker. Solicits opinions, attitudes and beliefs of other members.

5. Starter. Initiates task-related behaviour (e.g., “We’d better get going on this.”)

6. Direction Giver. Provides instructions regarding how to perform the task at hand.

7. Summariser. Reviews what has been said, identifying common themes or progress.

8. Diagnoser. Offers observations about task-related behaviour or group (e.g., “We seem to be spending all of our time discussing the problem without proposing any solutions.”)

9. Energiser. Encourages members to work vigorously to work on tasks.

10. Gatekeeper. Regulates participation of members.

11. Reality Tester. Checks feasibility of group ideas against real world contingencies.

RELATIONAL FUNCTIONS

1. Participation Encourager. Encourages reticent members to speak, letting them know that their contributions will be valued.

2. Harmonizer. Resolves interpersonal conflicts among members.

3. Tension Reliever. Uses humour or other devices to release anxiety and frustration of members.

4. Evaluator of emotional climate. Offers observations about socio-emotional relationship between members (e.g., “I think we’re all feeling a little defensive now,” or “It sounds like you think nobody trusts you Bill.”)

5. Praise Giver. Reinforces accomplishments and contributions of group members.

6. Emphatic Listener. Listens without evaluation to personal concerns of members.

DYSFUNCTIONAL ROLES

1. Blocker. Prevents progress by constantly raising objections.

2. Attacker. Aggressively questions the competence or motives of others.

3. Recognition-seeker. Repeatedly and unnecessarily calls attention to self by relating irrelevant experiences, boasting, and seeking sympathy.

4. Joker. Engages in joking behaviour in excess of tension-relieving needs, distracting members.

5. Withdrawer. Refuses to take stand on social or task issued; covers up feelings; does not respond to others comments.

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