Department of Biology | College of Arts and Sciences



BIL 360 - Study Guide for Exam 4 This study guide is just a checklist. Use it wisely. Be able to read figures and tables competently.Anything in the notes and text readings related to what’s in the note may appear on the exam.Sensory Processes: Photoreception (Chapter 14)Understand the progression of complexity of eyes over the course of evolution. Recognize the various types of animal photoreceptors and in which phyla they generally occur. What type of eye is best suited for various natural histories?Know the basic anatomy of:Pigment spotpinhole camera eyecompound eyeoptic cupPigment cupclear epithelial coveringcamera eyelensWhich type of eye can form images? Which can do no more than see vague shapes or detect light/dark? What are the major differences between the camera eyes of cephalopods and vertebrates?Understand the nature of the electromagnetic spectrum. What is “color”? What is the “visible spectrum”? Is it the same for every species? Why or why not?Know the similarities and differences between ciliary and rhabdomeric photoreceptor, and be able to recognize all of their morphological features and their functions.Know the meaning/significance/function of: sensory receptor cellphototaxis (+ and -)rhabdomretinula cellsensory receptor moleculePAX6 Hox geneciliumcrystalline lensommatidiumscotopic ommatidiumphotopic ommatidiumWhich neurotransmitter is used by ciliary photoreceptors?Know the similarities and differences between ciliary and rhabdomeric eyes. What types of eyes are in each of these categories, and in what animals are they found?Know the meaning/significance/function of: pigmentspectral sensitivityopsinType I and Type II opsinsphotopigmentchromophoreapoproteinprosthetic groupGPCR receptorsrhodopsinsphotopsinsS, M, and L conesKnow the basic anatomy and function of the compound eye. Watch the video on insect vision and be able to answer questions about how insects see the world.Know the meaning/characteristics/anatomy/function of:ommatidiumdifferences between apposition and superposition compound eyeapposition compound eyewhich is for scotopic, and which is for photopic vision?superposition compound eyeBe able to recognize the these structures in the vertebrate eye, and know their functions: corneaposterior chamber/segmentrod photoreceptorsretinapupilanterior chamber/segmentcone photoreceptorsmaculairisaqueous humorinner/outer segmentsciliary bodylensvitreous humorphotoreceptor membranes, disksBe able to recognize the neurons of the retina, their organization and relative positions: Photoreceptorsbipolar cellshorizontal cellsamacrine cellsganglion cellsWhich ones synapse onto which?Which comprise the inner nuclear layer? The outer nuclear layer?Where is the inner limiting membrane? The outer limiting membrane? Which cells connect to each?Know the anatomy and general functions ofRetinal pigment epithelium (RPE)tapetum lucidumBruch’s membraneChoroidoptic nerve (and the blind spot)Understand the difference between scotopic and photopic vision in camera eyes, and how they are mediated. Know the similarities and differences between rods and cones.Understand the general concept of the receptive field, as well as the more specific receptive fields ofPhotoreceptorsbipolar cellsganglion cellsWhich retinal cells have been empirically shown able to generate action potentials?Understand the significance of photoreceptor depolarization and hyperpolarization, and what triggers each.Understand the rod visual cycle, and the roles/significance of:cGMPdark current11-cis retinalphosphodiesterasemetarhodopsincGMP-gated Na+ channelstransducingall-trans retinalbleachingvoltage-gated Ca+ channelsglutamateall-trans retinolRPE and chromophore recyclingUnderstand the process of dark adaptation, and the responses of rods and cones during this process.Understand how glutamate can excite or inhibit postsynaptic bipolar cells, and what role this plays in the center/surround receptive field.Understand how the on center/off surround and off center/off surround ganglion cell receptive field works. What is the role of the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)?Understand the physical basis of color vision. Know the meaning/significance of:monocromatdichromattrichromattetrachromatpolychromatspectral colornon-spectral coloroil dropletnectar guideultraviolet perceptionWatch the video on “Weird Animal Eyes” and be able to answer questions from it. Watch “How Birds Really See the World”. Know the basic similarities and differences between the avian and mammalian retina. What’s the deal with stomatopods and color vision?Understand the basic mechanism of the center/surround system in color vision (i.e., color opponent systems provided by different cone pigments). Do all animals perceive color? Which are most likely to perceive color? Is color determined by wavelength or frequency?Nervous System Organization (Chapter 15)Recognize the basic progression of complexity seen in animal nervous systems, and the general anatomy of protostome nervous systems and radially symmetrical animals (including deuterostomes).Recall the common names and general nervous system charactgeristics of animals in the PoriferaprotostomiaCephalochordataEchinodermataEumetazoadeuterostomiaUrochordataArthropodaRadiataChordataVertebrataCephalopodaKnow the meaning/significance of:nervous system centralizationganglionnerve collarcephalizationventral nerve cordcephalic ganglionKnow the general anatomy of the ancestral vertebrate brain, and recognize the brain regions specialized in various vertebrate lineages. Which animals use which brain regions the most?Know the five functional aspects of vertebrate brains. (Localized function, maps, size vs. complexity, forebrain expansion, plasticity of neural circuits)Know the meaning/significance/anatomy/composition/function of: gray mattersomatotopic map/somatotopyspinal nerves white matternervous system circuitdorsal root ganglion (afferent) brain homunculusspinal cord circuits (local, ascending, descending)ventral root ganglion (efferent)Know the hierarchy and main functions of central nervous system (CNS)autonomic nervous system (ANS)enteric nervous system (ENS) peripheral nervous system (PNS)parasympathetic nervous system somatic nervous system (SNS)sympathetic nervous systemRecognize the names of the 12 cranial nerves, and the general function of each. What type of neurons might be found in a cranial nerve? (You won’t have to recall them de novo, but be able to do some matching. Remember that the names really do describe what they do.)Know/recall the meaning/significance ofsensory (afferent) neuronnerveeffectormotor (efferent) neuroninterneuronneuromuscular junctionparasympathetic/sympathetic toneautonomic toneKnow the basic functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, and how they both oppose and complement one another. WATCH THE THREE VIDEOS: (1) Autonomic Nervous System (2) Sympathetic Nervous System (3) Parasympathetic Nervous System. (There will be questions about the organization and function of these systems.)Know the complementary functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, and what each controls. Know the basic anatomical and physiological features of each system.Know the meaning/significance of alpha and beta receptors (and what each mediates), agonist, antagonistKnow the meaning/significance of biological clocks such as Circadian, circannual, circumtidal.Endocrine and Neuroendocrine Systems (Chapter 16)Know the differences between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland, and recognize examples of each.Know the difference between endocrine glands that areunicellular vs. multicellulardiscrete, diffuse, and intermediateKnow the meaning/significance/functions of: hormoneepithelial (nonneural) endocrine cellsperipheral activationparacrine substancediscrete, diffuse, and intermediate glandspreprohormoneautocrine substanceneurosecretory cellsprohormoneendocrine glandneurohormonelipoprotein carrier moleculetarget cellneurohemal organwater vs. lipid soluble hormonesKnow the location, general anatomy, general functions, and interactions of the following. (For a quick summary of each without digging through the text, see Appendix K in your text.) Hypothalamus: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)somatostatinGrowth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)dopaminePosterior pituitary (neurohypophysis; neural): stores vasopressin/anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis; glandular):Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)Prolactin (PRL)Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)Growth hormone (GH)Luteinizing hormone (LH)Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)Adrenal glands: corticosteroids, catecholamines, androgensPancreas (Islets of Langerhans): insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, gastrinGonads: sex hormonesThyroid: thyroid hormones (T3 and T4; what is the relationship between these?)Parathyroid: parathyroid hormone (PTH)Compare and contrast the control systems of the nervous system and endocrine system.What is a hormone? What criteria distinguish hormones from other chemical messengers?Know the three major classes of hormones (steroid, peptide, and amine) and their basic chemical properties.What is the chemical precursor to all steroid hormones? (HINT: You often hear its bad for you. But you need it.)How do fat-soluble hormones enter a cell? Water-soluble hormones?Know how these are synthesized, stored, and released (see table 16.1 in your text) What is a hormone’s half-life? What factors affect the half-life, and why does it matter?Understand the anatomy and function of the anterior and posterior pituitary, and their relationship to the hypothalamus. What is peripheral activation, and what is its functional significance?Know the meaning/significance/function of: synergismhypothalamussympathetic nervous systempermissivenessanterior pituitaryhormone cascade agonism/agonistposterior pituitaryaxis (e.g., HPA, HPT)antagonism/antagonistadrenal glandpineal gland & parietal eyeUnderstand mechanisms of hormonal modulation (negative or positive feedback, synergism, permissiveness, antagonism) and how these influence endocrine glands and other target tissues. Be able to recognize examples of each type of modulation.Know the function and evolutionary origin of the pineal gland and how it interacts with the pineal eye. What hormone does it secrete, and what is the hormone’s function?Know the function of insulin. When/why is insulin secreted? What effects does insulin have?Know the function of glucagon. When/why is glucagon secreted? What effects does glucagon have?Reproduction: Natural History (Chapter 17)Understand the costs and benefits of asexual vs. sexual reproduction. Watch the VIDEO on The Selfish Gene with Richard Dawkins, and understand how this applies to reproduction.Know the various mechanisms of asexual reproduction, and be able to recognize unfamiliar examples.Know the meaning/significance of:mitotic propagulesfragmentation & regenerationclonebuddingparthenogenesis (facultative, cyclic, haploid, diploid, artificial)heterogonyspring eggs/winter eggs (Daphnia)automixisapomixisparthenogenesis in CnemidophorusUnderstand what circumstances favor asexual or sexual reproduction and why.What are the costs and benefits of asexual and sexual reproduction?What are the main hypothesis explaining why organisms are mostly sexual. (Muller’s ratchet, Red Queen Hypothesis, etc.)Understand the various physiological aspects of reproduction and how they are studied.Understand how the following affect reproduction:physical environmentphotoperiodnutritional environmenttemperaturesocial environmentresource availabilityUnderstand the meaning/significance of:embryonic diapausemelatonincircadiandelayed implantationgonadotropinscircumtidalendogenous timing mechanismscircannual“honest signal”Know the meaning/significance of: semeloparous vs. iteroparous reproduction (and what each implies about parental investment). What are the advantages and disadvantages of each strategy?Understand the relationship between the expense of producing sperm vs. eggs and possible evolutionary consequences in terms of sex-specific behaviors and parental investment.Understand the nature of prenatal and postnatal provisioning, and the forms these can take in various species. Be able to recognize examples.Know the meaning/significance of:environmental food sourceparental food sourcelactation crop milk (and its analogs)Reproduction: Modes and Physiology (Chapter 17)Understand the modes of external and internal fertilization, and its costs and benefits. Which is more primitive? Which is more derived? Which forms of internal fertilization are relatively primitive/derived?Know the meaning/significance of spawningoffspring provisioningovumaltricial vs. precocial youngamplexusspermegg(What’s the difference between an ovum and an egg? Technically speaking, an ovum is a haploid female gamete. An egg is the diploid, fertilized ovum (zygote) and any protective encasement surrounding it. But term “egg” is often used interchangeably—though not quite correctly—with “ovum”.)Know the meaning/significance (and be able to recognize examples of)oviparousamniotic eggyolk sacamniotic egg and placental structure homologiesovoviviparousamnionchorionviviparousallantoiscloaca (what comes out of it?)Know the meaning/significance (and be able to recognize examples of)monoeciousprotandrysimultaneous hermaphroditeprotandrous hermaphroditedioeciousprotogynysequential hermaphroditeprotogynous hermaphroditeKnow the basic anatomy of the female mammalian reproductive tract.vulvavaginaendometriumuterusmyometriumlabia majora labia minoraoviduct/Fallopian tubesclitoriscervixKnow and understand the terminology associated with mammalian gametogenesis and ovulation: primordial follicleovarian cortex & medullaoogonium/germinal cell (2n)ovum (n)primary folliclegranulosa cellsprimary oocyte (2n)eggsecondary folliclethecal cellssecondary oocyte (n)ovarian stem cellGraafian follicleantrumpolar body (n)corpus luteumUnderstand the development of female gametes and when the various stages occur in the female’s life.Know the stages of the estrous cycle and what defines estrus.Know the meaning/significance ofestrusmetestrusfollicular phaseovulationproestrusdiestrusluteal phase(and when each occurs relative to the others)What is the distinction between an estrous cycle and a menstrual cycle?Which species have a menstrual cycle?Know the meaning/significance of:mensesmenstruationhidden estrussexually transmitted infection (STI)Understand the neuroendocrinology of the estrous cycle, including the sources and roles of:hypothalamusluteinizing hormone (LH)estrogen/estradiolprogesteroneanterior pituitaryfollicle stimulating hormone (FSH)aromatasegonadotropinsGnRHinhibinUnderstand the mechanism of induced ovulation. Which species are induced ovulators?Understand the seasonal changes in testicular size and activity. (testicular regression and recrudescence)Understand the aspects and endocrinology of pregnancy, including the meaning/significance of:dikaryotic cellblastocystcorpus luteumkaryogamytrophoblastendometriumfertilizationchorionchorionic gonadotropinUnderstand the aspects and endocrinology of parturition, including the roles/meaning/significance of:myometriumoxytocin receptorshypothalamuscervical mechanoreceptorsestrogenrelaxinposterior pituitarypositive feedbackconnexinsoxytocinprostaglandinsKnow the basic anatomy of the male mammalian reproductive tract and its products, and the functions thereof.scrotumtestesprostateseminal vesicleSertoli cellsdartos musclesvas deferens urethraepididymisLeydig cellssperm (and its anatomy)cremaster musclespenissemenUnderstand the importance of testicular descent, as well as the evolutionary history of this trait.Which animals have internal testicles? Which have descended testicles? Which condition is primitive, and which is derived?What is a cryptorchid? ................
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