EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE: - UJI
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE:
AN INTEGRATED APPROACH
Laura Guillén Ramo, PhD Candidate
Escuela Superior de Administración y Dirección de Empresas (ESADE)
Avda. Pedralbes, 62
08032, Barcelona (Spain)
Tel.: (34) 932 806 162
Fax: (34) 932 048 105
e-mail: l.guillen.r@esade.edu
Correspondence and Proofs Address of the author
Roger de Flor, 148 Esc. D. At.1
08013, Barcelona (Spain)
Tutor:
Richard E.Boyatzis, PhD
Weatherhead School of Management
Case Western Reserve University
The findings reported in the manuscript have not been previously published and that the manuscript is not being simultaneously submitted elsewhere.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH
ABSTRACT
The objective of this paper is to review the state of the art of the emotional intelligence field and to propose an integrated approach for emotional intelligence. The grounds for this, as Boyatzis and Sala (2003) mentioned, is that "a concept of emotional intelligence offers more than a convenient framework for describing human dispositions, it offers a theoretical structure for the organization of personality and linking it to a theory of action and job performance".
To offer this integrated approach to emotional intelligence, the paper will go through three major topics. The cycle starts with a review of the theoretical underpinnings of emotional intelligence, taking into account its neurological basis and the need of a theory of personality that organizes and structures human energy and, furthermore, builds a bridge connecting emotions with action and performance. Then, a complete overview of scene of emotional intelligence will be exposed. Finally, the paper will expose and discuss conceptual and operational issues that are crucial for determining the construct validity of emotional intelligence.
Keywords: emotional intelligence, personality, neurology, integrated approach
INTRODUCTION
Emotional Intelligence is a field full of controversy. In trying to understand emotional intelligence as a concept and its implications three important questions need to be answered: 1) what is emotional intelligence?; 2) can it be measured?; and 3) can it be developed? (Higgs and Dulewicz, 2002). This paper will put a major emphasis in the clarification of the first and second issues by conceptualizing emotional intelligence as a scientific viable construct and analyzing its different possibilities of operationalization.
There is no consensus about how the construct of emotional intelligence should be described and measured from a scientific point of view. It is well accepted that emotional intelligence should go beyond purely cognitive elements, as it should involve some elements of the affective domain.
Even if rigorous research has been conducted in this area, some authors still claim that emotional intelligence is only a myth (e.g. Matthews, Zeidner and Roberts, 2002; Davies, Stankov and Roberts, 1998). It has to be clarified what is going to be investigated and which is its importance within the theoretical framework that we are using. The construct validity of emotional intelligence may be damaged because of two main reasons: (1) theoretical constructs are not well defined and, consequently, they are not properly operationalized; and (2) the relationships between different operationalizations of the construct are not empirically examined (Mestre Navas, Carreras de Alba and Guil Bozal, 2000).
The goal of the present paper is to contribute to place emotional intelligence in the scientific context with a well-defined theoretical construct, by reviewing the state of the art of the emotional intelligence field and by proposing an integrated approach of emotional intelligence.
THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Neurological basis of emotional intelligence.
Some authors claim that emotions constitute a key role in the motivational system of human behavior (e.g. Izard, 1971; Rolls, 1999; Fridja, 2000). While there is no agreement on how to define emotions, there is little doubt that they are inherent to human nature. And, consequently, if we want to understand human nature and human psychology in a broader sense (personality, motivation, behavior, adaptation, etc.), it becomes crucial to understand the intricacies of the emotional system.
The starting premise is that emotions are not as intangible or erratic as they might seem. It is necessary to turn to neurological research in order to find their neural substrate.
Attention will be concentrated on modern theories of the neuroscience of emotion. To build a comprehensive conceptual framework, we can classify emotions according to two different criteria, mentation locus (term proposed by Davidson, Jackson and Kalin, 2000) and types of studies supporting the theories (following the explanation of Elster, 2001).
Mentation locus refers to where to search for emotional differentiation. The theories presented to date share a common characteristic: Periphery plays a key role in modulating emotional experience. Other modern theories, on the contrary, claim the importance of the central nervous system as the main factor responsible for emotional differentiation. Our second variable, types of studies supporting the theories, is taken from a proposal of Jon Eltser (2001). He claimed that to look for the basic causal mechanisms of emotions we should focus our attention on four types of studies, that is, studies on 'normal' individuals, studies of patients with brain lesions, experimental studies on animal behavior and observation of animals living in natural or semi-natural conditions.
To understand the latest advances in the neuroscience of emotion, we are going to review the influential theories of Antonio Damasio (1995), Joseph LeDoux (1996, 2002), Edmund T. Rolls (1999) and Richard J. Davidson et al. (2000) (see figure 1).
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The theories of LeDoux, Davidson et al. and Rolls are conceptually similar. Rolls (1999) identified the following three main divergences:
First, LeDoux focuses mostly on the amygdala. This is because LeDoux is applying an experimental study to rodents. There is no doubt that neocortical structures between rodents and human beings present a huge difference, as in rodents they are much less developed. This is probably why LeDoux focuses on the amygdala as the centerpiece of the emotional circuitry. LeDoux did, however, claim that cortical areas of the brain are important in experiencing emotion (LeDoux, 2002).
Second, LeDoux focuses on one emotion, fear. LeDoux claims that in order to understand emotions, we have to understand the brain systems involved in each of them. He may also study fear because it is much easier to induce negative effects in laboratory experiments than positive effects. However, as Davidson et al. (2000) noticed, whether or not the amygdala is implicated in all emotions is still an open question in neuroscience.
Third, Rolls (1999) said that it may be unlikely that the second route of emotion identified by LeDoux influences behavior via subcortical inputs to the amygdala. He claims that the amygdala may regulate simple stimuli, such as a simple tone, that are associated with rewards or punishments. But in the case of human beings, stimulus usually requires associations with an invariant representation of an object. These associations require higher temporal lobe cortical areas. There is no doubt that stimulus appraisals are far more complex in human beings than in rodents, but as Rolls (1999) and Davidson et al. (2000) claimed, plasticity and learning occur in the amygdala, and associations between stimuli and reinforcers (to use Rolls’ terminology) may constitute a reason why this second route of emotion can be hypothesized as also valid for human beings.
Both Rolls (1999) and Davidson et al. (2000) claimed that plasticity occurs in the key brain elements involved in the emotional circuitry, that is, amygdala, prefrontal cortex and hippocampus.
Summing up the role of these important brain areas that are connected to emotional brain processes, the amygdala is activated by stimuli and elicits certain forms of negative affect, particularly fear (LeDoux, 1996). The amygdala is involved in emotional arousal and projects its outputs to other brain areas, including cortical areas. Initial learning associations between stimuli and reinforcers occur in this brain area.
PFC may be more important for the expression of emotion and will be involved in posterior learning associations of emotional stimuli. It may affect affective style.
The hippocampus and other interconnected structures are important for their contribution to context-dependent affective responding.
Personality and Performance
“Personality may influence the events one experienced” (Diener and Lucas, 2000). How people perform themselves in the world must be examined in the context of their particular personality. Assuming that people have 'flat' personalities creates a fiction of emptiness within human nature that cannot reflect its real complexity. It is necessary to analyze individual lives, goals and values to understand fully their emotional life. "There are stable emotional styles of responding to events and circumstances that are closely linked to personalities" (Diener and Lucas, 2000).
Emotional Intelligence should be circumscribed not only in an area of emotional arousal, but on how people express these emotions. "Emotional competence can be defined as the demonstration of self-efficacy in emotion-eliciting social transactions" (Saarni, 2000). And this emotional self-efficacy should be linked to a theory of personality and a theory of human action.
It is not the aim of this paper to present an exhaustive review of personality and action theories that can be integrated within the EI field, but just to highlight the importance of how human vitality and performance are linked together.
Triangle ‘emotions-cognition-motivation’
Traditionally, the mind has been viewed as a trilogy; consisting of cognition, affect (emotion) and conation (motivation) (Hilgard, 1980).
The cognitive sphere treats the study of mind and thinking processes; the affective sphere deals with passions and emotions; and, finally, the connative sphere deals with goals and motivations. Historically, intelligence has been considered a construct that characterizes the cognitive sphere, linked with analytical thinking.
Emotions play a key role in this triangle. Izard and Ackerman (2000) claimed that “emotions motivate and organize perception, cognition and action (behavior) in particular ways”. Thus, the study of the relationship of emotions with the other elements may be crucial to understand individual differences.
The mental trilogy, emotions, cognitions and motivation, helps to define who we are. Human beings have to survive and adapt themselves to the environment they are in. According to Lewis, Amini and Lannon (2001), cognitive, emotional and motivational resources constitute the integrated system of our metal life and a complete theory of intelligence should link these three concepts to understand not only human nature, but also human action. Individual differences can be defined by considering all the aspects involved in this process, from cognitive abstractions to action. For doing so, it is not sufficient a purely cognitive view of the mind, because emotions and motivation play also an important role.
Theoretical framework for Emotional Intelligence
A framework for understanding emotional intelligence combines the different puzzle pieces just mentioned (figure 2).
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First, attention has been paid to the neurological basis of emotions. This has provided with the instruments that support the understanding of the brain mechanism of human emotional life. It is important to bear in mind that this understanding should be the roots of any emotional intelligence theory.
But a description of the neurological basis of emotions is not sufficient to understand the complexity of human emotionality. It is not only 'what' happens in the brain what needs to be discovered, but also 'why'. With this objective, curiosity expands toward new paths. It is necessary to understand how the human mind works and which processes interact in this play. To do so, the trilogy of mind has been considered. Emotions, cognitions and motivation are the main characters in this theater of human mind. But this cognitive perspective is still not sufficient to understand why people behave the way they do. A theory of personality structure, that guides human vitality in certain ways, is required. A theoretical framework of emotional intelligence should take into account human personality and its implications. As Saarni (2000) mentioned “it is surprisingly that emotional intelligence has often been defined without reference to the ethical values of one's ego identity and an individual’s developmental history, as if the human personality was completely flat”. Finally, manifest behaviors should be analyzed and a theory of performance is needed in order to understand how people express emotions in their specific context and situation.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE SCENE.
Different approaches that illuminate distinct aspects of the construct live together in the emotional intelligence field. But, to be constructive their views may be integrated to achieve a deep understanding of what being ‘emotionally intelligent’ means. As Bar-On (2000) suggested “by comparing and contrasting findings rendered by this and other approaches to emotional and social intelligence, we will be more effective in mapping out this construct”. But, what type of attributes conform the procedure to rank and measure ‘EI’ in people? Emotional intelligence field presents four important theories of research: Mayer and Salovey (1997), Gardner (1999), Bar-On (2000), and Goleman (1998) and Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee (2002).
The body of research related to emotional intelligence has came up with different approaches. All definitions of emotional intelligence represent a combination of cognitive and emotional abilities (Cherniss, 2001b). All share the common desire to understand and measure the abilities and traits related to recognizing and regulating emotions in ourselves and others (Goleman, 2001). Some authors claim that the different conceptualizations tend to be complementary rather than contradictory. It is a sign of the increasing interest in the topic, showing an active role of research to understand it better (Emmerling and Goleman, 2003).
On the contrary, other theorists are skeptic, claiming that emotional intelligence may be like an old wine presented in a new bottle (Matthews, Zeidner and Roberts, 2002). To clarify the nature of Emotional Intelligence, constructing a scientific paradigm in this field still represents a mayor challenge. They complain of the way emotional intelligence is conceptualized, considering that it is defined by exclusion: everything that is not measured by the IQ is emotional. Another major concern is to assure that emotional intelligence is a construct that is offering something new to science. They argue that emotional intelligence may be a myth that is not providing anything new to psychology (Matthews et al., 2002).
Current Models of Emotional Intelligence
Four models will be presented as they emphasize different psychological aspects and illuminate the emotional intelligence concept from different perspectives.
First Model: A cognitive approach. The model of Salovey and Mayer is aligned with the psychometric tradition and frames emotional intelligence within a model of cognitive abilities of intelligence (Salovey and Mayer, 1990). They advocate the co-operative relationship between emotion and cognition (Salovey, Mayer, 1999). The authors describe emotional intelligence as "a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one's thinking and action" (Salovey and Mayer, 1990).
Second Model: A phenomenological approach. Gardner (1999) advocates a phenomenological perspective of human intelligence and claims that the psychometric tradition is too narrow. He defines intelligence as "the biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture". Intelligences are potentials, that may or may not be activated. This conceptualization introduces the problem of relativism, because intelligence is always shaped by the cultural and social context of the group that is analyzing the concept (Gardner, 1983).
Gardner never used the term emotional intelligence. In contrast, he offered a model of multiple intelligences, two of which are intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence, that share their basic roots with emotional intelligence.
Third Model: A model of well-being (Bar-On, 1997, 2000). The EQ-i was constructed to examine a concept that Reuven Bar-On began to develop in the early 1980s. The development of the EQI-i began to examine various factors thought to be key components of effective emotional and social functioning that lead to psychological well-being (Bar-On, 2000).
There are five EQ composite scale scores: (1) Intrapersonal EQ, (2) Interpersonal EQ, (3) Stress Management EQ, (4) Adaptability EQ, and (5) General Mood EQ.
Fourth model: A theory of performance (Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee, 2002). The roots of his theory are based on the idea that emotional intelligence leads to human behavior and that to possess a high level of emotional intelligence promotes specific competencies that distinguish star from average performers in organizations. In this sense, he defined emotional competence as "a learned capability based on emotional intelligence that results in outstanding performance at work" (Goleman, 1998).
The current model of competencies reflects four domains that complete the puzzle of emotional intelligence (Boyatzis, Goleman and Rhee, 2000): Self-Awareness, Self-Management, Social Awareness and Relationship Management
Conceptualization: An Integrated Approach
Once the most influential models have been presented, there is still the open question with which the section started. Are they complementary or exclusive? How can we understand the different conceptualization of Emotional Intelligence? Is this a sign of the impossibility of defining the concept? From my point of view, this is definitively not the case. The study of the human mind and its implications in behavior is an extremely complex issue. In addition, different perspectives may co-exist focusing their attention on different elements.
The emotional intelligence models presented adopted different approaches. The Mayer and Salovey Model puts an emphasis in the relationship between cognition and emotion, talking about mental 'abilities' and eliminating human behavior as not important for their construct. Bar-On Model, on the contrary, focuses its interest in the relationship between emotions and motivation, thus, defining a model of well-being. Motivation is linked with the fulfillment of some unsatisfied needs. When emotions helps to move forward the reduction of internal tensions, satisfaction and well-being occur as tension is reduced and the need subsides, usually to be replaced by awareness of another need that requires attention (Auerback and Dolan, 1997). Finally, Goleman's Model centers its attention to the relationship between emotions and human behavior. These considerations may lead us to think that the different approaches of emotional intelligence may coexist together (figure 3).
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To focus research efforts in different aspects of emotions can help to develop different theoretical models, all valid. And adding the knowledge of all of them may help us to understand the construct deeply. "While some argue that the goal of research should be to identify and define a singular theoretical framework to be labeled as 'correct' version of emotional intelligence, another approach would be to acknowledge that having multiple theories can often serve to elucidate additional aspects of complex psychological constructs" (Emmerling and Goleman, 2003).
Within the integrated approach proposed, it seems plausible that the different models may coexist together as their theoretical bases are complementary. The debates within the field discussing this possible harmony of the theoretical models are intensified by Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2000) that make a distinction between EI models that are mixed and those that are pure models, or ability models, focusing exclusively on cognitive attitudes. Mixed models, they argue, contain a “mélange of abilities, behaviors and general disposition and conflate personality attributes - such as optimism and persistence - with mental ability”.
But, instead of debating whether emotional intelligence is a disposition or an ability, "it may be wiser to say that the processing of emotional experience involves both specific abilities and particular personality traits" (McCrae, 2000).
Operationalization: Measurement proposals.
The theoretical coherence between the different conceptualizations of emotional intelligence has been established. These differences result in distinct approaches of operationalizing the construct (Dulewicz, Higgs and Slaski, 2003). The purpose of this section is to review the coherence between them.
Petrides and Furnham (2000) proposed the establishment of a theoretical distinction between trait and information-processing emotional intelligence. “Trait EI appertains to the greater personality realm whereas information-processing EI is an attempt to chart new territory in the field of human mental ability” (Petrides and Furnham, 2000). This distinction takes into account the theories and measurement approaches. They proposed that “it is the type of measurement rather than the theory per se that determines the nature of the model” (Petrides and Furnham, 2001).
The two constructs are not mutually exclusive and therefore may coexist (Petrides and Furnham, 2000). “Given that intelligence and personality are essentially independent domains one would expect trait EI to be related to personality, but not to ability factors. Ability EI should certainly be related to cognitive ability” (Petrides and Furnham, 2001).
The distinction between trait and information-processing emotional intelligence may not include the Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee (2002) model, as it is not framed exclusively in a personality framework nor in a psychometric intelligence structure one. As mentioned, it is focus in the relationship between emotion and performance.
A new theoretical distinction will be proposed to make sure that the three models in the field fit in it. There are two main types of measures: self-report and abilities tools. The theories behind the ‘abilities’ tool reflect, as mentioned, emotional intelligence within the psychometric tradition. On the contrary, theories behind the ‘self-report’ tools may differ in nature. First, a personality framework that leads to well-being may be outlined. Second, an action framework that leads to effective performance may be traced.
Trait-EI needs a broader scope than their concept that leaves aside the theory of Goleman and Boyatzis’ model. The behavioural component of emotions is crucial (e.g. Fridja, 2001) and has a critical character in the intelligence conceptualization.
This enrichment of the trait-EI scope is grounded on the contextualized integrated approach model and reflects the potential roles of emotional intelligence in everyday life (Ciarrochi, Forgas and Mayer, 2001). Emotional intelligence impacts on three main components: (1) On how the individual experiences life events, that is closely linked with the emphasis of the Salovey and Mayer model; (2) On how people adapt to these life events, that is related to wellbeing and therefore, to the Bar-On model; and, (3) on their life outputs, such as mental health, relationship quality, work success and physical health, that is located within the theory of performance of the Goleman and Boyatzis model.
The information processing-EI deals with the cognitive individual processes. And the trait-EI has two different approaches (even if both use self-report measurement tools): 1) the ‘adaptation’ branch that is reflected in the proposal from Reuven Bar-On and deals with the individual adaptation to his/her environment (Bar-On, 1997, 2000); and 2) the ‘action’ branch that is reflected by the proposal by Goleman et al. (2002) that offers a theory of performance by linking adaptation to life outcomes.
The reader can notice that in this section the model of Howard Gardner has not been considered. This is because Gardner does not make any measurement proposal and, consequently, it makes not sense to include his theory in the Operationalization section.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper reviewed the current state of the art of the emotional intelligence field. The integrated approach helped to clarify how emotional intelligence can be understood in its broad conceptualization, which is the cornerstone for conducting rigorous scientific research. Further research is needed to explore the integrated approach of emotional intelligence, where different approaches may coexist.
The most serious weakness within the emotional intelligence research is “the lack of specific, measurable operationalizations of the various components of this rather vaguely defined notion” (Fox and Spector, 2000). Further research is needed for understanding how the theoretical constructs are operationalized. In this sense, it is crucial to develop adequate measurement tools to guide and interpret investigation in the correct way (e.g. Bar-On and Parker, 2000; Boyatzis and Sala, 2003; Petrides and Furnham, 2000; Dawda and Hart, 2000).
Among other reasons the upsurge in interest in emotional intelligence development is the claim that it is linked to success in life outcomes (e.g. Goleman, 1995, 1998; Dulewicz, Higgs and Slaski, 2003). Research is needed to study how can emotional intelligence be developed (Higgs and Dulewicz, 2002) and how to demonstrate a firm relationship between emotional intelligence and actual work place performance outcomes (Sala, 2004), which connection is assumed by most academics and practitioners but little research has demonstrated this predictive validity.
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Table 1. Classification of modern theories of emotion
Table 2. Theoretical Framework
Table 3. Theoretical Framework and Theoretical EI Models
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