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Presidents of the United States

Washington, George, 1732-99, 1st president of the U.S., commander in chief of the Continental Army in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION, called the Father of his Country; b. Feb. 22, 1732 (Feb. 11, 1731, O.S.), Westmoreland co., Va., into a wealthy family. He became a surveyor as a young man and was one of the principals of the OHIO COMPANY, whose purpose was the exploitation of Western lands. An officer in the militia, he fought in the last of the FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS and was named (1755) commander in chief of the Virginia militia with the rank of colonel. He resigned in 1759, married, and turned his attention to his plantation, MOUNT VERNON. He was a delegate (1774-75) to the CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, which named him commander of the Continental forces after the outbreak of hostilities with the British. He assumed command (July 3, 1775) in Cambridge, Mass., and succeeded in capturing Boston from the British (Mar. 17, 1776). Unable to defend New York City (see LONG ISLAND, BATTLE OF), he was forced to retreat successively to Westchester co., New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. He developed his military skill by trial and error as he went along. On Christmas night, 1776, with morale at its lowest ebb, he and his troops crossed the Delaware R. and defeated the British at Trenton and Princeton, N.J. Less successful in his attempts to defend Philadelphia at BRANDYWINE and Germantown, he spent the winter of 1777-78 at VALLEY FORGE in great misery and deprivation. But he emerged with increased powers from Congress and a well-trained, totally loyal army. After the battle of MONMOUTH (June 28, 1778), his fortunes improved and subsequent victories preceded the surrender of Gen. Cornwallis on Oct. 19, 1781 (see YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN). Washington retired to Mount Vernon, but his dissatisfaction with the new government (see CONFEDERATION, ARTICLES OF) led him back into public life. He presided over the second FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION (1787), where his prestige and reputation were incalculable in the adoption of the CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. He was chosen unanimously as the first president and took office on Apr. 30, 1789. His efforts to remain aloof from partisan politics were unsuccessful, and the influence of Alexander HAMILTON moved him increasingly toward conservatism. His second term, openly Federalist, was bitterly criticized by the Jeffersonians. Sickened by the partisan struggles, he refused a third term and retired for the last time to Mount Vernon in 1797. He died two years later, universally regarded as the one without whom the American Revolution and the new republic could not have succeeded. His wife, Martha Washington, 1731-1802, was born Martha Dandridge in New Kent co., Va. Her first husband, by whom she had two children, was Daniel Parke Custis, who died in 1757, leaving her one of the wealthiest women in Virginia. She and Washington had no children.

Adams, John, 1735-1826, 2d president of the U.S. (1797-1801); b. Quincy (then in Braintree), Mass.; father of JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. He graduated from Harvard Univ. in 1755 and became a lawyer. As a moderate but forceful leader of the group who opposed British measures leading to the AMERICAN REVOLUTION, he later served in both CONTINENTAL CONGRESSES and argued eloquently for the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, which he signed. Adams served the new nation as a diplomat, negotiating the Treaty of PARIS (1783) to end the Revolution and serving (1785-88) as envoy to Great Britain. He became Pres. WASHINGTON's vice president (1789-97) and in 1797 succeeded him as president. Adams's administration as president revealed his honest and stubborn integrity. Although allied with Alexander HAMILTON and the conservative, property-respecting Federalists, he was not dominated by them in their struggle with the Jeffersonians (see JEFFERSON, THOMAS). By conciliation he prevented war with France (see XYZ AFFAIR). He did not wholly support the ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS. After 1801 he lived in retirement in Quincy. His wife, Abigail (Smith) Adams, 1744-1818, b. Weymouth, Mass., was the chief figure in the social life of her husband's administration. Lively and intelligent, she was one of the most distinguished and influential of American first ladies.

Jefferson, Thomas, 1743-1826, 3d president of the U.S. (1801-9); b. Goochland (now in Albemarle) co., Va. A member (1769-75) of the Virginia house of burgesses, he was a leader of the patriot faction. At the Second CONTINENTAL CONGRESS he drafted the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, a historic document that reflects his debt to John LOCKE and other philosophers. In 1779 he became governor of Virginia, guiding that state through the troubled last years of the AMERICAN REVOLUTION. A member (1783-84) of the Continental Congress, Jefferson drafted a plan for decimal coinage and drew up an ordinance for the Northwest Territory that formed the basis for the ORDINANCE OF 1787. In 1785 he became minister to France. Appointed secretary of state (1790-93) in Pres. WASHINGTON's cabinet, Jefferson defended agrarian interests against the Federalist policies of Alexander HAMILTON and led a group called the Republicans-antecedents of the present DEMOCRATIC PARTY. He served as vice president (1797-1801) and protested the passage of the ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS by writing the Kentucky Resolutions (see KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS). The Republicans triumphed at the polls in 1800, but Aaron BURR, who had been slated to become vice president, tied Jefferson in the presidential vote. Jefferson was finally chosen president by the House of Representatives, largely on the advice of Hamilton, who considered Jefferson less dangerous than Burr. Jefferson was the first president inaugurated in Washington, a city he had helped to plan. He instituted a republican simplicity in the city and cut federal expenditures. He believed that the federal government should be concerned mainly with foreign affairs, leaving local matters to the states and local authorities. Usually strict in interpreting the Constitution, he pushed through the LOUISIANA PURCHASE of 1803, an action which it did not expressly authorize. He also planned the LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION. During his second administration, difficulties arose from attacks on neutral U.S. shipping by the warring powers of Britain and France. With such measures as the EMBARGO ACT of 1807 he tried to use economic pressure to gain a solution, but this aroused strong opposition in the U.S. In retirement after 1809 at his beloved home, Monticello, Jefferson brought about the founding of the Univ. of Virginia, and continued his lifelong interests in science, architecture, philosophy, and the arts.

Madison, James, 1751-1836, 4th president of the U.S. (1809-17); b. Port Conway, Va. An early opponent of British colonial measures, he helped draft the Constitution for the new state of VIRGINIA (1776), served in the Continental Congress (1780-83, 1787), and was a member of the Virginia legislature (1784-86). He was active in the call for the ANNAPOLIS CONVENTION (1786), and his contributions at the FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION (1787) earned him the title "master builder of the Constitution." A principal contributor to the Federalist Papers, he was largely responsible for securing ratification of the Constitution in Virginia. As a congressman from Virginia (1789-97), he was a strong advocate of the Bill of Rights. A steadfast enemy of the financial measures of Alexander HAMILTON, he was a leading Jeffersonian and drew up the Virginia resolutions protesting the Alien and Sedition Acts (see KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS). After Jefferson triumphed in the presidential election of 1800, Madison became (1801) his secretary of state. He succeeded Jefferson as president in 1809. The unpopular and unsuccessful WAR OF 1812, known disparagingly as "Mr. Madison's War," was the chief event of his administration. His term in office witnessed the beginning of postwar national expansion and the rise of Jacksonian democracy. Retiring in 1817, he lived quietly at Montpelier with his wife, Dolley Madison, 1768-1849, b. Guilford, co., N.C., as Dolley Payne. She married Madison in 1794 (her first husband had died in 1793). As official White House hostess for Thomas Jefferson (who was a widower) and for her husband, she was noted for the magnificence of her entertainments, as well as for her charm, tact, and grace.

Monroe, James, 1758-1831, 5th president of the U.S. (1817-25); b. Westmoreland co., Va. He fought in several campaigns in the AMERICAN REVOLUTION and was wounded at Trenton. He studied law with Thomas JEFFERSON (1780-83) and served in the Virginia legislature (1782) and the Continental Congress (1783-86), where he opposed the Constitution for creating an overly centralized government. In the U.S. Senate (1790-94), he was a staunch Jeffersonian and a violent opponent of the FEDERALIST PARTY. Governor of VIRGINIA from 1799 to 1802, and again in 1811, he undertook diplomatic missions to England, Spain, and France, and helped negotiate (1803) the LOUISIANA PURCHASE. He served as James MADISON's secretary of state (1811-17), doubling briefly as secretary of war (1814-15). Monroe was easily elected president in 1816 and again in 1820. His administration was characterized as an "era of good feeling." He signed the MISSOURI COMPROMISE, settled boundaries with Canada, and acquired Florida (1819). In 1923 he issued the MONROE DOCTRINE, one of the most important principles of U.S. foreign policy. At the end of his term, he retired to his estate, Oak Hill, near Leesburg, Va.

Adams, John Quincy, 1767-1848, 6th president of the U.S. (1825-29); b. Quincy (then in Braintree), Mass; son of John and Abigail ADAMS; father of Charles Francis Adams (see ADAMS family). As U.S. senator from Massachusetts (1803-8), he angered his fellow Federalists by supporting Jeffersonian policies (see JEFFERSON, THOMAS). He gained fame as secretary of state (1817-25) for Pres. James MONROE, his greatest achievement being the MONROE DOCTRINE. Elected president (1825) in the House of Representatives through the support of Henry CLAY, Adams had an unhappy, ineffective administration, despite his attempts to institute a program of internal improvements. He won new respect as a U.S. representative from Massachusetts (1831-48), eloquently attacking all measures that would extend SLAVERY.

Jackson, Andrew, 1767-1845, 7th president of the U.S. (1829-37); b. Waxhaw Settlement, on the border of North and South Carolina. Jackson helped to draft the Tennessee Constitution and was elected (1796) to the U.S. Congress. In the WAR OF 1812 he defeated the CREEK at Horseshoe Bend (Mar. 1814), was made a major general, and decisively defeated seasoned British troops at New Orleans (Jan. 8, 1815). In 1818 he led a reprisal against the Seminoles in Florida and captured Pensacola, involving the U.S. in serious trouble with Spain and Britain. The conduct of Old Hickory, as he was called, pleased the people of the West. He was the greatest hero of his time and became associated with increased popular participation in government. This so-called Jacksonian democracy almost won him the presidency in 1824, but the election ended in the House of Representatives, with a victory for J.Q. ADAMS. Jackson was elected president in 1828 and brought a strong element of personalism to Washington. His KITCHEN CABINET was powerful, and the SPOILS SYSTEM developed. Jackson and Vice Pres. J.C. CALHOUN differed on NULLIFICATION, and Calhoun resigned (1832). Jackson's fight against the BANK OF THE UNITED STATES was an important issue in the election of 1832, in which he defeated Henry CLAY. He then transferred federal assets from the bank to chosen state, or "pet," banks. In 1836 he issued the Specie Circular, which said that all public lands must be paid for in specie and which hastened the Panic of 1837.

Van Buren, Martin, 1782-1862, 8th president of the U.S. (1837-41); b. Kinderhook, N.Y. A lawyer, he became active in New York State Democratic politics and one of the leaders of the ALBANY REGENCY. He served (1821-28) in the U.S. Senate. Elected governor of NEW YORK in 1828, he became one of Andrew Jackson's supporters and resigned (1829) to become Jackson's secretary of state (1829-31). He was Jackson's running mate in the 1832 presidential election and was elected vice president. Largely through Jackson's influence, he was the Democratic candidate for president in 1836 and won. He intended to continue Jackson's policies, but the Panic of 1837 and the hard times that followed made him very unpopular. To meet the economic crisis, he proposed (1837) the INDEPENDENT TREASURY SYSTEM. In foreign affairs, he attempted to mediate the differences with Great Britain that arose from the CAROLINE AFFAIR and the AROOSTOOK WAR. He was defeated for reelection in 1840 by William Henry HARRISON, the WHIG PARTY candidate. He remained a power in Democratic politics, but in 1848 he ran for president as the candidate of the FREE-SOIL PARTY and managed to throw the election to Zachary TAYLOR. He supported Abraham LINCOLN in the secessionist crisis.

Harrison, William Henry, 1773-1841, 9th president of the U.S. (Mar. 4-Apr. 4, 1841); b. Charles co., Va. Following service against the Native Americans in the Old Northwest, Harrison was governor (1800-1812) of the Indiana Territory and engaged the forces under TECUMSEH in the battle of Tippecanoe (1811). In the WAR OF 1812 he recaptured Detroit from the British and defeated a combined force of British and Native Americans in the battle of the Thames (1813). He was a U.S. congressman (1816-19) and senator (1825-28) from Ohio. Gaining the WHIG PARTY presidential nomination in 1840, he and his running mate, John TYLER, ran a "rip-roaring" campaign with the slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler too." On becoming president he selected a brilliant Whig cabinet, but he died after only a month in office. He was the grandfather of Benjamin HARRISON.

Tyler, John, 1790-1862, 10th president of the U.S.; b. Charles City co., Va. Educated in law at the College of William and Mary, he was the son of John Tyler (1747-1813), governor of Virginia from 1808 to 1811. The younger Tyler also was governor (1825-27) of VIRGINIA and U.S. senator (1827-36). A moderate states' rights Democrat, he was a reluctant supporter of Andrew JACKSON during his two terms as president but eventually broke with the Democrats and joined the new WHIG PARTY. In 1840 he was running mate to the Whig presidential candidate, William Henry HARRISON, and they waged the victorious "Tippecanoe and Tyler too" campaign. Harrison died on Apr. 4, 1841, after only one month as president, and Tyler became the first vice president to succeed to the presidency. Tyler was never close to the Whig leaders, particularly Henry CLAY, and after he vetoed Whig measures and his cabinet had resigned, he quickly alienated most of them and found himself a president without a party. The Whigs rejected him in 1844 and nominated Clay. Tyler's chief accomplishments as president were the WEBSTER-ASHBURTON Treaty (1843) with Great Britain and the annexation of Texas as a state.

Polk, James Knox, 1795-1849, 11th president of the U.S. (1845-49); b. Mecklenburg co., N.C. He practiced law in Columbia, Tenn., before serving in the state legislature (1823-25) and the U.S. House of Representatives (1825-39), where he was Speaker (from 1835) and a leading Jacksonian Democrat. He was elected (1839) governor of TENNESSEE but was defeated for reelection by the Whig candidate. When the 1844 Democratic convention became deadlocked, Polk, a "dark horse," was advanced as a compromise candidate for president and won nomination. He narrowly defeated Henry CLAY in the 1844 election. As president, Polk proved to be his own man, even ignoring former Pres. Andrew JACKSON's wishes on several matters. His promises to achieve "four great measures"-reduction of the tariff, reestablishment of an independent treasury, settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute, and acquisition of California-were kept. Despite the aggressive Democratic slogan of FIFTY-FOUR FORTY OR FIGHT, Polk resolved the dispute with Britain over OREGON by adopting the 49th parallel as the territory's northern boundary. His ordering U.S. troops to the Rio Grande brought about the MEXICAN WAR, which resulted in U.S. acquisition not only of California but of the entire Southwest. Few presidents have equaled Polk's record of attaining his stated aims. Hard work undermined his health, however, and he died a few months after leaving office.

Taylor, Zachary, 1785-1850, 12th president of the U.S. (1849-50); b. Orange co., Va. He joined the army in 1808, winning the nickname "Old Rough and Ready" in the BLACK HAWK WAR (1832) and in campaigns against the SEMINOLE in Florida. He took command (1845) of the army in Texas and won victories in the MEXICAN WAR, concluding with the decisive battle of Buena Vista (1847) against great odds. A popular hero, he was elected president on the Whig ticket in 1848. As president, he supported the WILMOT PROVISO and favored the rapid admission of California and New Mexico to the Union. His free-soil views put him in opposition to the measures that became the COMPROMISE OF 1850. Charges of corruption were lodged against members of his cabinet, but before he could order a reorganization he died of cholera on July 9, 1850. He had been in office only one year and four months. He was succeeded by Millard FILLMORE.

Pierce, Franklin, 1804-69, 14th president of the U.S. (1853-57); b. Hillsboro, N.H. He served in the New Hampshire legislature (1829-33) and in the U.S. Congress (1833-42), resigning from the Senate to practice law in Concord, N.H. In 1852, as the compromise "dark horse" presidential candidate of the badly divided Democratic party, he defeated the Whig candidate, Gen. Winfield SCOTT. Pierce's failures to unite the Democrats and to implement his expansionist foreign policy made him appear a weak, vacillating president. His one solid achievement in foreign affairs was the GADSDEN PURCHASE from Spain. Although he had favored the COMPROMISE OF 1850 on the slavery issue, he backed the KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT of 1850 that precipitated virtual civil war between the pro- and antislavery forces in Kansas. The act enraged many Northerners and caused Pierce to be so unpopular that the Democrats passed him over for renomination; James BUCHANAN succeeded him as president. Pierce's opposition to the CIVIL WAR made him more than ever disliked in the North, where he died in obscurity.

Buchanan, James, 1791-1868, 15th president of the U.S. (1857-61); b. near Mercersburg, Pa. A learned lawyer, he was a congressman (1821-31) and senator (1834-45) from Pennsylvania. At first a Federalist, he became a conservative Democrat and was Pres. POLK's secretary of state (1845-49) during the MEXICAN WAR. Under Pres. PIERCE, he was (1853-56) minister to Great Britain and helped draft the OSTEND MANIFESTO. In 1856 he was elected president. Believing slavery was morally wrong but not unconstitutional, he tried to keep the "sacred balance" between proslavery and antislavery factions, but his views alienated radicals in both North and South. After the 1860 election was won by Abraham LINCOLN, Buchanan was faced with the crisis of secession. Believing that states did not have the right to secede nor the federal government the right to coerce them, he promised there would be no hostile moves during negotiations. Shortly after, gunfire there set off the CIVIL WAR.

Lincoln, Abraham, 1809-65, 16th president of the U.S. (1861-65); b. Hardin co. (now Larue co.), Ky. Born in a log cabin in the backwoods, Lincoln was almost entirely self-educated. In 1831 he settled in New Salem, Ill., and worked as a storekeeper, surveyor, and postmaster while studying law. The story of his brief love affair there with Ann RUTLEDGE is now discredited. In 1834 he was elected to the state legislature, and in 1836 he became a lawyer. He served one term (1847-49) in Congress as a Whig; in 1855 he sought to become a senator but failed. In 1856 he joined the new REPUBLICAN PARTY. He ran again (1858) for the Senate against Stephen A. DOUGLAS, and in a spirited campaign he and Douglas engaged in seven debates. Lincoln was not an ABOLITIONIST, but he regarded slavery as an evil and opposed its extension. Although he lost the election, he had by now made a name for himself, and in 1860 he was nominated by the Republicans for president. He ran against a divided Democratic party and was elected with a minority of the popular vote. To the South, Lincoln's election was a signal for secession. By Inauguration Day seven states had seceded, and four more seceded after he issued a summons to the militia. It is generally agreed that Lincoln handled the vast problems of the CIVIL WAR with skill and vigor. Besides conducting the war, he faced opposition in the North from radical abolitionists, who considered him too mild, and from conservatives, who were gloomy over the prospects of success in the war. His cabinet was rent by internal hatred, and the progress of the war went against the North at first. In 1863 he moved to free the slaves by issuing the EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION, but preserving the Union remained his main war aim. His thoughts on the war were beautifully expressed in the GETTYSBURG ADDRESS (1863). In 1864 Lincoln ran for reelection against George B. MCCLELLAN and won, partly because of the favorable turn of military affairs after his appointment of Gen. U.S. GRANT as commander-in-chief. Lincoln saw the end of the war but did not live to implement his plan for RECONSTRUCTION. On Apr. 14, 1865, while attending a play at Ford's Theater, in Washington, D.C., he was shot by the actor John Wilkes Booth (BOOTH, JUNIUS BRUTUS). He died the next morning. As time passed a full-blown "Lincoln legend" grew, and he became the object of adulation and a symbol of democracy. His wife, Mary Todd Lincoln, 1818-82, b. Lexington, Ky., met and married Lincoln in 1842. The harsh portrayal of her by Lincoln's biographer William H. HERNDON is certainly exaggerated. Only one of their four sons, Robert Todd Lincoln, 1843-1926, b. Springfield, Ill., reached manhood. He served as secretary of war (1881-85) and minister to Great Britain 1889-93). A corporation lawyer for railroad interests, he was president of the Pullman Co. (1897-1911).

Johnson, Andrew, 1808-75, 17th president of the U.S. (1865-69); b. Raleigh, N.C. A self-educated tailor, he rose in Tennessee politics to become congressman (1843-53), governor (1853-57), and U.S. senator (1857-62). In Washington, Johnson voted with other Southern legislators on questions of slavery, but after Tennessee seceded (June 1861) he remained in the Senate and vigorously supported Pres. LINCOLN, who appointed him (1862) military governor of Tennessee. As a Southerner and a war Democrat, he was an ideal choice as a running mate to Lincoln on the successful Union ticket in 1864, and he succeeded to the presidency after Lincoln's assassination. As president he was denounced by the radical Republicans for his RECONSTRUCTION program, and in 1866 his political power began to decline sharply. When Johnson tried to force Secy. of War Edwin M. Stanton-whom he rightly suspected of conspiring with congressional leaders-out of office, the radical Republicans sought to remove the president. On Feb. 24, 1868, the House passed a resolution of IMPEACHMENT against him. The most important of the charges, which were purely political, was that he had violated the TENURE OF OFFICE ACT in the Stanton affair. On Mar. 5 the Senate was organized as a court to hear the charges. The president himself did not appear. In spite of tremendous pressure brought to bear on several senators, the Senate failed to convict by one vote. Johnson's administration had some accomplishments, notably the purchase (1867) of Alaska. After his presidency he was returned (1875) to the Senate from Tennessee, but died shortly afterward.

Hayes, Rutherford Birchard, 1822-93, 19th president of the U.S. (1877-81); b. Delaware, Ohio. A lawyer, he became (1858) city solicitor of Cincinnati. In the CIVIL WAR he took part in some 50 engagements and rose in rank to a major general of volunteers (1865). Hayes served (1865-67) as a Republican in Congress and was three times elected (1867, 1869, 1875) governor of Ohio. In 1876, chosen as the Republican candidate for president, he ran against Democrat Samuel J. TILDEN. In the election the returns of South Carolina, Louisiana, Florida, and Oregon were disputed, and Congress created an electoral commission to decide the result. The commission awarded all the disputed returns to Hayes, thus giving him a majority of one in the electoral college. Indignation over this partisan decision affected Hayes's administration, which was generally conservative and efficient and no more. He withdrew federal troops from Louisiana and South Carolina, ending the RECONSTRUCTION era. An advocate of hard money, he vetoed the BLAND-ALLISON ACT, which was passed nonetheless.

Garfield, James Abram, 1831-81, 20th president of the U.S. (March-Sept., 1881); b. Cuyahoga co., Ohio. He served in the Union army until 1863, when he became a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives, and followed his party's radical RECONSTRUCTION program. Elected president in 1880, he declared war on the leading faction of his party by appointing James G. BLAINE secretary of state (passing over the "Stalwarts" of the influential Roscoe CONKLING); won a victory with his appointment for port collector of New York; and began prosecution of frauds in the U.S. postal service. But on July 2, 1881, he was shot by a disappointed office seeker, Charles J. Guiteau. Garfield died Sept. 19 and was succeeded by Vice President Chester A. ARTHUR.

Arthur, Chester Alan, 1830?-86, 21st president of the U.S. (1881-85); b. Fairfield, Vt. A lawyer, he was appointed (1871) collector of the port of New York. His removal (1878) by Pres. HAYES angered Sen. Roscoe CONKLING and other New York Republicans, but they were placated in 1880 by Arthur's nomination as vice president on the Republican ticket with James A. GARFIELD. Succeeding to the presidency after Garfield's assassination, Arthur had an honest, efficient, and dignified administration. He supported the civil service reform act of 1883 and vetoed a Chinese exclusion bill that violated a treaty with China.

Cleveland, (Stephen) Grover, 1837-1908, 22d (1885-89) and 24th (1893-97) president of the U.S.; b. Caldwell, N.J. He was mayor of Buffalo (1882-83) and governor of New York (1883-85). An enemy of machine politics, he was named the Democratic "clean government" candidate to oppose James G. BLAINE in 1884, and was elected after a bitter campaign. As president he pursued his conscientious, independent course, offending the zealots of his party by his moderate use of the SPOILS SYSTEM. In the 1888 election, Cleveland campaigned on a lower tariff, but in spite of a popular majority he lost the election to Benjamin HARRISON. The panic of 1893 struck a hard blow at his second administration, and he angered radical Democrats by securing repeal of the SHERMAN SILVER PURCHASE ACT. The party rift widened when he refused to sign his tariff measure as altered by the protectionist Sen. A.P. Gorman. In the Pullman strike (1894), he sent in troops and broke the strike on grounds that the movement of the U.S. mail was being halted. In foreign affairs he took a strong stand on the VENEZUELA BOUNDARY DISPUTE, and refused recognition to a Hawaiian government set up by Americans. Cleveland's independence marked him as a person of integrity.

Harrison, Benjamin, 1833-1901, 23d president of the U.S. (1889-93); b. North Bend, Ohio. A grandson of William Henry HARRISON, he commanded an Indiana volunteer regiment in the CIVIL WAR, became a corporate lawyer, and served (1881-87) as U.S. senator from Indiana. The Republicans chose him (1888) as presidential candidate against Grover CLEVELAND. After what has been called the most corrupt campaign in U.S. history, he was elected by the electoral college, though Cleveland had won the popular vote. He approved all regular Republican measures, including the highly protective McKinley Tariff Act. The first Pan-American Conference was held (1889) during his administration. Defeated (1892) for reelection by Cleveland, he later represented Venezuela in the VENEZUELA BOUNDARY DISPUTE.

McKinley, William, 1843-1901, 25th president of the U.S. (1897-1901); b. Niles, Ohio. As congressman from Ohio (1877-91), he strongly advocated a protective tariff, and the McKinley Tariff Act of 1890 cost him his congressional seat. With the support of Ohio political boss Marcus A. HANNA, McKinley was elected governor in 1891 and 1893. Again with Hanna's help, he won the Republican nomination for president in 1896. Running against William Jennings BRYAN on a platform advocating a protective tariff and endorsing the gold standard, McKinley was elected. His administration was marked by adoption of the highest tariff rate in U.S. history, annexation of Hawaii, the OPEN DOOR policy in China, and the Currency Act of 1900, which consolidated the gold standard. Foreign affairs were dominated by the brief SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, from which the U.S. emerged a world power. McKinley was reelected in 1900. He was shot in Buffalo, N.Y., by Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist, on Sept. 6, 1901, and died on Sept. 14.

Roosevelt, Theodore, 1858-1919, 26th president of the U.S. (1901-9); b. N.Y.C. The delicate son of a distinguished family, he made determined efforts to overcome the frail health that would markedly affect his character. After graduating (1880) from Harvard, he served (1882-84) as a Republican state legislator. Bereaved by the deaths (1884) of his mother and his wife, Alice Hathaway Lee, he retired to his ranch in the Dakota Territory. Returning to New York in 1886, he married Edith Kermit Carow and served on the Civil Service Commission, as head (1895-97) of the New York City police board, and as assistant secretary (1897-98) of the navy. In 1898 he formed, with Leonard WOOD, the ROUGH RIDERS regiment that fought in Cuba during the SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR; he came home a hero. He was elected (1900) vice president under William MCKINLEY, and upon McKinley's assassination in Sept. 1901 became president at the age of 42. An activist and an innovative leader, he set about "trust busting" by initiating some 40 lawsuits against the big trusts. He also fathered important conservation legislation. His championship of the rights of the "little man" captured the people's imagination, and he was reelected (1904) by a landslide. His second administration secured passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. His progressive reforms aimed at regulation, not abolition, of big business. Roosevelt decisively increased the power of the president, particularly in foreign affairs. Claiming that the U.S. had the right to impose order in Latin America, he intervened (1903) in a civil war in Panama to foster construction of the PANAMA CANAL. He mediated (1904) the end of the RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR, for which he won the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize. Although he had hand-picked William Howard TAFT to succeed him, he became angry at Taft's apparent lack of progressive principles and split the Republican party in 1912 by running for president as the third-party PROGRESSIVE, or Bull Moose, candidate. He outpolled Taft but lost the election. During his busy career he found time for big game hunting and for writing many books.

Taft, William Howard, 1857-1930, 27th president of the U.S. (1909-13) and 10th chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1921-30); b. Cincinnati. He was secretary of war (1904-8) and a close adviser to Pres. Theodore ROOSEVELT. Running as Roosevelt's successor in 1908, he defeated William Jennings BRYAN. He continued Roosevelt's policies, i.e., "trust busting" and, in Latin America, "dollar diplomacy," but he was more conservative than Roosevelt and antagonized the progressive elements in his party. His relations with Roosevelt deteriorated, and in 1912 he found himself running for reelection against his former mentor, who had formed the PROGRESSIVE PARTY (Bull Moose party). The Republican vote was split, and the Democratic candidate, Woodrow WILSON, won. Taft was appointed (1921) chief justice by Pres. HARDING; his chief contribution to the court was his administrative efficiency. His son, Robert Alphonso Taft, 1889-1953, was a U.S. senator from Ohio (1938-53) and the leader of conservative Republicans. An opponent of Pres. F.D. ROOSEVELT's New Deal, he was a leading advocate of isolationism before World War II. He helped write the Taft-Hartley Labor Act (1947). He strongly opposed postwar Democratic policies, voting against ratification of NATO and condemning the Korean and China policies of the Truman administration. Known as "Mr. Republican," he was a three-time candidate (1940, 1948, 1952) for the Republican presidential nomination. He served briefly (1953) as Senate majority leader until his death.

Wilson, (Thomas) Woodrow, 1856-1924, 28th president of the U.S. (1913-21); b. Staunton, Va. He was educated in law at Princeton Univ., the Univ. of Virginia, and Johns Hopkins Univ. (Ph.D., 1886). A noted scholar, he taught at Bryn Mawr College and Wesleyan Univ. before becoming (1890) professor of jurisprudence and political economy at Princeton. In 1902 he became president of Princeton. In 1910 he was elected governor of New Jersey on a reform Democratic ticket. As governor (1911-13) he accomplished various important reforms. At the 1912 Democratic convention he was nominated for president on the 46th ballot, largely through the efforts of W.J. BRYAN and E.M. HOUSE. He was elected president when the Republican vote was split between W.H. TAFT and Theodore ROOSEVELT. Wilson's domestic program, known as the "New Freedom," was generally progressive; among its accomplishments were the FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM (1913), the FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION (1914), and the Clayton Antitrust Act (1914). In foreign affairs, the early difficulties with Mexico (see HUERTA, VICTORIANO; VILLA, FRANCISCO) were soon overshadowed by the outbreak of WORLD WAR I in Europe. Wilson's early efforts to maintain U.S. neutrality were shaken by the sinking (1915) of the LUSITANIA and other German aggressions. Nevertheless, he ran for reelection in 1916 on the boast of having "kept us out of war," and narrowly defeated Charles Evans HUGHES, the Republican candidate. Relations with Germany continued to deteriorate and war was declared on Apr. 6, 1917. Wilson viewed the war as necessary to make the world "safe for democracy" and quickly put the nation on a war footing. Looking forward to peace, he enunciated his plans for its implementation with his FOURTEEN POINTS. When the war ended, he sailed (Dec., 1918) for Europe to take part in the peace talks. Wilson's idealism was widely admired in Europe, and he was looked upon as the best hope for a just peace. Despite his disappointment with the eventual treaty (see VERSAILLES, TREATY OF), he pinned his great hopes on the LEAGUE OF NATIONS. At home, however, isolationism had reasserted itself, particularly among the Republicans in Congress. Wilson's last efforts as president were spent in a futile attempt to win U.S. ratification of (and thus membership in) the League. Exhausted from his labors, he suffered a stroke in Sept. 1919 and never fully recovered. He was awarded the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize.

Harding, Warren Gamaliel, 1865-1923, 29th president of the U.S. (1921-23); b. Blooming Grove (now Corsica), Ohio. An Ohio Republican, Harding was elected (1914) to the U.S. Senate and was a compromise choice as Republican presidential candidate in 1920. His administration had one achievement-the calling (1921) of the Washington NAVAL CONFERENCE. He had promised

to appoint a cabinet of the "best minds," but in 1923 came rumors of government scandals.

Harding died suddenly (Aug. 1923) in San Francisco on his way back from Alaska. He thus was spared the public exposure of the TEAPOT DOME scandal and the humiliation of seeing his cabinet appointees, Albert B. Fall and Harry M. Daugherty, brought to the bar of justice. Harding's administration has been called one of the most corrupt in U.S. history. He was succeeded by Calvin COOLIDGE.

Coolidge, Calvin, 1872-1933, 30th president of the U.S. (1923-29); b. Plymouth, Vt. In his first year as governor of Massachusetts (1919-20) he became nationally known for using the militia to end a Boston police strike. He was U.S. vice president (1921-23) before becoming president upon the death of Warren G. HARDING. Coolidge's New England simplicity and personal honesty were appealing. His faith in laissez-faire business, economy in government, and tax cuts, and his opposition to agricultural price fixing all reflected the national mood. Through his public statements he encouraged the stock market speculation of the late 1920s and left the nation unprepared for the economic collapse that followed. He chose not to run again in 1928.

Hoover, Herbert Clark, 1874-1964, 31st president of the U.S. (1929-33); b. West Branch, Iowa. Before 1914 he was a mining engineer and consultant. During World War I he headed food and relief bureaus in Europe. As secretary of commerce (1921-29) under HARDING and COOLIDGE, he fostered trade associations and supported such engineering projects as the St. Lawrence Waterway and the Hoover Dam. He easily won the 1928 Republican presidential nomination and defeated Democrat Alfred E. SMITH. His administration was dominated by the GREAT DEPRESSION, ushered in by the stock market crash of Oct. 1929. Believing that the economy would regenerate spontaneously, Hoover was reluctant to extend federal activities. But he did begin a large public works program, and the RECONSTRUCTION FINANCE CORPORATION was created (1932). Congress, controlled by Democrats after 1930, passed the Emergency Relief Act and created the federal home loan banks. In 1932 some 15,000 ex-servicemen, known as Bonus Marchers, marched on Washington to demand immediate payment of their World War I bonus certificates. Hoover ordered federal troops to oust them from government property. The U.S. took part in the London NAVAL CONFERENCE of 1930 and the abortive DISARMAMENT CONFERENCE. In 1931 Hoover proposed a one-year moratorium on REPARATIONS and war debts to ease the financial situation in Europe. He ran for reelection in 1932 but was overwhelmingly defeated by Franklin D. ROOSEVELT. Later Hoover coordinated (1946) food supplies to war-ravaged countries and headed (1947-49) the Hoover Commission, which recommended administrative reforms of the executive branch. He headed a second commission (1953-55), which studied policy and organization.

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 1882-1945, 32d president of the U.S. (1933-45); b. Hyde Park, N.Y. The scion of an old, wealthy New York family, he earned (1905) a law degree at Columbia Univ. and entered politics by winning election (1910) to the state senate. As leader of the anti-Tammany Democratic reformers, he campaigned for Woodrow WILSON in the 1912 election. He served as assistant secretary of the navy (1913-20) and ran as vice presidential candidate with James Cox on the losing Democratic ticket in 1920. The next year he was stricken with poliomyelitis; though crippled for life, he eventually regained partial use of his legs. He supported Gov. Al SMITH's presidential candidacy and, at Smith's urging, ran successfully for governor in 1928. Reelected in 1930, Gov. Roosevelt learned to deal with the problems of the GREAT DEPRESSION. Nominated by the Democrats in 1932, he defeated Pres. HOOVER. The new president, taking office at the height of the economic crisis, assured troubled Americans that "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself." He acted quickly during the so-called Hundred Days (Mar.-Jan. 1933) to rush through Congress a flood of fiscal and social reform measures aimed at reviving the economy by a vast expenditure of public funds. He set up many new agencies, including the NATIONAL RECOVERY ADMINISTRATION and the PUBLIC WORKS ADMINISTRATION, to reorganize industry and agriculture under government regulation. These programs and social reforms, such as SOCIAL SECURITY, became known as the NEW DEAL. He was aided by a BRAIN TRUST of advisers, including Raymond Moley and Rex Tugwell, cabinet officers Henry WALLACE and Harold ICKES, and special counsellor Harry HOPKINS. Roosevelt was the first president to broadcast over the radio; his "fireside chats" explained issues and policies to the people. He easily won reelection in 1936. But the U.S. SUPREME COURT declared a number of New Deal measures unconstitutional, and he failed (1937) in an attempt to reorganize the Court. In foreign affairs his administration recognized (1933) the Soviet Union and initiated a "good neighbor" policy toward Latin America. With the outbreak (1939) of World War II, Roosevelt extended aid to Britain and began LEND LEASE, while building up U.S. armed forces by the first peacetime SELECTIVE SERVICE (1940). He broke precedent by seeking and winning (1940) a third presidential term and, later (1944), a fourth. After the Japanese attack on PEARL HARBOR, Roosevelt, as commander in chief, directed the nation's immense war effort, held conferences with Winston CHURCHILL and other Allied leaders, and worked to establish the UN. On April 12, 1945, he died suddenly from a cerebral hemorrhage.

Truman, Harry S, 1884-1972, 33rd president of the U.S.; b. Lamar, Mo. He grew up on a farm near Independence, Mo., and served in World War I. In 1919 he married Elizabeth (Bess) Virginia Wallace; they had one daughter, Mary Margaret. After a decade in local Democratic politics, he was elected U.S. senator in 1934 and reelected in 1940. During World War II, he achieved national prominence as chairman of a committee investigating government spending. He was nominated for vice president in 1944 and elected along with Pres. Franklin D. ROOSEVELT. Roosevelt's death on Apr. 12, 1945, thrust Truman into the presidency at a crucial time-the closing days of World War II. After the war in Europe ended on May 8, Truman authorized the use of the ATOMIC BOMB against Japan at HIROSHIMA (Aug. 6) and NAGASAKI (Aug. 9). On Aug. 14, Japan surrendered. Truman's domestic program, essentially a continuation of Roosevelt's NEW DEAL, was frustrated by the resurgence of the Republicans, who won control of Congress in 1946. In foreign affairs, increasing tensions with the USSR resulted in the COLD WAR. Truman took increasingly tough stands. The Truman Doctrine (1947) was aimed at protecting Greece and Turkey from Communist domination. The MARSHALL PLAN (1947) was designed to effect the economic recovery of Western Europe. NATO (1949) was a multinational defense plan. In the 1948 presidential election Truman won a stunning (and unexpected) victory over Thomas E. DEWEY. Foreign affairs also dominated his second term, particularly American involvement in the KOREAN WAR. Truman chose not to run for reelection in 1952 and retired to Independence. His term of office was marked by controversy from beginning to end. Among his controversial acts were his decision to use the atomic bomb, the "loss" of China to the Communists, and his firing of Gen. Douglas MACARTHUR during the Korean War. He was much respected for his plain speaking and for his ability to make hard decisions, however, and during the 1970s public opinion polls consistently showed him to be among the most admired of American presidents.

Eisenhower, Dwight David, 1890-1969, American general and 34th president of the U.S. (1953-61); b. Denison, Tex.; his nickname was "Ike." A West Point graduate, he had a meteoric rise as a military commander during WORLD WAR II. In 1942 he became chief of army operations in Washington, D.C. Later that year he was named U.S. commander of the European theater of operations, and in 1943 he became supreme commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force. Eisenhower coordinated and directed the Allied invasion of Europe in June 1944. In Dec. 1944 he was made general of the army (five-star general) and upon his return to the U.S. became army chief of staff (1945-48). He was president of Columbia Univ. from 1948 to 1950 and in 1950 was named supreme commander of the Allied forces in Europe. After organizing the defense forces of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Eisenhower resigned (1952) from the army to campaign for the Republican presidential nomination. Popularity as a World War II hero brought him an easy election victory over his Democratic opponent, Adlai E. STEVENSON. One of Eisenhower's first moves as president (July 1953) was to fulfill a campaign promise to end the KOREAN WAR. He and his secretary of state, John Foster DULLES, continued the TRUMAN administration's policy of containing Communism, but attempts were also made to ease cold-war tensions. In domestic affairs, Eisenhower remained aloof from the legislative process and took few initiatives. Despite a heart attack (1955) he easily won reelection in 1956. His administration then took a more active role in the growing CIVIL RIGHTS movement. In 1957 federal troops were sent to Little Rock, Ark., to enforce a court-ordered school desegregation decision, and later Congress enacted federal civil-rights legislation. Also in 1957, the president promulgated the so-called Eisenhower doctrine, which committed the U.S. to an active role in the Middle East to protect the region from Communist aggression. Tensions with the Soviet Union increased, however, and a summit meeting (1960) with Nikita KHRUSHCHEV ended abruptly because of conflict over U.S. espionage flights over the USSR. In 1959 the coming to power of the Communist Fidel CASTRO in Cuba posed other problems, and Eisenhower broke diplomatic relations with Cuba just before leaving office in Jan. 1961.

Kennedy, John Fitzgerald, 1917-63, 35th president of the U.S. (1961-63); son of Joseph P. Kennedy; brother of Robert Francis Kennedy and Edward Moore Kennedy (see KENNEDY, family); b. Brookline, Mass. After enlisting in the U.S. navy in World War II, he served with distinction as commander of a PT boat in the Pacific. He was a Democratic congressman from Massachusetts (1947-53) and in 1952 won a seat in the U.S. Senate. The next year he married Jacqueline Lee Bouvier (see ONASSIS, JACQUELINE BOUVIER). Kennedy narrowly lost the Democratic vice presidential nomination in 1956 and in 1960 won the party's presidential nomination. He defeated Republican Richard NIXON, becoming at 43 the youngest man to be elected president. His domestic program, the New Frontier, called for tax reform, federal aid to education, medical care for the aged under Social Security, and the extension of civil rights. Many of his reforms, however, stalled in Congress, and foreign-affairs crises occupied much of his time. He was much criticized for his approval for the abortive BAY OF PIGS INVASION (1961) of Cuba. In Oct. 1962 U.S. reconnaissance planes discovered Soviet missile bases there. In the ensuing CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS, Kennedy ordered a blockade of Cuba and demanded the removal of the missiles. After a brief and tense interval, the USSR complied with his demands. The next year the U.S. and the Soviet Union signed a limited treaty banning nuclear tests. Kennedy also increased the number of U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam to about 16,000 (see VIETNAM WAR). He established the Alliance for Progress to give economic aid to Latin America and created the PEACE CORPS. He also pressed hard to achieve racial INTEGRATION in the South. On Nov. 22, 1963, Kennedy was shot and killed in Dallas, Tex. Vice Pres. Lyndon JOHNSON succeeded him as president. The WARREN COMMISSION, appointed to investigate the assassination, concluded that it was the work of a single gunman, Lee Harvey Oswald. In 1979, however, the House Select Committee on Assassinations, relying in part on acoustical evidence, concluded that a conspiracy was "likely" and that it may have involved organized crime.

Johnson, Lyndon Baines, 1908-73, 36th president of the U.S. (1963-69); b. near Stonewall, Tex. As a Democratic congressman from Texas (1937-49) he supported Pres. F.D. ROOSEVELT's New Deal. He was elected senator in 1948 and became majority leader following the 1954 elections. After losing the 1960 presidential nomination to J.F. KENNEDY, Johnson agreed to become Kennedy's running mate. After Kennedy's assassination (Nov. 22, 1963) Johnson was immediately sworn in as president. Announcing that he would carry out the late president's programs, he skillfully prodded Congress into enacting (1964) an $11 billion tax cut and a sweeping Civil Rights Act. Elected (1964) to a full term, he launched a program of social and economic welfare programs to create what he termed the Great Society. It included Medicare and Medicaid (see HEALTH INSURANCE), federal aid to education, increased antipoverty programs (including HEAD START), and the 1965 Voting Rights Act. The Dept. of TRANSPORTATION and the Dept. of HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT were created. Johnson's domestic achievements, however, were soon obscured by foreign affairs. When North Vietnam allegedly attacked (Aug. 1964) U.S. destroyers, Congress passed the TONKIN GULF RESOLUTION, which gave the president authority to take any action necessary to protect U.S. troops. Johnson began (Feb. 1965) the bombing of North Vietnam and increased U.S. forces in South Vietnam to nearly 550,000 (1969). The VIETNAM WAR aroused widespread opposition in Congress and among the public, and rioting (1968) in the African-American ghettos of U.S. cities further marred his presidency. In 1965 Johnson sent U.S. troops into the DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. He announced (Mar. 1968) that he would not run for reelection and retired to his Texas ranch. In 1934 he had married Claudia Alta Taylor (nicknamed Lady Bird), b. 1912; they had two children, Lynda Bird (now Mrs. Charles S. Robb) and Luci Baines.

Nixon, Richard Milhous, 1913-1994, 37th president of the U.S. (1969-74); b. Yorba Linda, Calif. As a Republican U.S. representative from California (1947-51) he gained national prominence for his investigation of Alger HISS. In the Senate (1951-53), he attacked the Democratic administration as favorable to Socialism. He was elected to the vice presidency on the Republican ticket with Dwight D. EISENHOWER in 1952; they were reelected in 1956. Kept closely informed, Nixon played an important role in government affairs. He ran for president in 1960 but was defeated by John F. KENNEDY, and in 1962 he was defeated in the race for governor of California. In 1968 he again won the Republican presidential nomination and, with his running mate, Spiro T. AGNEW, defeated Hubert H. HUMPHREY and George C. WALLACE. As president, Nixon achieved a cease-fire in the VIETNAM WAR, but only after he had ordered invasions of Cambodia (1970) and Laos (1971) and the saturation bombing of North Vietnam. In other areas of foreign affairs, he initiated strategic arms limitation talks with the Soviet Union (1959) and visited (1972) the People's Republic of China. At home, he reversed many of the social and economic welfare programs of Pres. JOHNSON's administration and, hoping to woo the South into the Republican party, weakened the federal government's commitment to racial equality. His administration was plagued by economic woes that led to the imposition (1971) of wage and price controls. Despite these problems, he and Agnew were easily reelected in 1972, winning a landslide victory over George S. MCGOVERN. (Agnew was forced to resign in 1973 and was replaced by Gerald R. Ford.) Investigations into the WATERGATE AFFAIR and studies by the Internal Revenue Service revealed pervasive corruption in Nixon's administration, and in 1974 the U.S. House of Representatives began impeachment proceedings. After completing its investigations, the House Judiciary Committee recommended (July 27-30) three articles of impeachment: obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and failure to comply with congressional subpoenas. On Aug. 5 Nixon admitted that he had ordered the FBI to stop investigating the Watergate burglary. On Aug. 9 he became the first president to resign. His successor, Gerald R. FORD, granted him a full pardon, quashing the possibility of criminal proceedings.

Ford, Gerald Rudolph, 1913-, 38th president of the U.S. (1974-77); b. Omaha, Nebr., as Leslie Lynch King, Jr. (he later took the name of his stepfather). A Republican congressman from Michigan (1949-73), he served (1965-73) as Republican minority leader in the House and was (1968, 1972) permanent chairman of the Republican National Convention. In 1973 Ford became the first appointed vice president of the U.S. (see CONSTITUTION) when he succeeded Spiro T. AGNEW. When Nixon resigned (Aug. 9, 1974) amidst the WATERGATE AFFAIR, Ford became president; one month later he issued a pardon to Nixon. As president, Ford continued Nixon's foreign policy and advocated anti-inflationary measures and limited social spending at home. A presidential candidate in 1976, he lost the election to Democrat Jimmy CARTER. His defeat was attributed to an economic recession and high inflation, and to his pardon of Nixon.

Carter, Jimmy (James Earl Carter, Jr.), 1924-, 39th president of the U.S. (1977-81); b. Plains, Ga. A graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md. (1946), he served in the U.S. navy and in 1953 returned to his family's peanut farm, which he built into a prosperous business. As governor of Georgia (1970-75), he reorganized the state executive branch and sponsored consumer and land-use legislation. After a spectacularly successful campaign for the 1976 Democratic presidential nomination, Carter, although a Southerner and political outsider, narrowly defeated the Republican candidate, Pres. Gerald FORD; his running mate was Walter MONDALE. Carter's presidency was plagued by difficult relations with Congress, which ratified his two Panama Canal treaties (1977) giving eventual control of the canal to Panama, but would not ratify his arms limitation treaty with the Soviet Union (1979). He was successful, however, in effecting (1979) a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel (see CAMP DAVID ACCORDS). During Carter's term of office the U.S. suffered high interest rates, inflation, and then recession, all of which he had little success in controlling. In Nov. 1979 a group of Muslim militants in Teheran, Iran, took some 50 U.S. citizens hostage and held them until Jan. 1981. Carter's failure to attain their release before the 1980 presidential election contributed to his defeat by Ronald REAGAN. Since leaving office, Carter has been active in human rights issues, often serving internationally as an observer during first-time free elections.

Reagan, Ronald Wilson, 1911-, 40th president of the U.S. (1981-88); b. Tampico, Ill. A film actor who was president of the Screen Actors Guild, he was a supporter of the NEW DEAL long before he joined the Republican party in 1962 and began to champion right-wing causes. As governor of California for two terms (1967-75), he cut state welfare and medical services and education funds. After leaving office, he campaigned for the 1976 Republican presidential nomination but lost narrowly to Pres. Gerald FORD. Four years later he won the nomination and, with his running mate, George BUSH, resoundingly defeated Pres. Jimmy CARTER. His presidency had barely begun when he was shot by a would-be assassin, John Hinckley, Jr., on Mar. 30, 1981; he recovered quickly. Advocating a balanced budget to combat inflation, he reversed long-standing political trends by obtaining Congressional passage of large income-tax cuts, decreased social-program spending, and increased defense spending (for both conventional weapons and such programs as the STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE). He was reelected in 1985, defeating Democratic candidate Walter MONDALE. Reagan adopted a firm stance in relations with the USSR and against possible Communist expansion, especially in Central America (see IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR). Nonetheless, he made important steps in U.S./Soviet nuclear disarmament negotiations, signing the INF treaty with the USSR (see DISARMAMENT, NUCLEAR). His tax and spending policies, however, led to enormous peacetime budget deficits, greatly increasing the national debt.

Bush, George Herbert Walker, 1924-, 41st president of the U.S. (1989-93); b. Milton, Mass. A graduate of Yale Univ., he was a Navy fighter pilot in World War II and after 1953 headed an oil-drilling firm in Texas. In 1966 he was elected to the first of two terms as a Republican representative from Texas. He was ambassador to the UN (1971-73), chairman of the Republican National Committee (1973-74), chief of the U.S. liaison office in China (1974-75), and director of the CIA (1976-77). After losing the 1980 Republican presidential nomination to Ronald REAGAN, Bush served as his vice president (1981-89). In 1988, Bush and running mate Dan QUAYLE defeated Michael DUKAKIS in the presidential election. Faced with escalating budget deficits, he abandoned his electoral pledge of "no new taxes" and accepted a tax package that was designed to reduce the deficit but largely failed to do so as recession and an anemic recovery combined to produce the lowest growth rate since the GREAT DEPRESSION. In foreign affairs, he ordered an invasion of Panama (1989) to depose Manuel NORIEGA, and in 1990 he committed the U.S. to the reversal of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, which was achieved (1991) in the PERSIAN GULF WAR. Bush signed (1991, 1992) nuclear DISARMAMENT agreements with the USSR and Russia that called for substantial cuts in nuclear arms. He was defeated (1992) in his bid for reelection by Democrat Bill CLINTON.

Clinton, Bill (William Jefferson Clinton), 1946-, 42d president of the U.S. (1993-); b. Hope, Ark., as William Jefferson Blythe III. A graduate of Georgetown Univ. and Yale Law School and a Rhodes scholar, he was a lawyer and (1974-76) law professor. In 1974 he was an unsuccessful Democratic candidate for the U.S. Congress from Arkansas. In 1976 he was elected Arkansas attorney general, and in 1978 he won the Arkansas governorship, becoming the nation's youngest governor, but he failed to win reelection in 1980. He ran again in 1982 and won and was reelected twice (1986, 1990). A moderate Democrat, he headed (1990-91) the centrist Democratic Leadership Council. In 1992 he won the Democratic presidential nomination, and he and running mate Al GORE defeated Pres. George BUSH and independent candidate Ross PEROT in the presidential election. He won (1993) passage of tax increases and spending cuts to reduce the federal deficit and of a national service program. He also proposed changes in the U.S. health care system that ultimately would provide health insurance coverage to most Americans. His wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, 1947-, b. Chicago, is also a lawyer. She was in private practice from 1977 until 1992 and is an expert on children's rights. After her husband's election as president, she co-chaired the administration task force that examined, and proposed changes in, the U.S. health system.

PRESIDENTS

1.George Washington(1789-1797)

Judiciary Act-1789: Supreme Court with six justices

Hamilton’s Financial Program: favored the wealthier

created First Bank(1791-1811)

Tariff Law-1789: low tariff of 8% on the value of dutiable goods

Excise Tax leads to Whiskey Rebellion( 1789, Penn.)

Emergence of political parties: Hamiltonian Federalists(Pro-British)

Jeffersonian Anti- Federalists(Pro-French)

Jay’s Treaty with England(1795) failure

Pickney’s Treaty with Spain(1795) opened Miss. River

2. John Adams(1787-1801) Federalist

X,Y,Z Affair(1798) French Minister Talleyrand refuses

The Alien Act/Sedition Act(1798)

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: opposition to 1789’s Acts

Midnight Judges(1801)

3. Thomas Jeffereson(1801-1809)Republican

Revolution of 1800: peaceful transfer of powers

Marbury vs. Madison: only Supreme Court can interpret Constitution

Louisiana Purchase(1803): Napolean sold it for $15 million

Embargo Act of 1807: no goods from US

Non -Intercourse Act of 1809: to avoid war

4. James Madison(1809-1817)Republican

Macon’s Bill No. 2: permitted trade once again

Bank expires(1811)

The War of 1812: brought on by War Hawks

The Treaty of Ghent(X-mas Eve 1814)

The Hartford Convention: Federalists discontent

First Protective Tariff(1816)

5. James Monroe(1817-1825)Republican

Panic of 1819

Marshall’s Decisions:McCulloch vs. Maryland(1819)-Bank of US cant be taxed

Dartmouth College vs.Woodward(1819)-contract is highest law

Gibben’s vs. Ogden(1824)-Congress controls Interstate Commerce

Florida Purchase of 1819

Monroe Doctrine(1823) :declared end of intervention of Americas

Missouri Compromise(1820)

6. John Quincy Adams(1825-1829)Republican

Tariff of Abominations: up to 45% in some cases

New York’s Erie Canal(1825)

Calhoun’s Exposition and Protest(1828): on Tariff

7. Andrew Jackson(1829-1837)Democrat

Jacksonian Democracy

Nullification Crisis of 1832: of Tariff(1832)

Compromise Tariff of 1833

Second Bank of US

Specie Circular: all public lands purchased with metallic money

Trail of Tears: transplantation of tribes to Oklahoma

Formation of Whig Party

8. Martin Van Buren(1837-1841)Democrat

Panic of 1837 due to: overspeculation of land

B.U.S. expired-1837

Unsound financing by state governments

9. William Henry Harrison(1841)Whig

Vice President-John Tyler

DIED

10. John Tyler(1841-1845)Anti-Jackson Democrat

Wesbster- Ashburton Treaty(1842):Canada- Maine Boundary-45th parallel

settled other issues as well

Vetoes Clay’s Bill for 3rd B.U.S.

11. James K. Polk(1845-1849)Democrat

Texas becomes a state(1845)

Oregon boundary settled(1846)

Mexican War(1846-48)

Guadalupe- Hidalgo Treaty(1848)

Mormon Migration to the Great Salt Lake(1846)

Wilmot Proviso- kept slavery out of the newly acquired territory

12. Zachary Taylor(1849-1850)Whig

V.P.- Millard Fillmore

DIED

13. Millard Fillmore(1850-1853)Whig

Compromise of 1850:settled the disagreements between North and South concerning slavery

Clayton- Bulwer Treaty(1850):Britain and the US agree not to expand if the canal is built

Uncle Tom’s Cabin(1852)

14. Franklin Pierce(1853-1857)Democrat

Gadsen Purchase (1853)

Japan opens to world trade(1853)

Kansas- Nebraska Bill(1854): popular sovereignty

Bleeding Kansas

Underground railroad created even more tension between North and South

The Panic of 1857:several years of overspeculation in RR and lands

faulty banking practices

loss of European capitol into American investments due to Crimean War

Ousted Manifesto(1854):desire for Cuba from Spain for $100,000,000

15. James Buchanan(1857-1861)Democrat

Taney’s Dredd Scott Case(1857)

Lincoln- Douglas Debates(1858)

John Brown’s Raid: Harper’s Ferry

16. Abraham Lincoln - Republican, Vice President Andrew Johnson 1861-65

President during the Civil War, Issued the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, supposedly freeing slaves in the Confederate States. In 1862, Homestead Act was passed under his administration, as well as the Morill Act, which created agricultural colleges. He issued the famous Gettysburg Address ("Four score and seven years ago..."). He is praised for being one of the greatest presidents ever, esp. for keeping the union whole. He was assassinated in 1865 by John Wilkes Booth at the Ford Theater.

17. Andrew Johnson - Republican, no v.p. 1865-69

Johnson succeeded Lincoln. Under his administration, the 13th, 14th (granting citizenship to all those born in the U.S.) and the 15th amendments were passed. The Reconstruction Acts were passed in 1867, which put the South under full military occupation, set up new state governments, and gave blacks the right to vote and hold office. The Tenure of Office Act was passed in 1867, which forbade the president to remove certain officeholders without the approval of the Senate. This was a result of Johnson trying to get rid of Sec. of War Edwin Stanton. In 1868, he dismissed Stanton, whereupon he was impeached. During Johnson's administration, the KKK started up strongly again. Also - late in 1865 and early in 1866, state laws, known as Black Codes, were passed, which discriminated against southern blacks.

18. Ulysses S. Grant - Republican, v.p.'s Schuyler Colfax and Henry Wilson 1869-77

He was a Union general in the Civil War. Under his administration, the 15th amendment was passed, giving citizens the right to vote, regardless of race. The first transcontinental railroad was constructed during his administration. In 1873, widespread bank failures caused great panic and set off a five year long depression. In 1875, the Civil Rights Act was passed, giving equal rights to African Americans in public accommodations and jury duty. The Whiskey Ring Scandal was one of the most notorious presidential scandals ever, and it sought to evade U.S. taxes in the manufacture of whisky. The Tweed Ring and Credit Mobiler (political figures took bribes from a railroad company in exchange for political favors) occurred during his two terms. He was a popular but unsuccessful president.

19. Rutherford B. Hayes - Republican, v.p. William A. Wheeler 1877-81

Within two months of his taking office, all the federal troops withdrew from the South, ending the Reconstruction era. The Bland-Allison Act was passed and this allowed for the unlimited coinage of silver.

20. James A. Garfield - Republican, v.p. Chester A. Arthur 1881

He was assassinated shortly after taking an oath by Charles J. Guiteau Guiteau shot him saying, "I am a Stalwart and Arthur is president now."

21. Chester A. Arthur - Repulican, no v.p. 1881-1885

The Pendleton Civil Service Act, a major reform of civil service, was signed in 1883.

22. Grover Cleveland - Democrat, v.p.'s Thomas Hendricks and Adlai Stevenson 1885-1889 and 1893-1897

In 1887, the Interstate Commerce Act was passed. This was the first major federal program to regulate railroads and private businesses. Also noted for the Knights of Labor, Haymarket riot and the case of Washburn vs. Illinois. Cleveland is often praised for his honesty. He was president during the panic of 1893 and the Pullman Strike. He was criticized for not lowering the Tariff of 1894. He served two separate terms.

23. Benjamin Harrison - Republican, v.p. Levi Morton 1889-1893

In 1890, four major bills were signed during Harrison's administration. The Sherman Antitrust Act outlawed trusts and monopolies that hindered trades. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act increased amounts of silver that could be coined. The McKinley Tariff Act set duties at record high levels. The Dependent Pension Act benefited Civil War veterans. In 1889, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington became part of the union, and in 1890, Idaho and Wyoming joined.

24. Grover Cleveland Second Term, see above

25. William McKinley - Republican, v.p. Hobart and Roosevelt 1897-1901

During William's administration, the Dingly Tariff passed, raising the tariff to a 57%. McKinley was president during the Spanish American War, although he himself was peace-loving. Many Americans were worried that the U.S. was becoming an imperialistic nation, with the acquisition of the Hawaiian Islands and the Philippines. Boxer Rebellion - 1900, in which the Chinese revolted against foreign domination, the Open-Door policy formed as a result, which was a policy of equality of trade with China and respect for its territorial integrity. McKinley was assassinated in 1901 by Leon F. Czolgosz, an anarchist.

26. Theodore Roosevelt - Republican, v.p. Charles Fairbanks 1901-09

He was a strong nationalist, expanded the power of the presidency, increased regulation of business and encouraged labor movement, concerned with conservation of natural resources. He had a "Square Deal" program, in which he believed that he should represent all the people and went on to dispell the trusts. Believed that U.S. should police all of the Western Hemisphere. Corollary to Monroe Doctrine - US had a right to intervene the internal affairs of Latin American countries unable to keep order. The Hepburn Act of 1906 passed, which regulated railroads, a meat inspection measure of 1906 passed, the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 and employers' liability legislation of 1906 and 1908 also passed. Responsible for the building of the Panama Canal. He organized the progressive, or "Bull Moose" party.

27. William Taft - Republican, v.p. James Sherman 1909-1913

In 1909, the Payne-Aldrich Act was passed, which lowered tariffs. New Mexico and Arizona were admitted to the Union in 1912. A huge controversy occurred that lost Taft much support among the Republicans. Roosevelt had hired Gifford Pinchot, a nature lover. Pinchot and Ballinger, Pinchot's superior, got into an argument about a piece of land in Alaska. Taft sided with Ballinger, and then removed Pinchot from office, losing him popularity.

28. Woodrow Wilson - Democrat, v.p. Thomas Marshall 1913-21

Under his administration, the 16th (authorizing income taxes), the 17th (calling for direct popular election of senators), the 18th (Prohibition) and the 19th (giving women the right to vote) Amendments were passed. The Underwood Tariff of 1913 - reductions in tariff rate and a modest income tax. Wilson created the Federal Reserve System and won two measures for more effective control of business - the Federal Trade Commission Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act. He was essential in the Treaty of Versailles and his "Fourteen Points" speech to put an end to WWI.

29. Warren G. Harding - Republican, v.p. Calvin Coolidge 1921-23

"Dark Horse Candidate" In 1922, the Fordney-McCumber Act was signed, raising tariffs on manufactured goods. Officials under his administration were responsible for the Teapot Dome Scandal, in which Sec. of the Interior Fall was bribed to lease to private oil companies some valuable oil deposits that belonged to the Navy, at Teapot Dome.

30. Calvin Coolidge - Republican, v.p. Charles Dawes 1923-29

He was responsible for the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928, in which an agreement "to renounce war as an instrument of national policy," was signed by 15 nations. Popular, but did not choose to run for a second term.

A.Took office after Harding's death

B.Hard-nosed and rigid; very frugal

C."High priest of the great god Business"

D.Implemented a "hands-off" economic policy

1.Gave the country 5.5 years prosperity blessed years

E.Gave republicans and the Harding regime a boost in moral perception

F.Twice vetoed the farmers' supported McNary-Haugen Bill

G.Won the presedential election of 1924

H.Continued republican tradition of isolationism

I.Kept a tight-fisted approach to European World War I debts and spurned resentment from many of those countries

31. Herbert Hoover-Republican

A.Won presidential election of 1928

1.Took platform of prosperity and prohibition

B.A self-made man and brilliant businessman, he stuck to:

1.Avoiding foreign entanglements

2.American individualism

3.Free enterprise

4.Small government

C.Standoffish and stiff, yet zealous and inspired loyalty

D.Recoiled from anything suggesting socialism or "planned economy"

E.First years were prosperous

1.Soaring stocks

2.Paper profits

F.Was in office when the stock market crashed and the Great Depression began

1."Black Tuesday"-Oct. 29, 1929

G.His expenditures for relief paved the way for the "New Deal"

H.Established the foundation stones of the "Good Neighbor" policy to Latin countries

32. Franklin Roosevelt (FDR)-Democrat

A.Won presidential election of 1932

1.Golden voice and commanding presence

2.Sponsored heavy state spending to relieve human suffering

3.Deep concern for plight of the "forgotten man"

4.Promised balanced budget and sweeping economic and social reforms

5.Pledged to the American people a new deal

B.Was the beginning of a heavy shift of blacks to the Democratic party

C.Enacted the "New Deal"-many progressive ideas

1.Relief

2.Recovery

3.Reform

a.unemployment insurance, old age insurance, minimum wage regulation, conservation and development of natural resources, and restrictions on child labor

D.Was famous for fire-side chats

E.Wanted to curb "money-changers"

F.Won presidential election of 1936

1.Platform stood squarely on the record of the New Deal days

G.Tried to restucture Supreme Court in 1937

1.Was heavily criticized for this

H.By 1938 the "New Deal" had failed to cure the depression

I.In 1933 he formally recognised the Soviet Union

J.Officially established "Good Neighbor Policy"

K.Pre-WWII, he believed in preparedness, but stuck with neutrality

1.He broke neutrality standards many times

L.In 1940 he broke two-term tradition and won the presidential election

M.FDR authorized numerous lend-lease shipments

N.Established a close relationship with Winston Churchill

O.Won presidential election of 1944

1.Served his fourth term and died in office

33. Harry S. Truman-Democrat

A.Took over in office after Roosevelt's death in 1945

B.Known for courage and decisiveness

C.Led us into the Cold War

D.Implemented the "Containment doctrine" for Soviet challenges

E.Publicly adopted a "get tough with Russia" policy in 1947

F.The Truman Doctrine

1.Asked Congress $400 million to bolster Greece and Turkey against Communist aggression

G.Truman's Marshall Plan was huge success in European economic recovery

H.Truman ordered the construction of the hydrogen bomb

I.In favor of fair employment and civil rights

J.In 1947 Truman launched a massive "loyalty" program

1.Formed to seek out disloyal organizations

K.Won the presidential election of 1948

L."Point Four"

1.Lend money and technical aid to impoverished countries to resist Communism

M.Outlined the "Fair Deal" program in 1949

1.Raised minimum wage

2.Provided public housing

3.Old-age insurance through the Social Security Act

N.Ordered massive military build-up for Korean War

O.Truman believed in fighting the Communists in Korea

P.Removed General MacArthur from command in 1951 because of policy disputes

34. Dwight D. Eisenhower-Republican

A.Won presidential election of 1952

B.Was a celebrated military officer

C.Promised to end the Korean War

D.Critics say he cared more for social harmony than social justice

E.Little inclined towards promoting integration

F.Forced to action September 1957, ordered the National Guard to usher in 9 black students into a high school

G.Believed in "dynamic conservatism"

1.Strove to balance national budget

2.Guard against "creeping socialism"

3.Put the brakes on enormous military build-up

4.Extended Social Security benefits

H.Recession in 1957-58 left 5 million workers jobless

I.Foreign policy changed to rolling back the Red Tide while cutting the military budget

J.In the Vietnam conflict, "Ike" promised to back the conservative Diem regime

K.In the Suez Crisis, Ike sided against the British and France

L.Won the presidential election again in 1956

M.Ike bestirred himself in labor legislation to control collective bargaining in 1959

N.In 1958 the Eisenhower Doctrine gave aid to Lebanon and halted Soviet expansionism

35. John F. Kennedy-Democrat

A.Won the presidential election in 1960

1.Youngest man and first Catholic elected president

B.Promoted "New Frontier" programs

C.Launched huge program to land an American on the moon

D.In 1961 Kennedy ordered a sharp increase in military officers to Asia

E.Founded the Alliance for Progress for economic aid for Latin American countries

F.Forced the the Russians to back down from atomitizing Cuba in 1962

G.Laid down foundation for foreign policy known as "detente"

H.Assasinated November 22, 1963

36. Lyndon B. Johnson-Democrat

A.Proposed a billion-dollar "War on Poverty"

B.Dubbed his domestic program the "Great Society"

1.New Dealish economic and welfare measures aimed at transforming the American way of life

C.Won 1964 presidential election

1.Stood on an extremely liberal platform

D.Gave Medicare to the elderly in 1965

E.Named the first black cabinet member in nation's history

F.Plowed the Voting Rights Act through Congress

1.Eliminated voter discrimination

G.He poured immense amounts of soldiers and military supplies into the Vietnam War

1.Bent on saving Vietnam by destroying it

37. Richard Nixon-Republican

A.Won 1968 presidential election

B."Vietnamization", the slow release of troops from Vietnam

C.Nixon Doctrine

1.U.S. will stay out of future Asian wars

D.An uncompromising Anti-Communist

E.Nixon's Russian visit ushered in an era of relaxed tensions called detente

F.The ABM Treaty limited nuclear arms for both Russia and the U.S. and was the first of its kind

G.January 23, 1973 peace with Vietnam occurs

H.Watergate emerges in 1972

1.Nixon forced to resign

38. Gerald Ford-Republican

A.First person to be made president solely by a vote of Congress

1.August, 1974

B.Attacked inflation

C.Pardoned Nixon

40. Jimmy Carter-Democrat

A.Won 1976 presidential election

B.Worked to reform the American Tax System

C.Inflation ballooned while he was in office

41.Ronald Reagan-Republican

A.Won 1980 presidential election

B.Devoted to fiscal fitness

1.Tax cuts

2.Freezed government regulation

C.Tough on the Soviet Union

D.Plagued by Middle Eastern Crisises

E.Won 1984 presidential election

1."Second American Revolution"

42. George Bush-Republican

A.Won 1988 presidential election

43. Bill Clinton-Democrat

A.Won 1992 presidential election

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