Supporting files



Supporting filesLabels of supporting files:Supporting file 1: Stimulus materials (pictures and words)Supporting file 2: Apparatus of the studySupporting file 3: Details on the cognitive tasksReferences of all supporting files are included at the end of the document.S1: Stimulus materials (pictures and words)Procedure for the picture selectionRegarding addiction-related pictures, a preliminary study (unpublished work) was conducted with patients presenting with a BA and controls recruited through the network of the research team without BA (54 patients and 53 controls). For each type of addiction (gambling disorder (GbD), gaming disorder (GmD), sexual addiction (SA) and food addiction (FA)), a preselection of 60 addiction-related pictures and 30 neutral pictures (used only as distractors) in “Google Images” was conducted. The participants rated each picture for the emotional valence and arousal using the SAM scale (Self-Assessment Manikin, a Likert scale with nine levels ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"BCJ4TdKk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[1]","plainCitation":"[1]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":53,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":53,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Summary - The Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) is a non-verbal pictorial assessment technique\nthat directly measures the pleasure, arousal, and dominance associated with a person’s affective\nreaction to a wide variety of stimuli. In this experiment, we compare reports of affective experience\nobtained using SAM, which requires only three simple judgments, to the Semantic Differential scale\ndevised by Mehrabian and Russell (An approach to environmental psychology, 1974) which\nrequires 18 different ratings. Subjective reports were measured to a series of pictures that varied in\nboth affective valence and intensity. Correlations across the two rating methods were high both for\nreports of experienced pleasure and felt arousal. Differences obtained in the dominance dimension\nof the two instruments suggest that SAM may better track the personal response to an affective\nstimulus. SAM is an inexpensive, easy method for quickly assessing reports of affective response in\nmany contexts.","container-title":"Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry","DOI":"OCO-7916/94 $7.00 + 0.00","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry","page":"49-59","title":"Measuring emotion : The self-assessment Manikin and the semantic differential","volume":"25","author":[{"family":"Bradley","given":"Margaret M"},{"family":"Lang","given":"Peter J"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1994"]]}}}],"schema":""} [1]), as well as the level of connection with addiction using a 9-point Likert scale.Pictures with a low level of connection with addiction (score < 5) were removed from the picture set. Then, the pictures were ranked according to their connection with addiction, their arousal, and their valence, in this order. Finally, for each addiction, the ranked pictures were sorted depending on the preferred modality of the addiction depicted in it (see Table 4 for a detail of available modalities for each addiction). In the end, the picture set included the six pictures most related to addiction for each modality to be able to present twelve different pictures related to addiction for each task in the BANCO and BANCO2 studies. Indeed, the participants have to choose two modalities that reflect his/her preferences. The only exception is for FA with which the participant has to choose only one modality. As a consequence, the picture set is composed of twelve pictures of salted food, twelve pictures of sugar food, or a mix of six of each (twelve in sum) for the combined modality.Each addiction-related picture is paired with a positive, a negative, and two neutral pictures. Neutral, positive, and negative pictures come from the IAPS database (International Affective Picture System) ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"cWuY6R5I","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[2]","plainCitation":"[2]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":302,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":302,"type":"book","event-place":"Gainesville, Fla.","language":"English","note":"OCLC: 315231035","publisher":"NIMH, Center for the Study of Emotion & Attention","publisher-place":"Gainesville, Fla.","source":"Open WorldCat","title":"International affective picture system (IAPS): affective ratings of pictures and instruction manual. Technical report A-8","title-short":"International affective picture system (IAPS)","author":[{"family":"Lang","given":"Peter J"},{"family":"Bradley","given":"Margaret M"},{"family":"Cuthbert","given":"B. N"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":""} [2]. Positive and negative pictures are defined by a valence ranging from 6 to 9 and from 1 to 4, respectively, while neutral pictures correspond to pictures with a valence ranging from 4 to 6. For the positive pictures, those with the highest valence and with high arousal (>4) are favoured. For negative pictures, those with the lowest valence and with high arousal (>4) were favoured. Finally, for neutral pictures, those with the lowest arousal and the valence closest to 5 were favoured (see Additional Table 1 for characteristics). Neutral, positive, and negative pictures that included an element that can be related to addiction were excluded (e.g., for gambling: all pictures with horses, sports, or money). These pictures were matched with the addiction-related pictures based on the presence of faces, hands, animals, and actions and the global composition of the picture.Additional Table 1 Arousal and valence of picture stimuliAddiction stimuliNeutral stimuliPositive stimuliNegative stimuliValenceArousalValenceArousalValenceArousalValenceArousalMeanMeanMeanMeanMeanMeanMeanMean?Min-MaxMin-MaxMin-MaxMin-MaxMin-MaxMin-MaxMin-MaxMin-MaxGbD4,874,525,083,027,325,152,566,152,29 - 6,173,00 - 6,964,06 - 5,81,05 - 3,956,32 - 8,034,28 - 6,281,66 - 3,494,57 - 7,35GmD5,885,485,153,346,675,592,236,153,60 - 7,004,00 - 6,334,06 - 5,922,93 - 3,996,02 - 8,034,08 - 6,991,62 - 2,735 - 7,29SA5,334,524,923,886,785,242,1662,56-7,241,81 - 6,693,26 - 5,922,41 - 5,726,11 - 7,744,06 - 6,991,80 - 2,734,00 - 6,99FA5,346,14,883,47,134,922,545,613,70 - 6,304,60 - 6,964 - 5,991,72 - 4,886,05 - 8,033,57 - 6,441,62 - 2,964,26 - 7,15Procedure for the word selectionA first survey was disseminated across the professional and personal networks of the research team members to identify addiction-related words. A first list of 90 addiction-related words was constituted for each BA and was presented for rating during the initial picture rating. Addiction-related words were rated and selected using the same procedure as with the pictures. A neutral, a positive and a negative word were paired with each addiction-related word. Neutral, positive, and negative words came from the FAN database ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GqbjyBN9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[3,4]","plainCitation":"[3,4]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":304,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":304,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"The present study provides affective norms for a large corpus of French words (N = 1,031) that were rated on emotional valence and emotional arousal by 469 French young adults. Ratings were made using the Self-Assessment Manikin (Lang, 1980). By combining evaluations of valence and arousal, and including ratings provided by male and female young adults, this database complements and extends existing French-language databases. The response reliability for the two affective dimensions was good, and the consistency between the present and previous ratings was high. We found a strong quadratic relationship between the valence and arousal ratings. Perceptions of the affective content of a word were partly linked to sex. This new affective database (FAN) will enable French-speaking researchers to select suitable materials for studies of how the character of affective words influences their cognitive processing. FAN is available as an online supplement downloadable with this article.","container-title":"Behavior Research Methods","DOI":"10.3758/s13428-013-0431-1","ISSN":"1554-3528","issue":"4","journalAbbreviation":"Behav Res","language":"en","page":"1128-1137","source":"Springer Link","title":"Affective norms for french words (FAN)","URL":"","volume":"46","author":[{"family":"Monnier","given":"Catherine"},{"family":"Syssau","given":"Arielle"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",2,15]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",12,1]]}}},{"id":276,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":276,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Bulletin de psychologie","DOI":"10.3917/bupsy.477.0361","issue":"477","page":"361-367","title":"Evaluations des caractéristiques émotionneles d'un corpus de 604 mots","volume":"3","author":[{"family":"Syssau","given":"Arielle"},{"family":"Font","given":"No?l"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}}}],"schema":""} [3,4] and Bonin’s database ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"j7heLa0R","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[5]","plainCitation":"[5]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":303,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":303,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Summary : Concreteness, imageability, subjective frequency and emotionality ratings for 866 words. This article presents concreteness, imageability, subjective and emotional valence norms for a set of 866 words. The norms were collected front 97 participants, all French native speakers whose mean age was 23. Descriptive statistics and correlational analyses have been performed on these norms and on other estimated (age of acquistion, conceptual familiarity, image variability) and objective (word frequency) published indexes. The correlational analyses reveal the composite nature of certain estimations. In particular, subjective frequency and imageability are highly correlated with the other variables. Concreteness is highly correlated only with imageability and emotional valence, the lutter which is weakly correlated with the other variables. Researchers must have at their disposal such information in order to select stimuli in factorial studies or to perform multiple regression analyses. Key words : concreteness, imageability, subjective frequency, emotional valence.","language":"fr","page":"42","source":"Zotero","title":"Normes de concrétude, de valeur d'imagerie, de fréquence subjective et de valence émotionnelle pour 866 mots","author":[{"family":"Bonin","given":"P"},{"family":"Méot","given":"A"},{"family":"Aubert","given":"L"},{"family":"Malardier","given":"N"},{"family":"Niedenthal","given":"P"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]}}}],"schema":""} [5], although most of the words came from the FAN database. Indeed, Bonin’s database was only used for longer words (which were especially present for SA) because the FAN database lacked such long words (9 to 13 thirteen letters and one word of 4 letters because a matching negative word was lacking). As no information about their arousal was available in Bonin’s database and because valence was rated on a 5-point scale, the characteristics of these words were not included in the Additional Table 2. The same procedure used with the pictures was used for matching with the addiction-related words (see Additional Table 2 for numbers), except that words were also matched depending on their characteristics (number of letters, syllables, and phonemes).Additional Table 2 Arousal and valence of words stimuliAddiction stimuliNeutral stimuliPositive stimuliNegative stimuliValenceArousalValenceArousalValenceArousalValenceArousalMeanMeanMeanMeanMeanMeanMeanMean?Min-MaxMin-MaxMin-MaxMin-MaxMin-MaxMin-MaxMin-MaxMin-MaxGbD5,025,014,942,857,535,742,305,663,5 – 7,132,42 – 7,584,35 – 5,462,3 – 3,46,84 – 8,434,32 – 7,861,36 – 3,324,24 – 7,44GmD5,674,945,023,227,525,672,685,484,33 – 7,753,98 – 6,254,38 – 5,812,47 – 3,96,03 – 8,584,04 – 7,51,35 – 3,597,16 – 4,19SA5,284,774,93,547,25,572,265,822,88 – 7,662,5 – 6,714,08 – 5,622,47 – 3,926,13 – 8,584,04 – 7,51,35 – 3,654,28 – 7,44FA5,336,024,933,227,295,252?,296,121,6 – 7,254,04 – 7,44,08 – 5,592,35 – 3,896,13 – 8,434,04 – 7,191,36 – 3,434,47 – 7,44S2: Apparatus of the studyComputerized cognitive tasks are programmed and presented using SuperLab Pro 5 (Cedrus Corporation, San Pedro, CA, USA). A PC desktop computer displays the tasks (64 bits, 3.50 GHz processor). The participants are seated with their eyes 60 cm from the computer. The SV-1 voice detection device (Cedrus Corporation) records vocal responses during the Stroop task. The participants use the 7-button response pad RB-730 (Cedrus Corporation) for go-nogo, stop signal, Stroop, visual dot probe, and single key impulsivity paradigm tasks.During two tasks (Iowa gambling task and cue-reactivity task), various transducers record psychophysiological responses: A GSR amplifier (galvanic skin response) measures skin conductance levels using two sensors maintained by Velcro tape on the first phalanx of the forefinger and middle finger of the non-dominant hand (AdInstruments, Oxford, UK). A Trigno wireless ECG (electrocardiogram) sensor connected with two disposable electrodes, positioned in a bipolar configuration on the front of the two clavicles, measures inter-beat heart intervals (Delsys, Natick, MA, USA). A Trigno EMG (electromyogram) wireless system connected with miniature (25/12/7 mm) wireless surface EMG sensors positioned using specific adhesive skin interfaces measures the electrical activity of the zygomaticus major and the corrugator supercilii muscles (Delsys). Signals from the transducers are amplified and filtered using a 16-channel amplifier (PowerLab 16/35P, AdInstruments).The StimTracker ST-100 (Cedrus Corporation) synchronizes the psychophysiological measurement system (Powerlab) and events from computerized cognitive tasks (SuperLab). Signals are digitalized at a 1000 Hz maximum sampling rate and then recorded, displayed, and analysed on a laboratory computer with LabChart 8 Pro software (AdInstruments).S3: Details on the cognitive tasksd?Fourteen lines constitute the test. The participants have 20 seconds to process each line and find as many targets as possible. The number of items processed (GZ) reflects processing speed. The percentage of errors (the number of errors divided by the number of items processed) on the test expresses the accuracy of the participant’s responses. Finally, subtracting the number of “good hits” minus errors of commission (distractors marked) provides the concentration performance component (KL). This score reflects the processing speed corrected by accuracy.Stroop taskAll words are displayed on the screen and written in upper-case letters. Each block is composed of a practice with eight trials followed by 24 trials. In the first two conditions (denomination and reading), each word/colour appears six times (4 different colours). In the third condition (interference), each word appears twice with the same incongruent colour. In the emotional condition, words appear by blocks of 8 words of the same valence to prevent carry-over effects (i.e., a speed reduction based on reaction time during the trial following a trial presenting emotional stimuli ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1HhoioWu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[6\\uc0\\u8211{}11]","plainCitation":"[6–11]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":277,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":277,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews","DOI":"10.1177/1534582305275423","issue":"4","journalAbbreviation":"Behav Cogn Neurosci Rev","page":"243-260","title":"The role of attentional bias in substance abuse","volume":"3","author":[{"family":"Robbins","given":"Steven"},{"family":"Ehrman","given":"Ronald"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}}},{"id":74086,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":74086,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Inconsistent findings regarding the emotional Stroop effect in healthy subjects may be explained by confounding effects of stimulus valence and arousal, as well as individual differences in anxiety. We examined reaction time data in a healthy sample using the emotional Stroop task while carefully matching arousal level of positive and negative words. Independent of valence, emotional relative to neutral words elicited emotional interference, indicating that arousal determines emotional interference. Independent of valence, emotional words were better re-called and recognized than neutral words. Individual differences in state anxiety were associated with emotional interference, that is, emotional interference was enhanced in subjects with high state anxiety. There was no influence of trait anxiety. These findings indicate that word arousal produces emotional interference independent of valence. State anxiety exacerbates interference of emotional words by further biasing attention towards emotionally salient stimuli.","container-title":"Psychological Research","DOI":"10.1007/s00426-008-0154-6","ISSN":"1430-2772","issue":"3","journalAbbreviation":"Psychol Res","language":"eng","note":"PMID: 18636272","page":"364-371","source":"PubMed","title":"Emotional Stroop task: effect of word arousal and subject anxiety on emotional interference","title-short":"Emotional Stroop task","volume":"73","author":[{"family":"Dresler","given":"Thomas"},{"family":"Mériau","given":"Katja"},{"family":"Heekeren","given":"Hauke R."},{"family":"Meer","given":"Elke","non-dropping-particle":"van der"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",5]]}}},{"id":74091,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":74091,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Impulsivity is considered a core feature of problem gambling; however, self-reported impulsivity and inhibitory control may reflect disparate constructs. We examined self-reported impulsivity and inhibitory control in 39 treatment-seeking problem gamblers and 41 matched controls using a range of self-report questionnaires and laboratory inhibitory control tasks. We also investigated differences between treatment-seeking problem gamblers who prefer strategic (e.g., sports betting) and nonstrategic (e.g., electronic gaming machines) gambling activities. Treatment-seeking problem gamblers demonstrated elevated self-reported impulsivity, more go errors on the Stop Signal Task, and a lower gap score on the Random Number Generation task than matched controls. However, overall we did not find strong evidence that treatment-seeking problem gamblers are more impulsive on laboratory inhibitory control measures. Furthermore, strategic and nonstrategic problem gamblers did not differ from their respective controls on either self-reported impulsivity questionnaires or laboratory inhibitory control measures. Contrary to expectations, our results suggest that inhibitory dyscontrol may not be a key component for some treatment-seeking problem gamblers.","container-title":"Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology","DOI":"10.1080/13803395.2013.873773","ISSN":"1744-411X","issue":"2","journalAbbreviation":"J Clin Exp Neuropsychol","language":"eng","note":"PMID: 24479640","page":"144-157","source":"PubMed","title":"Self-reported impulsivity and inhibitory control in problem gamblers","volume":"36","author":[{"family":"Lorains","given":"Felicity K."},{"family":"Stout","given":"Julie C."},{"family":"Bradshaw","given":"John L."},{"family":"Dowling","given":"Nicki A."},{"family":"Enticott","given":"Peter G."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}},{"id":49,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":49,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"The emotional Stroop task has been widely used to examine attentional bias in a variety of psychological disorders. In one format of this task, words are presented to participants in a mixed randomised or quasi-randomised sequence. We present data from two independent studies involving smokers, the results of which show that words appearing after smoking-related items in the mixed sequence are responded to more slowly than words appearing after neutral items. These carry-over effects may reduce the size of emotional Stroop effects on the mixed Stroop task. We discuss the implications of these carry-over effects for research using the emotional Stroop task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)","container-title":"Cognition and Emotion","DOI":"10.1080/02699930143000716","ISSN":"1464-0600(Electronic),0269-9931(Print)","issue":"3","page":"501-509","source":"APA PsycNET","title":"Carry-over effects can modulate emotional Stroop effects","volume":"17","author":[{"family":"Waters","given":"Andrew J."},{"family":"Sayette","given":"Michael A."},{"family":"Wertz","given":"Joan M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]}}},{"id":283,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":283,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Problem gambling may reflect a maladaptive means of fulfilling specific affect-regulation motives, such as enhancing positive affect or coping with negative affect. Research with clinical populations indicates that disorders with prominent affective symptoms are characterized by attentional biases for symptomcongruent information. Thus, we assessed whether problem gamblers with enhancement motives for gambling would demonstrate attentional biases for positive emotional information, relative to other types of emotional information, and problem gamblers with coping motives for gambling would demonstrate attentional biases for negative emotional information, compared with other types of emotional information. In addition, we expected motive-congruent biases to be stronger in problem gamblers than nonproblem gamblers. To test these hypotheses, problem and nonproblem gamblers received an emotional orienting task in which neutral, negative, and positive pictorial cues appeared to one side of the computer screen, followed by target words in cued or uncued locations. In a look-away condition, participants had to shift attention away from pictures to respond to predominantly uncued targets, whereas in a look-toward condition, they had to orient to pictures to categorize predominantly cued targets. The results revealed motive-congruent orienting biases and disengagement lags for emotional pictures in problem gamblers. The link between motives and affective biases was less apparent in nonproblem gamblers. Results suggest that attentional measures may provide a useful complement to the subjective methodologies that are typically employed in studying problem gamblers.","container-title":"Psychology of Addictive Behaviors","DOI":"10.1037/a0031863","journalAbbreviation":"Psychol Addict Behav","language":"en","page":"14","source":"Zotero","title":"Selective Attention to Emotional Pictures as a Function of Gambling Motives in Problem and Nonproblem Gamblers","author":[{"family":"Hudson","given":"Amanda"},{"family":"Jacques","given":"Sophie"},{"family":"Stewart","given":"Sherry H"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}},{"id":74085,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":74085,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"This meta-analysis of 172 studies (N = 2,263 anxious,N = 1,768 nonanxious) examined the boundary conditions of threat-related attentional biases in anxiety. Overall, the results show that the bias is reliably demonstrated with different experimental paradigms and under a variety of experimental conditions, but that it is only an effect size of d = 0.45. Although processes requiring conscious perception of threat contribute to the bias, a significant bias is also observed with stimuli outside awareness. The bias is of comparable magnitude across different types of anxious populations (individuals with different clinical disorders, high-anxious nonclinical individuals, anxious children and adults) and is not observed in nonanxious individuals. Empirical and clinical implications as well as future directions for research are discussed.","container-title":"Psychological Bulletin","DOI":"10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.1","ISSN":"0033-2909","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Psychol Bull","language":"eng","note":"PMID: 17201568","page":"1-24","source":"PubMed","title":"Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: a meta-analytic study","title-short":"Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals","volume":"133","author":[{"family":"Bar-Haim","given":"Yair"},{"family":"Lamy","given":"Dominique"},{"family":"Pergamin","given":"Lee"},{"family":"Bakermans-Kranenburg","given":"Marian J."},{"family":"IJzendoorn","given":"Marinus H.","non-dropping-particle":"van"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",1]]}}}],"schema":""} [6–11]. For each valence, there are three blocks, with a pseudo-randomization that avoided two blocks of the same type following each other (8 words per block and four types of block displayed three times=24 words for each type and 96 trials in sum). Participant RTs are recorded with a voice detection device, while the experimenter presses colour buttons corresponding to the participant’s response. This modality of response permits avoidance of the diminution of the interference effect inherent to the motor response modality ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"q3kZfK8r","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[12,13]","plainCitation":"[12,13]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":48,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":48,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"The literature on interference in the Stroop Color-Word Task, covering over 50 years and some 400\nstudies, is organized and reviewed. In so doing, a set of 18 reliable empirical findings is isolated that\nmust be captured by any successful theory of the Stroop effect. Existing theoretical positions are\nsummarized and evaluated in view of this critical evidence and the 2 major candidate theories—relative\nspeed of processing and automaticity of reading—are found to be wanting. It is concluded that\nrecent theories placing the explanatory weight on parallel processing of the irrelevant and the\nrelevant dimensions are likely to be more successful than are earlier theories attempting to locate a\nsingle bottleneck in attention.","container-title":"Psychological Bulletin","DOI":"0033-2909/91/$3.00","issue":"2","journalAbbreviation":"Psychol Bull","language":"en","page":"163-203","source":"Zotero","title":"Haifa Century of Research on the Stroop Effect: An Integrative Review","volume":"109","author":[{"family":"MacLeod","given":"Colin M"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1991"]]}}},{"id":50,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":50,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"The Stroop task has a long-standing history in psychological research and diagnostics, and\nmany variants have emerged. Computerized versions have recently gained popularity\nbecause of their applicability in brain-imaging studies. It remains unclear, however, whether\ncomputerized versions are content valid with reference to the original task. We compare the\nperformance in the original task with two computerized versions. All three versions show\nhigh test–retest reliability and are able to elicit interference effects, but to varying degrees.\nHowever, performances in the computerized versions and in the original task do not\ncorrelate. The transition from oral to manual response and from listed to single stimulus\npresentation seems not only to diminish the interference effect, but also to alter its nature in\nsuch a way that it no longer looks genuinely ‘‘Stroop-like’’. These findings have important\nclinical implications on the use and interpretation of computerized Stroop tasks in children\nand adults.","container-title":"The Clinical Neuropsychologist","DOI":"10.1080/13854046.2012.713513","ISSN":"1385-4046 print/1744-4144","journalAbbreviation":"Clin Neuropsychol","page":"1-12","title":"The Stroop Task: Comparison Between the Original Paradigm and Computerized Versions in Children and Adults","author":[{"family":"Penner","given":"Iris-Katharina"},{"family":"Kobel","given":"Maya"},{"family":"St?cklin","given":"Markus"},{"family":"Weber","given":"Peter"},{"family":"Opwis","given":"Klaus"},{"family":"Calabrese","given":"Pasquale"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]}}}],"schema":""} [12,13].Visual dot probe task (VDP)The participants keep their fingers above the left and right button of the response box and look at a central fixation cross during the whole task. Six practice trials are presented at the beginning of the task and are composed of neutral pictures that are not used in the subsequent trials. Pairs of pictures (350 x 350 pixels) appear after 500 ms on both sides of the central fixation cross and remain on the screen for 250 ms. The fixation cross remains on the screen as well to prevent eye movements, based on ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TYBv2nCR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Petrova, Wentura, and Bermeitinger 2013)","plainCitation":"(Petrova, Wentura, and Bermeitinger 2013)","dontUpdate":true,"noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":47,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":47,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"The dot-probe paradigm is one of the most often used paradigms to investigate attentional biases towards emotional information. However, a large number of the dot-probe studies so far used a long stimulus onset asynchrony allowing for eye movements to occur, which might increase the error variance. This study aimed at addressing this methodological issue by varying the instructions with regard to the gaze behavior and calculating the reaction time (RT) bias score (i.e., RTs for targets presented at the location of the emotional compared to the neutral stimulus) separately for trials with eye movements and trials without eye movements. Results of Experiment 1 (using typical instructions, i.e., instructions that are lenient with regard to eye movements) showed an RT bias, but only in the trials without eye movements The overall RT bias (calculated ‘‘blind’’ for eye movements) was non-significant. In Experiment 2, stricter instructions and small changes in the procedure led to a sharp decrease in the number of eye movements, such that both the RT bias in the trials without eye movements as well as the RT bias across all trials was significant.","container-title":"PLoS ONE","DOI":"10.1371/journal.pone.0076335","ISSN":"1932-6203","issue":"10","journalAbbreviation":"PLoS ONE","language":"en","page":"e76335","source":" (Crossref)","title":"What Happens during the Stimulus Onset Asynchrony in the Dot-Probe Task? Exploring the Role of Eye Movements in the Assessment of Attentional Biases","title-short":"What Happens during the Stimulus Onset Asynchrony in the Dot-Probe Task?","URL":"","volume":"8","author":[{"family":"Petrova","given":"Kalina"},{"family":"Wentura","given":"Dirk"},{"family":"Bermeitinger","given":"Christina"}],"editor":[{"family":"Allen","given":"Philip"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,25]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",10,10]]}}}],"schema":""} Petrova, Wentura, and Bermeitinger's (2013) recommendation. Then, a target (a black dot) appears in the position of one of the pictures until the response of the participant or a 2000-ms maximum (see Additional Figure 1a). The participant has to press the left or right button of the response box, corresponding to the position of the target, as quickly as possible. This detection model was chosen instead of a discrimination model to assess low levels of detection and not higher cognitive processes that discrimination modality requires ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4PsVLbOw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[15]","plainCitation":"[15]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":74082,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":74082,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin & Review","DOI":"10.3758/s13423-016-1224-1","ISSN":"1069-9384, 1531-5320","issue":"6","journalAbbreviation":"Psychon Bull Rev","language":"en","page":"1686-1717","source":" (Crossref)","title":"The dot-probe task to measure emotional attention: A suitable measure in comparative studies?","title-short":"The dot-probe task to measure emotional attention","URL":"","volume":"24","author":[{"family":"Rooijen","given":"Rianne","non-dropping-particle":"van"},{"family":"Ploeger","given":"Annemie"},{"family":"Kret","given":"Mariska E."}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",4,17]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",12]]}}}],"schema":""} [15]. For each trial, one of the pictures is neutral, while the other is its matched picture and can be neutral, negative, positive, or addiction-related. There are twelve different pictures of each valence type (neutral, positive, negative, addiction-related) with four presentations of each: two times in a congruent trial (target is on the same side as the matched stimuli) and two times in a non-congruent trial (target is on the opposite side as the matched stimuli). The paired pictures are grouped by valence type and presented in blocks of 12 trials to avoid valence-related carry-over effects. The order of presentation is randomized inside the blocks. The order of block presentation is pseudo-randomized so as not present the same type of block twice in a row to avoid habituation, and the pseudo-randomization is counterbalanced to control for any effect linked to the order of testing. Sixteen blocks are thus presented (4 blocks of each type, 12 trials per block, 192 trials in sum) with four breaks allowing the patient to rest. The inter-trial interval fluctuates between 250, 500, or 750 ms. The computer records (i) reaction time (RT), (ii) choice of the participant (left or right), (iii) type of trial (neutral-neutral, positive-neutral, negative-neutral, addiction related-neutral), and (iv) the congruence of the trial (if the target is on the same side of the cued picture or not). Subtracting mean RTs between congruent and non-congruent emotional trials gives the attentional bias score. A positive score highlights the presence of a bias towards the emotional stimuli, with faster reaction times when the probe is cued by the emotional stimuli. In contrast, a negative score highlights the presence of a bias away from the emotional stimuli (avoidance), with slower reaction times when the probe is cued by the emotional stimuli. When there is no imbalance between the allocation of attention, the value of the attentional bias score is zero ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oUEYGBPK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[16]","plainCitation":"[16]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":25,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":25,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Journal of Abnormal Psychology","DOI":"10.1037/0021-843X.95.1.15","ISSN":"1939-1846, 0021-843X","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"J Abnorm Psychol","language":"en","page":"15-20","source":" (Crossref)","title":"Attentional bias in emotional disorders.","URL":"","volume":"95","author":[{"family":"MacLeod","given":"Colin"},{"family":"Mathews","given":"Andrew"},{"family":"Tata","given":"Philip"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,25]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["1986"]]}}}],"schema":""} [16]. The presence of an attentional bias can be due either to an attraction towards the stimuli or to difficulty disengaging from it. Distinguishing attraction from difficulty to disengagement can be made by comparing neutral-neutral trials with emotional-neutral trials. In the case of an attraction towards emotional stimuli, the RTs should be faster in congruent emotional trials than in neutral trials. In the case of difficulties in disengaging attention of emotional stimuli, RTs should be slower in non-congruent emotional trials than neutral trials ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"U7yFvDgJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[15,17]","plainCitation":"[15,17]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":74082,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":74082,"type":"article-journal","container-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin & Review","DOI":"10.3758/s13423-016-1224-1","ISSN":"1069-9384, 1531-5320","issue":"6","journalAbbreviation":"Psychon Bull Rev","language":"en","page":"1686-1717","source":" (Crossref)","title":"The dot-probe task to measure emotional attention: A suitable measure in comparative studies?","title-short":"The dot-probe task to measure emotional attention","URL":"","volume":"24","author":[{"family":"Rooijen","given":"Rianne","non-dropping-particle":"van"},{"family":"Ploeger","given":"Annemie"},{"family":"Kret","given":"Mariska E."}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",4,17]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",12]]}}},{"id":24,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":24,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"The dot probe task [J Abnorm Psychol 95 (1986) 15] is an often-used paradigm to investigate selective attention to threat. A facilitated response to probes that appear at the same location of threat information in comparison with responses to probes at the opposite location of threat information is interpreted as vigilance for threat. We argue that the ?ndings in the dot probe paradigm are ambiguous evidence for the vigilance to threat hypothesis. Results can also be interpreted as a di?culty to disengage from threat. In this study, 44 undergraduates performed a pictorial version of the probe detection task. Taking into account the reaction times on neutral trials, we found no evidence for a facilitated detection of threatening information. It was found that the dot probe e?ects are at least partially due to disengagement e?ects. The implications of these results for the understanding of attentional bias in normal and anxious individuals are discussed.","container-title":"Behaviour Research and Therapy","DOI":"10.1016/j.brat.2003.08.001","ISSN":"00057967","issue":"10","journalAbbreviation":"Behav Res Ther","language":"en","page":"1183-1192","source":" (Crossref)","title":"Selective attention to threat in the dot probe paradigm: differentiating vigilance and difficulty to disengage","title-short":"Selective attention to threat in the dot probe paradigm","URL":"","volume":"42","author":[{"family":"Koster","given":"Ernst H.W."},{"family":"Crombez","given":"Geert"},{"family":"Verschuere","given":"Bruno"},{"family":"De Houwer","given":"Jan"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",7,25]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004",10]]}}}],"schema":""} [15,17].Iowa gambling task (IGT)Decks C and D include lower gains (+50 points) and frequent (deck C) or less frequent (deck D) low penalties (-250 points each 10 cards). These decks result in a global positive balance between gain and penalties and are thus considered advantageous decks. In contrast, decks A and B include higher gains (+100 points) but frequent (deck A) or rare (deck B) high penalties (including a loss of 1250 points each 10 cards). As a consequence, they result in a final net loss and are considered disadvantageous decks. The more profitable strategy is to privilege long-term rewards, i.e., the advantageous decks ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DhDbn4R5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[18]","plainCitation":"[18]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":74022,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":74022,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Background and aims\nGambling disorder (GD) and alcohol use disorder (AD) have similar features, such as elevated impulsivity and decision-making deficits, which are directly linked to relapse and poor therapeutic outcomes. Our aim was to assess decision-making characteristics in GD and AD patients compared to healthy controls (HC) based on one of the most frequently used measures of decision-making: the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT).\nMethods\nIn our systematic literature search of three databases, we identified 1198 empirical articles that mentioned decision-making deficits with the use of the IGT in patients diagnosed with either AD or GD. Possible effects were calculated using meta-analysis. In the end, 17 studies (including 1360 participants) were suitable for inclusion in the meta-analysis reporting data for 23 group contrasts.\nResults\nThe random effects estimate indicated impaired IGT performance in both AD patients (N=500; d=?0.581, CI:-89.5<δ<?26.6%) and an even greater deficit in GD patients (N=292; d=?1.034, CI:-156.1<δ<50.7%) compared to HCs. Sampling variances were calculated for both AD (v1=0.0056) and GD groups (v2=0.0061), from which the z-score was calculated (z=?21.0785; p<0.05), which indicates a statistically significant difference between AD and GD groups. No significant moderating effects of age, gender or education were found.\nConclusions\nThere is enough evidence to support that decision-making deficit associated with addictive disorders, and that the deficit is more expressed in gambling disorder than in alcohol use disorder. Impaired decision-making plays an important part in poor therapeutic outcomes, thus provides a promising opportunity for cognitive intervention.","container-title":"Drug and Alcohol Dependence","DOI":"10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.09.023","ISSN":"0376-8716","journalAbbreviation":"Drug Alcohol Depend","language":"en","page":"152-161","source":"ScienceDirect","title":"Decision making measured by the Iowa Gambling Task in alcohol use disorder and gambling disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis","title-short":"Decision making measured by the Iowa Gambling Task in alcohol use disorder and gambling disorder","URL":"","volume":"181","author":[{"family":"Kovács","given":"Ildikó"},{"family":"Richman","given":"Mara J."},{"family":"Janka","given":"Zoltán"},{"family":"Maraz","given":"Aniko"},{"family":"Andó","given":"Bálint"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",4,9]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",12,1]]}}}],"schema":""} [18]. The participants have 2000€ of fictional money and are instructed to play as if it was their real money and to earn as much money as possible. They know neither which decks are advantageous nor when the task ends. At the end of the task, they are asked to judge which decks were advantageous and which were not (conceptual knowledge). The program records, for each trial, the RT, the deck chosen, and the money earned. Heart inter-beat intervals and electrodermal activity are also recorded 4 seconds before and 4 seconds after the decision ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vqQ7ZScw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[19]","plainCitation":"[19]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":74080,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":74080,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Psychophysiological responses are considered to be a mediating factor in the development of pathological gambling (PG) and PG has been associated with differential arousal levels during gambling. Yet little is known about the specific psychophysiological responses to wins and losses in PG. This study investigated heart rate (HR) and skin conductance responses (SCRs) during the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) in an adult PG group (n = 46) and a normal control (NC) group (n = 47). Anticipatory psychophysiological reactions to disadvantageous and advantageous choices during the IGT and psychophysiological responses to wins and losses were measured. The PG group performed worse than the NC group on the IGT and exhibited lower anticipatory SCRs and HR decreases when pondering choices of disadvantageous card decks during the IGT. The PG group showed a decrease in HR after losses and wins, whereas the NC group showed a decrease in HR after losses, but an increase in HR after wins. Reward and punishment sensitivity as measured by the self-report BIS/BAS scale influenced IGT performance and psychophysiological responses, but in general these effects were similar for the PG group and the NC group. Lower anticipatory psychophysiological responses to disadvantageous choices in PG suggest impaired risk assessment in this group. Absence of a HR increase after wins possibly implies that reward sensitivity is decreased in PG. Because levels of reward and punishment sensitivity were associated with differential anticipatory HR responses to advantageous and disadvantageous decks, it would be advisable to include this taxonomy in studies on psychophysiological responses to rewards and losses.","container-title":"Drug and Alcohol Dependence","DOI":"","issue":"3","journalAbbreviation":"Drug Alcohol Depend","page":"231-239","title":"Psychophysiological determinants and concomitants of deficient decision making in pathological gamblers","volume":"84","author":[{"family":"Goudriaan","given":"A. E."},{"family":"Oosterlaan","given":"J."},{"family":"De Beurs","given":"E."},{"family":"Van den Brink","given":"W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]}}}],"schema":""} [19] to obtain data regarding physiological information provided by the autonomous nervous system in a situation of uncertainty.Verbal fluenciesOutcomes are the number of correct responses and types of errors and the number of switches and clusters. Indeed, according to ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"RV8aVAcw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Troyer, Moscovitch, and Winocur 1997)","plainCitation":"(Troyer, Moscovitch, and Winocur 1997)","dontUpdate":true,"noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":7,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Although verbal fluency is a frequently used neuropsychological test, little is known about the underlying cognitive processes. The authors proposed that 2 important components of fluency performance are clustering (i.e., the production of words within semantic or phonemic subcategories) and switching (i.e., the ability to shift between clusters). In Experiment 1, correlational data from 54 older and 41 younger adults indicated that both components were highly correlated with the number of words generated on semantic fluency, whereas switching was more highly correlated than clustering with the number of words generated on phonemic fluency. On semantic fluency, younger participants generated more words and switched more frequently than older participants; on phonemic fluency, older participants produced larger clusters than younger participants. In Experiment 2, among 22 young adults, divided attention decreased the number of words generated and decreased switching on phonemic fluency only. Overall, findings suggest that clustering and switching are dissociable fluency components and that switching is related to frontal-lobe functioning.","container-title":"Neuropsychology","ISSN":"0894-4105","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Neuropsychology","language":"eng","note":"PMID: 9055277","page":"138-146","source":"PubMed","title":"Clustering and switching as two components of verbal fluency: evidence from younger and older healthy adults","title-short":"Clustering and switching as two components of verbal fluency","volume":"11","author":[{"family":"Troyer","given":"A. K."},{"family":"Moscovitch","given":"M."},{"family":"Winocur","given":"G."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1997",1]]}}}],"schema":""} Troyer, Moscovitch, and Winocur (1997), quantitative analysis can be completed by qualitative analysis in which clustering corresponds to the grouping of words that come from the same semantic category (in the lexical modality) or with common phonemic properties (same two first letters for example) (in the phonological modality), while switching corresponds to going from one subcategory to another ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pL4KJv4c","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[20,21]","plainCitation":"[20,21]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":7,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":7,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Although verbal fluency is a frequently used neuropsychological test, little is known about the underlying cognitive processes. The authors proposed that 2 important components of fluency performance are clustering (i.e., the production of words within semantic or phonemic subcategories) and switching (i.e., the ability to shift between clusters). In Experiment 1, correlational data from 54 older and 41 younger adults indicated that both components were highly correlated with the number of words generated on semantic fluency, whereas switching was more highly correlated than clustering with the number of words generated on phonemic fluency. On semantic fluency, younger participants generated more words and switched more frequently than older participants; on phonemic fluency, older participants produced larger clusters than younger participants. In Experiment 2, among 22 young adults, divided attention decreased the number of words generated and decreased switching on phonemic fluency only. Overall, findings suggest that clustering and switching are dissociable fluency components and that switching is related to frontal-lobe functioning.","container-title":"Neuropsychology","ISSN":"0894-4105","issue":"1","journalAbbreviation":"Neuropsychology","language":"eng","note":"PMID: 9055277","page":"138-146","source":"PubMed","title":"Clustering and switching as two components of verbal fluency: evidence from younger and older healthy adults","title-short":"Clustering and switching as two components of verbal fluency","volume":"11","author":[{"family":"Troyer","given":"A. K."},{"family":"Moscovitch","given":"M."},{"family":"Winocur","given":"G."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1997",1]]}}},{"id":9,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":9,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Verbal fluency: Theoretical considerations and new approaches Verbal fluency tasks are frequently used in neuropsychological examinations in order to assess semantic storage integrity and strategic word retrieval in long term memory. Performance is usually analyzed in terms of the total number of correct words belonging to a given semantic category or beginning with a given letter generated in a limited time. However, a quantitative analysis of performance may not fully capture the complexity of the underlying cognitive processes. To address this issue, Troyer et al. (1997) proposed a qualitative analysis method based on the distinction between two dissociable components of fluency performance : ? clustering ? and ? switching ?.","container-title":"L'année psychologique","DOI":"10.3406/psy.2004.29670","ISSN":"0003-5033","issue":"2","journalAbbreviation":"psy","language":"en","page":"331-359","source":" (Crossref)","title":"Les fluences verbales : aspects théoriques et nouvelles approches","title-short":"Les fluences verbales","URL":"","volume":"104","author":[{"family":"Gierski","given":"Fabienne"},{"family":"Ergis","given":"Anne-Marie"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",8,8]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]}}}],"schema":""} [20,21].Trail making test (TMT)Outcomes on this task are time taken to complete both sheets and numbers and types of errors. The difference between the two conditions permits us to observe the cost of alternating, which represents the capacities of reactive flexibility.M-CST (modified card sorting test)During this task, the participants have to match the cards from the deck to the stimulus cards. They have to determine by themselves the correct matching rule from among three possible rules (number, colour, and shape), which are not told to the participant. After six consecutive correct answers, the category is considered completed, and the rule changes. After a first successful series of trials using consecutively the three possible rules (in the order decided by the participant), rules are repeated in the same order as previously, without the participant being aware. The number of cards used before for completing the six categories, the number of categories completed, the number of errors and perseverative errors (an error is perseverative when the answer uses the same rule as the previous trial while the experimenter qualified this previous answer as wrong) are recorded. We also added the “categorizing efficiency”: this score is obtained by multiplying the number of categories completed by the number of cards by categories; the number of cards not used is then added. This score permits us to capture more subtle cognitive alterations than the traditional M-CST performance parameters, as we expected our sample will not present with severe cognitive deficits ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"O2yiPp0u","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[22]","plainCitation":"[22]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":73679,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":73679,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"To assess categorizing ability, we propose a new scoring criterion for the MCST, the “categorizing efficiency”, taking into account the number of cards used by the subject to complete a maximum of six categories. The advantage of adding that parameter to traditional ones is evaluated in a small population of normal children and adults and those affected with pathologies.","container-title":"Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology","DOI":"10.1016/j.acn.2004.12.002","ISSN":"0887-6177","issue":"4","journalAbbreviation":"Arch Clin Neuropsychol","language":"en","page":"555-558","source":"ScienceDirect","title":"Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: proposal of a supplementary scoring method","title-short":"Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test","URL":"","volume":"20","author":[{"family":"Cianchetti","given":"Carlo"},{"family":"Corona","given":"Simona"},{"family":"Foscoliano","given":"Maria"},{"family":"Scalas","given":"Francesca"},{"family":"Sannio-Fancello","given":"Giuseppina"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",3,10]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005",6,1]]}}}],"schema":""} [22].Tower of Hano?Points are attributed depending on the number of moves used and if the participant finishes before the time limit (from 30 to 240 seconds). The time before the first move and the total time of realization, the number of moves and errors, and the number of points are recorded. These different measures permit us to characterize performance between groups (number of points) but also to compare whether the pattern of realization is the same between groups (for example, time before the first move illustrates impulsivity in realization).Go-nogo taskFor each trial, a fixation cross stays on the screen for 500 ms. Then, a neutral or a related-addiction picture appears, with either a square (go trials) or a circle (nogo trials) at its centre (Additional Figure 1b; shapes are surrounded by black and white outlines to clearly distinguish them from the picture). The participants are instructed to press the button as fast as possible on go trials (squares) and to refrain from pressing on nogo trials (circles). Eighty percent of the stimuli indicated go trials (4 blocks of 60 trials: 48 go trials including 24 neutral pictures and 24 addiction-related pictures + 12 nogo trials with six neutral and six addiction-related pictures). Before the presentation of trials, a practice block using neutral stimuli not used during the test phase was conducted. This practice block includes 32 trials with 50% go trials and is used to habituate and stimulate the automatic association between stimuli and behaviour ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5th69osl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[23]","plainCitation":"[23]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":16,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":16,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Background and aims: The DSM-5 includes criteria for diagnosing Internet gaming disorder (IGD) that are adapted from substance abuse and widely used in research and clinical contexts, although evidence supporting their validity remains scarce. This study compared online gamers who do or do not endorse IGD criteria regarding self-control-related abilities (impulsivity, inhibitory control, and decision-making), considered the hallmarks of addictive behaviors. Method: A double approach was adopted to distinguish pathological from recreational gamers: The ?rst is the classic DSM-5 approach (≥5 criteria required to endorse the IGD diagnosis), and the second consists in using latent class analysis (LCA) for IGD criteria to distinguish gamers’ subgroups. We computed comparisons separately for each approach. Ninety-seven volunteer gamers from the community were recruited. Self-reported questionnaires were used to measure demographic- and game-related characteristics, problematic online gaming (with the Problematic Online Gaming Questionnaire), impulsivity (with the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale), and depression (with the Beck Depression Inventory-II). Experimental tasks were used to measure inhibitory control (Hybrid-Stop Task) and decisionmaking abilities (Game of Dice Task). Results: Thirty-two participants met IGD criteria (33% of the sample), whereas LCA identi?ed two groups of gamers [pathological (35%) and recreational]. Comparisons that used both approaches (DSM-5 and LCA) failed to identify signi?cant differences regarding all constructs except for variables related to actual or problematic gaming behaviors. Discussion: The validity of IGD criteria is questioned, mostly with respect to their relevance in distinguishing high engagement from pathological involvement in video games.","container-title":"Journal of Behavioral Addictions","DOI":"10.1556/2006.6.2017.074","ISSN":"2062-5871, 2063-5303","issue":"4","journalAbbreviation":"J Behav Addict","language":"en","page":"516-524","source":" (Crossref)","title":"Established risk factors for addiction fail to discriminate between healthy gamers and gamers endorsing DSM-5 Internet gaming disorder","URL":"","volume":"6","author":[{"family":"Deleuze","given":"Jory"},{"family":"Nuyens","given":"Filip"},{"family":"Rochat","given":"Lucien"},{"family":"Rothen","given":"Stéphane"},{"family":"Maurage","given":"Pierre"},{"family":"Billieux","given":"Jo?l"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",8,7]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",12]]}}}],"schema":""} [23]. The ITI after the presentation of the target varies between 500, 1000, or 1500 ms to avoid the generation of an anticipated motor response because of a regular temporality of the press ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Qxsv7R1O","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[24]","plainCitation":"[24]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":15,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":15,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"This study tested the convergence of behavioral inhibition measures across emotional and non-emotional versions of the same go/no-go task in 85 college students. The two tasks differed only in the stimuli used for trial cues (i.e., circles versus facial expressions). Moderate correlations (r = .51–.56) between commission errors across the emotional and non-emotional tasks support the construct validity of behavioral inhibition. Further, parametric manipulation of preceding context had comparable effects on performance on the two tasks. Responses were slower and more variable, commission errors were more numerous, and perceptual sensitivity was lower on the emotional than the non-emotional task. A bias for happy faces on the emotional task resulted in faster responses and more commission errors for happy than sad faces despite marginally greater sensitivity for the latter. These results suggest that the basic neuropsychological constructs of the original go/no-go task were preserved in the emotional adaptation.","container-title":"Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology","DOI":"10.1016/j.acn.2006.12.001","ISSN":"08876177","issue":"2","journalAbbreviation":"Arch Clin Neuropsychol","language":"en","page":"151-160","source":" (Crossref)","title":"Does the emotional go/no-go task really measure behavioral inhibition?Convergence with measures on a non-emotional analog","title-short":"Does the emotional go/no-go task really measure behavioral inhibition?","URL":"","volume":"22","author":[{"family":"Schulz","given":"K"},{"family":"Fan","given":"J"},{"family":"Magidina","given":"O"},{"family":"Marks","given":"D"},{"family":"Hahn","given":"B"},{"family":"Halperin","given":"J"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",8,7]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",2]]}}}],"schema":""} [24]. The number and types of errors, successes and RTs per type of stimuli are measured.Single key impulsivity paradigm (SKIP)The participants received the standardized instructions as proposed by Dougherty et al. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tNLQiL5h","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[25]","plainCitation":"[25]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":281,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":281,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Background—Acute alcohol administration affects impulsive behavior, although these effects vary as a function of alcohol dose, assessment instrument, and time of measurement following administration.\nMethods—We concurrently examined the dose-dependent effects of alcohol on three distinct types of impulsivity tasks (continuous performance [IMT], stop-signal [GoStop], and delay-discounting [SKIP] tasks). Ninety healthy alcohol drinkers were assigned to one of the three task groups (n = 30 each), each group experienced placebo, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 g/kg alcohol doses across 5 experimental days, and task performance was assessed at 0.5 h before and 0.25, 1.0, and 2.0 h after alcohol administration. We hypothesized that impulsive responding on all tasks would be increased by acute alcohol administration both across time and during the peak BrAC, but the magnitude would depend on the task being tested. Analyses included the time-course and the peak BrAC effects. Task comparisons of peak behavioral changes following each dose are illustrated using standardized scores.\nResults—While alcohol consumption increased impulsive responding during all three tasks to some extent, our hypothesis was only partially supported. During the IMT, the 0.6 and 0.8 g/kg doses produced increased impulsive responding across time and at the peak BrAC. However, during the GoStop and SKIP, impulsivity increased across time regardless of the alcohol dose size, with no differences in impulsive responding among dose conditions at peak BrAC.\nConclusions—This study demonstrated alcohol-induced changes in impulsivity are not uniformly affected by alcohol. These data, in conjunction with previous studies, further support that impulsivity is not a unitary construct.","container-title":"Drug and Alcohol Dependence","DOI":"0.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.02.002","journalAbbreviation":"Drug Alcohol Depend","language":"en","page":"18","source":"Zotero","title":"A Test of Alcohol Dose Effects on Multiple Behavioral Measures of Impulsivity","volume":"96","author":[{"family":"Dougherty","given":"Donald M"},{"family":"Marsh-Richard","given":"Dawn M"},{"family":"Hatzis","given":"Erin S"},{"family":"Nouvion","given":"Sylvain O"},{"family":"Mathias","given":"Charles W"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]}}}],"schema":""} [25] so that they know that the longer time that they wait between presses, the more points they would obtain. After each press, the cumulative number of points obtained appears at the top of the screen, and the number of points they obtained on the previous trial appears at the bottom of the screen. Regarding the attribution of points, the calculation is exponential and obtained with this formula (RT = time since the last press in seconds): [RT + (3 x RT?)] / 100. This formula is slightly different from the original task, with a division by 100 and not 1000, which allows a more rapid increase in points. The program records the mean duration between presses, the maximum wait between two presses, and the number of presses.Stop Signal Task (SST)For this emotional task ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"VPqVcyiT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[8,26]","plainCitation":"[8,26]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":74091,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":74091,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Impulsivity is considered a core feature of problem gambling; however, self-reported impulsivity and inhibitory control may reflect disparate constructs. We examined self-reported impulsivity and inhibitory control in 39 treatment-seeking problem gamblers and 41 matched controls using a range of self-report questionnaires and laboratory inhibitory control tasks. We also investigated differences between treatment-seeking problem gamblers who prefer strategic (e.g., sports betting) and nonstrategic (e.g., electronic gaming machines) gambling activities. Treatment-seeking problem gamblers demonstrated elevated self-reported impulsivity, more go errors on the Stop Signal Task, and a lower gap score on the Random Number Generation task than matched controls. However, overall we did not find strong evidence that treatment-seeking problem gamblers are more impulsive on laboratory inhibitory control measures. Furthermore, strategic and nonstrategic problem gamblers did not differ from their respective controls on either self-reported impulsivity questionnaires or laboratory inhibitory control measures. Contrary to expectations, our results suggest that inhibitory dyscontrol may not be a key component for some treatment-seeking problem gamblers.","container-title":"Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology","DOI":"10.1080/13803395.2013.873773","ISSN":"1744-411X","issue":"2","journalAbbreviation":"J Clin Exp Neuropsychol","language":"eng","note":"PMID: 24479640","page":"144-157","source":"PubMed","title":"Self-reported impulsivity and inhibitory control in problem gamblers","volume":"36","author":[{"family":"Lorains","given":"Felicity K."},{"family":"Stout","given":"Julie C."},{"family":"Bradshaw","given":"John L."},{"family":"Dowling","given":"Nicki A."},{"family":"Enticott","given":"Peter G."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]}}},{"id":74090,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":74090,"type":"article-journal","language":"en","page":"33","source":"Zotero","title":"On the Ability to Inhibit Thought and Action: A Theory of an Act of Control","author":[{"family":"Logan","given":"Gordon D"},{"family":"Cowan","given":"William B"}]}}],"schema":""} [8,26], each trial begins with a fixation cross that remains on the screen for 500 ms. Then, a picture is displayed in the centre of the screen (350 x 350 pixels), with an arrow at its centre (the direction can be either right or left, black and white outlines surround arrows to distinguish them from the picture). Those pictures can be either neutral or related to addiction (12 pictures for each). On 25% of the trials, a STOP signal is emitted as a sound for 1 second (5 blocks of 64 trials = 320 trials in sum, 64 STOP trials). The pictures stay on the screen for 1500 ms, and ITI is 1000 ms (see Additional Figure 1c).Subjects must fixate on the fixation cross and press the button corresponding to the direction of the arrow on the screen. Arrows were chosen instead of crosses and circles to avoid the difficulty of memorizing the association with the correct response ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Ke0IRY63","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[27,28]","plainCitation":"[27,28]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":74087,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":74087,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Objective\nIt has been theorized that there may be subtypes of pathological gambling, particularly in relation to the main type of gambling activities undertaken. Whether or not putative pathological gambling subtypes differ in terms of their clinical and cognitive profiles has received little attention.\n\nMethod\nSubjects meeting DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling were grouped into two categories of preferred forms of gambling – strategic (e.g., cards, dice, sports betting, stock market) and non-strategic (e.g., slots, video poker, pull tabs). Groups were compared on clinical characteristics (gambling severity, and time and money spent gambling), psychiatric comorbidity, and neurocognitive tests assessing motor impulsivity and cognitive flexibility.\n\nResults\nSeventy-seven subjects were included in this sample (45.5% females; mean age: 42.7±14.9) which consisted of the following groups: strategic (n=22; 28.6%) and non-strategic (n=55; 71.4%). Non-strategic gamblers were significantly more likely to be older, female, and divorced. Money spent gambling did not differ significantly between groups although one measure of gambling severity reflected more severe problems for strategic gamblers. Strategic and non-strategic gamblers did not differ in terms of cognitive function; both groups showed impairments in cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control relative to matched healthy volunteers.\n\nConclusion\nThese preliminary results suggest that preferred form of gambling may be associated with specific clinical characteristics but are not associated dissociable in terms of cognitive inflexibility and motor impulsivity.","container-title":"Progress in neuro-psychopharmacology & biological psychiatry","DOI":"10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.05.006","ISSN":"0278-5846","issue":"2","journalAbbreviation":"Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry","note":"PMID: 22613186\nPMCID: PMC3389298","page":"336-340","source":"PubMed Central","title":"Neurocognitive Dysfunction in Strategic and Non-Strategic Gamblers","URL":"","volume":"38","author":[{"family":"Grant","given":"Jon E."},{"family":"Odlaug","given":"Brian L."},{"family":"Chamberlain","given":"Samuel R."},{"family":"Schreiber","given":"Liana R.N."}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2020",4,17]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012",8,7]]}}},{"id":74088,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":74088,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Background - As a behavioral addiction with clinical and phenomenological similarities to substance addiction, recreational and pathological gambling represent models for studying the neurobiology of addiction, without the confounding deleterious brain effects which may occur from chronic substance abuse.\nMethod - A community sample of individuals aged 18–65 years who gamble was solicited through newspaper advertising. Subjects were grouped a priori into three groups (no-risk, at-risk, and pathological gamblers) based on a diagnostic interview. All subjects underwent a psychiatric clinical interview and neurocognitive tests assessing motor impulsivity and cognitive flexibility. Subjects with a current axis I disorder, history of brain injury/trauma, or implementation or dose\nchanges of psychoactive medication within 6 weeks of study enrollment were excluded.\nResults - A total of 135 no-risk, 69 at-risk and 46 pathological gambling subjects were assessed. Pathological gamblers were significantly older, and exhibited significant deficiencies in motor impulse control (stop-signal reaction times), response speed (median ‘go’ trial response latency) and cognitive flexibility [total intra-dimensional/extra-dimensional (IDED) errors] versus controls. The finding of impaired impulse control and cognitive flexibility was robust in an age-matched subgroup analysis of pathological gamblers. The no-risk and at-risk gambling groups did not significantly differ from each other on task performance.\nConclusions - Impaired response inhibition and cognitive flexibility exist in people with pathological gambling compared with no-risk and at-risk gamblers. The early identification of such illness in adolescence or young adulthood may aid in the prevention of addiction onset of such disabling disorders.","container-title":"Psychological Medicine","DOI":"10.1017/S0033291711000316","issue":"10","journalAbbreviation":"Psychol Med","page":"2111-2119","title":"A neurocognitive comparison of cognitive flexibility and response inhibition in gamblers with varying degrees of clinical severity","volume":"41","author":[{"family":"Odlaug","given":"B. L."},{"family":"Chamberlain","given":"S. R."},{"family":"Kim","given":"S. W."},{"family":"Schreiber","given":"L."},{"family":"Grant","given":"J. E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]}}}],"schema":""} [27,28]. When the STOP signal occurs, they have to refrain from pressing the button and wait for the next trial. The participants are advised that trial difficulty increases because the software adapts itself to their performance. Actually, the stop-signal delay (SSD; delay between the appearance of the picture and the STOP signal in STOP trials) varies between 0 and 1500 ms according to the staircase algorithm ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Q11RmOdS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[29]","plainCitation":"[29]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":73677,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":73677,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Response inhibition is a hallmark of executive control. The concept refers to the suppression of actions that are no longer required or that are inappropriate, which supports flexible and goal-directed behavior in ever-changing environments. The stop-signal paradigm is most suitable for the study of response inhibition in a laboratory setting. The paradigm has become increasingly popular in cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience and psychopathology. We review recent findings in the stop-signal literature with the specific aim of demonstrating how each of these different fields contributes to a better understanding of the processes involved in inhibiting a response and monitoring stopping performance, and more generally, discovering how behavior is controlled.","container-title":"Trends Cogn Sci","issue":"11","page":"418-24","title":"Response inhibition in the stop-signal paradigm","volume":"12","author":[{"family":"Verbruggen","given":"F."},{"family":"Logan","given":"G. D."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",11]]}}}],"schema":""} [29]. Indeed, for each correct response to a STOP trial, the SSD increases by 25 ms, while for each wrong response, it decreases by 25 ms. The experiment begins with a practice of 32 trials (8 STOP and 24 GO with neutral pictures), without the alterations in delay that depend on responses. At the end of each block, a break is offered, and feedback (number of correct responses) appears on the screen. The SSRT (stop signal reaction time) is then calculated with the integration method by blocks to avoid bias in the calculation of the SSRT in case of strategic slowing of responses as the task progresses ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"VJQTeqm1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[30]","plainCitation":"[30]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":14,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":14,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"The stop-signal paradigm is a popular method for examining response inhibition and impulse control in psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and clinical domains because it allows the estimation of the covert latency of the stop process: the stop-signal reaction time (SSRT). In three sets of simulations, we examined to what extent SSRTs that were estimated with the popular mean and integration methods were influenced by the skew of the reaction time distribution and the gradual slowing of the response latencies. We found that the mean method consistently overestimated SSRT. The integration method tended to underestimate SSRT when response latencies gradually increased. This underestimation bias was absent when SSRTs were estimated with the integration method for smaller blocks of trials. Thus, skewing and response slowing can lead to spurious inhibitory differences. We recommend that the mean method of estimating SSRT be abandoned in favor of the integration method.","container-title":"Psychological Science","DOI":"10.1177/0956797612457390","ISSN":"0956-7976, 1467-9280","issue":"3","journalAbbreviation":"Psychol Sci","language":"en","page":"352-362","source":" (Crossref)","title":"Fictitious Inhibitory Differences: How Skewness and Slowing Distort the Estimation of Stopping Latencies","title-short":"Fictitious Inhibitory Differences","URL":"","volume":"24","author":[{"family":"Verbruggen","given":"Frederick"},{"family":"Chambers","given":"Christopher D."},{"family":"Logan","given":"Gordon D."}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",8,7]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",3]]}}}],"schema":""} [30]. To compensate for missing values, omissions (non-response to GO trials) were replaced by maximum RT obtained during GO trials ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"XAWHlsH3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"[31]","plainCitation":"[31]","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":13,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":13,"type":"article-journal","abstract":"Response inhibition is essential for navigating everyday life. Its derailment is considered integral to numerous neurological and psychiatric disorders, and more generally, to a wide range of behavioral and health problems. Response-inhibition efficiency furthermore correlates with treatment outcome in these conditions. The stop-signal task is an essential tool to determine how quickly response inhibition is implemented. Despite its apparent simplicity, there are many features (ranging from task design to data analysis) that vary across studies in ways that can easily compromise the validity of the obtained results. Our present goal is to facilitate a more accurate use of the stop-signal task. To this end, we provide twelve easy-to-implement consensus recommendations and point out the problems that can arise when these are not followed. This article is furthermore accompanied by user-friendly open-source resources intended to inform statistical-power considerations, facilitate the correct implementation of the task, and assist in proper data analysis.","DOI":"10.31219/osf.io/8mzdu","language":"en","source":" (Crossref)","title":"A consensus guide to capturing the ability to inhibit actions and impulsive behaviors in the stop-signal task","URL":"","author":[{"family":"Verbruggen","given":"Frederick"},{"family":"Aron","given":"Adam Robert"},{"family":"Band","given":"Guido"},{"family":"Beste","given":"Christian"},{"family":"Bissett","given":"Patrick"},{"family":"Brockett","given":"Adam T."},{"family":"Brown","given":"Joshua W."},{"family":"Chamberlain","given":"Samuel"},{"family":"Chambers","given":"Chris"},{"family":"Colonius","given":"Hans"},{"family":"Colzato","given":"Lorenza"},{"family":"Corneil","given":"Brian D."},{"family":"Coxon","given":"James P."},{"family":"Eagle","given":"Dawn M."},{"family":"Dupuis","given":"Annie"},{"family":"Garavan","given":"Hugh"},{"family":"Greenhouse","given":"Ian"},{"family":"Heathcote","given":"Andrew"},{"family":"Huster","given":"René J."},{"family":"Jahfari","given":"Sara"},{"family":"Kenemans","given":"Leon"},{"family":"Leunissen","given":"Inge"},{"family":"Logan","given":"Gordon D."},{"family":"Matzke","given":"Dora"},{"family":"Morein-Zamir","given":"Sharon"},{"family":"Murthy","given":"Aditya"},{"family":"Li","given":"Chiang-Shan R."},{"family":"Paré","given":"Martin"},{"family":"Poldrack","given":"Russell A."},{"family":"Ridderinkhof","given":"Richard"},{"family":"Robbins","given":"Trevor William"},{"family":"Roesch","given":"Matthew R."},{"family":"Rubia","given":"Katya"},{"family":"Schachar","given":"Russell"},{"family":"Schall","given":"Jeffrey"},{"family":"Stock","given":"Ann-Kathrin"},{"family":"Swann","given":"Nicole C."},{"family":"Thakkar","given":"Katharine N."},{"family":"Molen","given":"Maurits","non-dropping-particle":"van der"},{"family":"Vermeylen","given":"Luc"},{"family":"Vink","given":"Matthijs"},{"family":"Wessel","given":"Jan"},{"family":"Whelan","given":"Robert"},{"family":"Zandbelt","given":"Bram"},{"family":"Boehler","given":"C. Nico"}],"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2019",8,7]]},"issued":{"date-parts":[["2019",2,22]]}}}],"schema":""} [31].Additional Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1 Diagram of computerized tasksReferences of supporting files ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"uncited":[],"omitted":[],"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Bradley MM, Lang PJ. Measuring emotion?: The self-assessment Manikin and the semantic differential. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 1994;25: 49–59. doi:OCO-7916/94 $7.00 + 0.002. Lang PJ, Bradley MM, Cuthbert BN. International affective picture system (IAPS): affective ratings of pictures and instruction manual. Technical report A-8. Gainesville, Fla.: NIMH, Center for the Study of Emotion & Attention; 2008. 3. Monnier C, Syssau A. Affective norms for french words (FAN). Behav Res. 2014;46: 1128–1137. doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0431-14. Syssau A, Font N. Evaluations des caractéristiques émotionneles d’un corpus de 604 mots. Bulletin de psychologie. 2005;3: 361–367. doi:10.3917/bupsy.477.03615. 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