The Basics of Meter, Prosody,



Peter SchmidtDepartment of English Literature, Swarthmore CollegeBASIC INFORMATION ON THE SONNETThe form was imported into English from Italy. It’s a poem normally 14 lines long, in iambic pentameter (normally 10 syllables and 5 beats). One of 2 kinds of rhyme schemes, the “Italian” or the “English,” mark its structure.Terms discussed below:sound (assonance, consonance & alliteration, rhyme)rhythm (dramatic variations on iambic pentameter, the 5-beat line)enjambed or run-over lines vs. end-stopped linescaesurasyntaxstructurediction; figures of speechtoneargumentSOUND is used for dramatic effects in poetry, as well as to seduce us into the poem’s way of thinking and feeling. Often these effects work on us unconsciously, like music does—and of course you can “hear” these sound effects better when the poem is read aloud and you start paying attention to how the poem’s sounds help produce its “meaning.” (Sound and sense, form and content, work together in fascinating ways in poetry.) We’ll focus mostly on 3 kinds of sound patterns: alliteration, assonance, rhyme.Consonance repeats the sounds of consonants in the middle or the end of words (b, d, f, etc.); alliteration is consonance at the beginning of words. It usually involves the same consonant, but make involve different consonants with similar sounds (c and k, for instance). The following tongue-twister enjoys torturing you with s’s via alliteration and consonance: “She sells sea shells by the sea shore.”In the following examples, sonnet 12 uses alliteration at the start of words; the sonnet 30 example uses both kinds of alliteration (the s’s are very obvious, but note the subtle use of t sounds tying the line together too!)Borne on the bier with white and bristly beard (sonnet 12)When to the sessions of sweet silent thought (sonnet 30)[In sonnet 30 I count about one dozen s sounds, including the c in “remembrance,” in just the first four lines!]Shakespeare’s also a master of overlapping alliteration, which binds the line together with contrapuntal sounds: And summer’s green, all girded up in sheaves (l. 7, sonnet 12)Assonance repeats similar vowel sounds (a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y). Here are 2 examples using ‘o’:O let my looks be then the eloquence (sonnet 23)[Do you think the o’s in ‘looks’ should also be counted?] O is a charged sound throughout this sonnet, directly related to its plea to the loved one to “learn to read what silent love hath writ”]And heavily from woe to woe tell o'erThe sad account of fore-bemoaned moan (sonnet 30)[Note also alliteration/consonance here: w’s and m’s. Also, do you hear why the ‘o’ in ‘account’ doesn’t “count” as part of the ‘o’ assonance?]Rhyme: in the English sonnet, the rhymes normally reinforce the structure of 3 quatrains plus a couplet (for more on this “English” sonnet structure, see below). We mark different rhymes using different letters. Sonnet 12’s rhymes are: abab, cdcd, efef, gg—and this is the rhyming pattern for many other English sonnets as well. There’s also in sonnet 12 one not-quite-perfect rhyme, also called an “off-rhyme” or “slant rhyme,” where the sounds are close but not exact: “herd” and “beard” (ll. 6 and 8). Later poets make lots of use of off-rhyme as well as rhyme—most notably Emily Dickinson. (But also check out contemporary poets and rappers.) Off-rhyme usually gives a poem an interestingly more rough-edged, unpolished feel or sound (but this is often dramatically appropriate for the poem’s content).After you explore a poem’s rhyming patterns, here’s the key set of questions to ask: 1) in what ways do the rhymed works link important terms and concepts (keywords for the poem), thus emphasizing a unifying theme as it’s developed? In contrast, 2) in what ways can some rhymes heighten the contrast or tension at the heart of the poem?RHYTHM: iambic pentameter, normally 10 syllables and 5 beats per line penta = 5 beatsiambic = low stress syllable plus a fairly strongly stressed syllable. this 2-syllable unit is called by its original Greek name, an iamb (pronounced I-am)Mark syllables as follows: __ for low stress / for stressed [or, if typing, mark stresses with bold or CAPS]Iambic lines can be very regular, such as the opening line of sonnet 12, which has a metronomic tick-tock quality:When I do count the clock that tells the timeAdvanced analysis, point 1: iambic lines can often be irregular, to heighten the drama of particular words and concepts, to provide surprise, and so that the sonnet’s music won’t sound repetitive and mechanical. Here’s an example from sonnet 30 (“When to the sessions of sweet silent thought”). How many dramatic violations of normal iambic rhythm are in the following line? For precious friends hid in death’s dateless nightWhen you notice a violation of strict iambic rhythm, the next step is to ask why such an abberation of rhythm was left in the poem? (for a poet like Shakespeare certainly “heard” it). How does that rhythm change “fit” the meaning of the line in which it occurs?Advanced analysis, point 2: Some lines with 5 stresses can have 9 or 11 syllables (or occasionally more or less); these lines are still basically pentameter. Line 3, sonnet 30, has 11 syllables but still 5 beats:I sigh the lack of many a thing I soughtEND-STOPPED VS. ENJAMBED LINESEnd-stopped doesn’t necessarily mean a full stop or period, but any kind of normal pause at the end of a syntactic unit. Here are 2 end-stopped lines from sonnet 12 (and both are about life’s “end-stop”!):When I behold the violet past prime,And sable curls, all silvered o’er with whiteEnjambment means a line that “runs over” to the next line syntactically. It’s used dramatically to express the intense forward motion of thought and emotion, and/or to produce a surprise twist, as in the beginning of two of Shakespeare’s most famous sonnets:Th’expense of spirit in a waste of shameIs lust in action.... [sonnet 129]Let me not to the marriage of true mindsAdmit impediment.... [sonnet 130]Verb: enjamb [the word is borrowed from the French, so the ‘b’ is silent: en-jam]Noun: enjambmentAdjective: an enjambed or run-over lineCAESURA: a dramatic pause somewhere within a line. Say say-zur-ah, from the Latin for ‘pause.’ The pause may either be very dramatic or quite subtle. Some lines may have several caesuras. Use the following symbol to mark a caesura: |Here’s the concluding couplet of sonnet #12, with a very subtle caesura followed by a dramatic and even dangerous one. The caesuras are marked with a |And nothing ‘gainst Time’s scythe | can make defenseSave breed, | to brave him when he takes thee hence.Why is it appropriate to have the most violent caesura of the poem be in the final line?This example from one of Gerard Manley Hopkins’s sonnets about a spiritual crisis may set some sort of record for caesuras per number of syllables:Not, I’ll not, carrion comfort, Despair, not feast on thee....[Note: this sonnet of Hopkins’ is written in hexameter (6-beat) lines. What’s most astonishing about it, of course, is its gross central metaphor, the comparison of Despair to feasting on dead, decaying meat….]SYNTAX. Pay close attention to how the sentences are structured in sonnets, and how their syntax interacts with the other elements of the poem’s form, especially its line breaks and the major units of the quatrains and couplet (see below).In general, look for regularity and then for interesting variations. In sonnet 12, for instance, Shakespeare lists lots of examples of Time laying waste to things. If he gave 1 example per line this would quickly get predictable and boring. So look what he does: some lines give one example per line (such as lines 1-4), while others extend their example—and the poem’s syntax discussing it—to two lines each, such as in lines 5-8 and then again in lines 9-12.Enjambment vs. end-stopped lines and different placement of caesuras also emphasize syntax variety and can create powerfully dramatic effects. They mean that although almost all lines have 5 beats it never gets boring. The most famous example of dramatic sentence structure in Shakespeare’s sonnets is perhaps is the frenzied syntax of sonnet 129 about lust: the lists of adjectives and examples is barely contained within the sonnet’s quatrain (4-line) units. The action verbs— “hunted,” “had,” and “hated,” or “had, having, and in quest to have, extreme” — all swiftly move from violent desire to repulsion and disgust, and this violence again is (barely) contained within the sonnet’s traditional quatrain and couplet structure (see below). And the entire sonnet is basically one headlong sentence that can’t stop —SONNET STRUCTURE key terms: quatrain, sestet, turn, couplet; Italian vs. EnglishItalian sonnet quatrain + quatrain + sestet (4+4+6)Basically, the first quatrain introduces the theme, the second develops it, then the sestet tries to bring it all to resolution. The crucial transition between the second quatrain and the sestet is the turning point of the poem, and is called the turn (volta in Italian). Look for both the poem’s rhyme scheme and syntax to emphasize these structural units. Sometimes poets use enjambment etc. to “blur” the boundaries of the quatrains or other units for dramatic effect, but in these cases the rhymes usually mark the traditional structure.English sonnet quatrain + quatrain + quatrain + couplet (4+4+4+2)Here the first quatrain introduces the theme, the second and third develop it (sometimes via antithesis and contrast), and then the couplet has just 2 lines to provide a resolution or restatement of the whole. The turn in the English sonnet usually comes right before the final couplet, though not always. Look for both the poem’s rhyme scheme and syntax to emphasize these structural units. Sometimes poets use enjambment etc. to “blur” the boundaries of the quatrains or other units for dramatic effect, but in these cases the rhymes usually mark the traditional structure. And some English sonnets try to “resolve” the sonnet’s argument not in the final couplet but in the final line, making the turn all the more dramatic (and perhaps also hinting that a resolution is impossible?). A famous example of such a last-minute turn where everything rides on the outcome of the final line is Shakespeare’s sonnet #12, “When I do count the clock that tells the time.”The “English” sonnet is named that in tribute to Shakespeare’s sonnet cycle, though he didn’t invent the closing couplet nor the “English” sonnet form; he just explored to perfection most if not all of the possibilities inherent in this form. Many poets who enjoy sonnets explore the challenges of both English and Italian sonnet forms.Advanced work with the turn in a sonnet:Some of Shakespeare’s English sonnets could be said to have two turns—that is, two important transition or change of tone. If there are two, they often come between lines 8-9 and then again, even more emphatically, between lines 12 and 13 (the shift to the concluding couplet). We might say this two-turn feature is a mark of the Italian sonnets influence on the English: we can “hear” the trace of the Italian sestet (the final six lines) in the English 4+4+4+2 pattern.Consider Shakespeare’s sonnet 61’s final 6 lines. “O, no!” marks the first turn:O, no! thy love, though much, is not so great:It is my love that keeps mine eye awake:Mine own true love that doth my rest defeat,To play the watchman ever for thy sake:???For thee watch I, whilst thou dost wake elsewhere,???From me far off, with others all too near.In comparison, sonnet 12 (“When I do count the clock”) could also be said to have 2 turns, one at line 9 (“Then of thy beauty…”) and the final one, shockingly, postponed until the very last line of the couplet! (That makes the final turn as dramatic and dangerous as possible, yes?) Here are the final 7 lines of the poem:Borne on the bier with white and bristly beard,Then of thy beauty do I question make,That thou among the wastes of time must go,Since sweets and beauties do themselves forsakeAnd die as fast as they see others grow;?????And nothing 'gainst Time's scythe can make defence?????Save breed, to brave him when he takes thee hence.DICTION; FIGURES OF SPEECHDiction means word choice, and discussing both individual words and patterns in a sonnet opens up key opportunities for interpretation. “Figures of speech” or tropes (turns of phrase) mean metaphors, similes, hyperbole (exaggeration), understatement, paradox, irony, etc.First, always look up the dictionary meaning of 1-2 words important to the poem, including a word’s roots (the older words of which it is composed) and its wide range of meanings—some of which will surprise you and may be relevant for interpreting the poem! Lots of words that seem plain have a really interesting metaphor or “action” at the core of their meaning. “To educate,” for instance, reveals in its root words, from Latin, that it means “to lead forth” or “take out” or “raise up.” Also, think about the historical meaning of a word and whether it might have meant something slightly different in Shakespeare’s time than in your own time. To explore this, use the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). The English Department’s main office has a print edition (LPAC 202) that you may use there, or you may use the OED in McCabe. (The online version of the OED is accessible via Tripod.) The OED will give you not just a word’s varied meanings but how those meanings have evolved over time. Definitely cool—and of course pay particular attention to the meanings your word may have had in the late 1500s and early 1600s, when Shakespeare was alive.Third, look for interesting, dramatic patterns in word use. For example, sonnet 30 (“When to the sessions of sweet silent thought”) seems at first glance to be reflective and sentimental. But as the Shakespeare’s Sonnets website points out, following what many earlier readers and scholars have noticed, the diction used to describe nostalgia and the opening of old emotional wounds is strangely unemotional and legalistic. In the words of the website, “The language is quasi-legal, possibly based on that appropriate to a manorial court investigating discrepancies in its accounts. Hence terms like waste, expense, grievance, cancelled, tell o'er, paid before are employed.” [ ]. As well as looking at the individual uses of this accounting language, you must ask a big question that the website doesn’t ask: why use financial language in the context of a poem about remembrance? What happens to the accounting language after the “turn” in the poem, in the concluding couplet? Here’s an extravagant figure of speech (hyperbole) from sonnet 20, line 5, that fascinated my Portraits of the Artist students the last time I taught this course:Then can I drown an eye, unused to flow,What kinds of questions or observations can we make about describing crying as “drowning an eye” (which is obviously an absurdity if you think about it literally)? How is this kind of rhetorical overstatement or extravagance appropriate to the poem? It certainly strikingly contrasts with the accounting figures of speech that elsewhere dominate the poem, yes? My students even had interesting things to say about the odd phrase “Then can I”; that is, “Then I can … do x.” They didn’t focus so much on the reversed syntax (which I told them was frequently done in Elizabethan poetry) as on the speaker’s apparent claim that he had choice and control: “I can do x.” What next step do you think commentary on this phrasing should take after this observation is made?In short, considering diction opens up lots of intriguing micro-readings of single words or phrases and the roles they play within a single line, a quatrain, and perhaps the poem as a whole. TONE (as in “tone of voice”)It’s hard to define or to name definitively. But think of it this way: if you were to read the poem aloud, what tone of voice would you choose to convey what you’ve decided is the poem’s dominant emotion? For some poems it’s easier: sonnet 129 seems (doesn’t it?) clearly full of anger and self-disgust, spoken by a speaker who seems to know all too much about lust from having experienced its consequences first-hand. But what about sonnet 130, “My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun”? Is the poem angry and scornful, or lighthearted and witty, full of jokes about the lies that poets say? And what about sonnet 138; with what tone would you speak this couplet ending it?—Therefore I lie with her, and she with me,And in our faults by lies we flattered be.To figure out the tone of this conclusion, you must decide what is the emotional and intellectual arc or plot of the poem as a whole—where it’s going and why. (You might also want to think about the role played by the pun in “I lie with her.”)One other point about “tone.” The reason why we keep reading Shakespeare’s sonnets is that that are endlessly rich; they can’t be reduced to one meaning, much less one tone of voice or one “plot” or paraphrasable “argument.” Many different tonal readings of his sonnets can be supported by quoting from the texts—but how? What words support each reading, and why? That’s where the discussion begins to get interesting. In the end your job as interpreter is similar to that of an actor on stage. Give us a convincing performance: this is a good way to “hear” this sonnet. ARGUMENT (in other words, how to create dramatic tension)As I’ve said, the English sonnet is basically a 4-part invention: 3 quatrains plus a concluding couplet that’s supposed to resolve everything. I think of the sonnet as a machine for thinking dialectically. (And feeling complexly too.) Look for a macro-structure guiding the whole when you analyze any individual sonnet. How do the quatrains relate to each other? How does quatrain #2 develop #1’s ideas? How does #3 follow from #2? What happens when the sonnet makes the “turn” and leaps to the concluding couplet?Is there a thesis/antithesis/synthesis structure to the whole of the sonnet? Is it rather thesis, development of thesis, then resolution? Or maybe thesis, development of thesis, then a refutation of all the previous points in order to make for a conclusion? Or some other pattern? Define your own big-picture rhetorical map for a sonnet, using the sonnet’s main structural units as signposts. Look for large structural patterns, but also for interesting exceptions or variations. Doing this will help you with both small and large points of interpretation. ................
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