Table of Contents
Student Workbook
SPEAK
by
Verderber, Verderber, and Sellnow
Leonard M. Edmonds
Arizona State University
Table of Contents
|Chapter 1 |Foundations of Public Speaking |7 |
| |Learning Outcomes |7 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |7 |
| |Key Terms |11 |
| |Activities |16 |
| |Speech Evaluation Checklist |26 |
| |Self-Test |27 |
|Chapter 2 |Developing Confidence through the Speech-Planning Process |30 |
| |Learning Outcomes |30 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |30 |
| |Key Terms |36 |
| |Activities |39 |
| |Self-Test |52 |
|Chapter 3 |Listening and Responding Effectively |55 |
| |Learning Outcomes |55 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |55 |
| |Key Terms |58 |
| |Activities |60 |
| |Speech Evaluation Checklist |71 |
| |Self-Test |72 |
|Chapter 4 |Selecting an Appropriate Speech Goal |75 |
| |Learning Outcomes |75 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |75 |
| |Key Terms |80 |
| |Activities |83 |
| |Self-Test |98 |
|Chapter 5 |Adapting to Audiences |101 |
| |Learning Outcomes |101 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |101 |
| |Key Terms |106 |
| |Activities |108 |
| |Self-Test |124 |
|Chapter 6 |Gathering and Evaluating Information |127 |
| |Learning Outcomes |127 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |127 |
| |Key Terms |133 |
| |Activities |137 |
| |Self-Test |150 |
|Chapter 7 |Organizing and Outlining the Speech Body |153 |
| |Learning Outcomes |153 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |153 |
| |Key Terms |156 |
| |Activities |158 |
| |Self-Test |170 |
|Chapter 8 |The Introduction and Conclusion |173 |
| |Learning Outcomes |173 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |173 |
| |Key Terms |176 |
| |Activities |178 |
| |Self-Test |191 |
|Chapter 9 |Presentational Aids |194 |
| |Learning Outcomes |194 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |194 |
| |Key Terms |200 |
| |Activities |203 |
| |Self-Test |215 |
|Chapter 10 |Language and Oral Style |218 |
| |Learning Outcomes |218 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |218 |
| |Key Terms |223 |
| |Activities |228 |
| |Self-Test |243 |
|Chapter 11 |Practicing Delivery |246 |
| |Learning Outcomes |246 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |246 |
| |Key Terms |251 |
| |Activities |255 |
| |Speech Evaluation Checklist |266 |
| |Self-Test |267 |
|Chapter 12 |Informative Speaking |270 |
| |Learning Outcomes |270 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |270 |
| |Key Terms |274 |
| |Activities |276 |
| |Process Speech Evaluation Checklist |292 |
| |Expository Speech Evaluation Checklist |293 |
| |Self-Test |294 |
|Chapter 13 |Understanding Persuasive Messages |297 |
| |Learning Outcomes |297 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |297 |
| |Key Terms |303 |
| |Activities |309 |
| |Self-Test |327 |
|Chapter 14 |Persuasive Speaking |330 |
| |Learning Outcomes |330 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |330 |
| |Key Terms |333 |
| |Activities |336 |
| |Speech to Convince Evaluation Checklist |345 |
| |Speech to Actuate Evaluation Checklist |347 |
| |Self-Test |348 |
|Chapter 15 |Ceremonial Speaking: Speeches for Special Occasions |351 |
| |Learning Outcomes |351 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |351 |
| |Key Terms |354 |
| |Activities |356 |
| |Self-Test |369 |
|Chapter 16 |Developing and Delivering Group Presentations |372 |
| |Learning Outcomes |372 |
| |Interactive Chapter Outline |372 |
| |Key Terms |376 |
| |Activities |379 |
| |Self-Test |393 |
|Appendix |Self-Test Answers |396 |
Preface
Welcome to the student workbook for Rudolph F. Verderber, Kathleen S. Verderber, and Deanna D. Sellnow’s SPEAK. The majority of students who use this workbook are not communication majors, and many feel anxious about taking a course in public speaking. This companion student workbook is designed to help all students get the most out of the text and the course. The philosophy of the workbook is simple: students appreciate and learn best with practical, hands-on activities and applications. With that in mind, the following sections are included:
Learning Outcomes: At the beginning of each chapter, the learning outcomes for the chapter are clearly listed.
Interactive Chapter Outlines: These outlines review the key ideas discussed in the chapter by asking you to complete the outlines by supplying key terms and providing examples that illustrate chapter concepts. You are encouraged to work on the outlines in study groups and to compare your answers and examples with those of your classmates.
Key Terms: The key terms of each chapter are listed in the order in which they appear in the chapter, along with space for you to write in the definitions.
Chapter Activities: The chapter activities are designed for a variety of students, learning styles, and contexts for learning. You will find web-based computer activities, group discussion activities, and independent activities that can help you to develop your speeches when you are suffering from “writer’s block” (or “speaker’s block”). Also included are the Action Step activities from the text, sample speech analyses, and a variety of speech assignments. Activities have also been included that invite you to learn more by reading, analyzing, and applying ideas discussed in articles that can be found on the electronic database InfoTrac College Edition. For additional InfoTrac College Edition exercises, you can purchase the InfoTrac College Edition Student Activities Workbook for Communication by Nancy Rost Goulden (ISBN: 0-534-53103-2, Wadsworth, 2002).
Evaluation Forms, Checklists, and Logs: Whether you’re rehearsing with a classmate or evaluating your own group leadership skills, various worksheets have been included to guide your practical learning.
Self-Tests: Self-tests have been included so that you can check your understanding of and applications of chapter concepts. Answer keys for all self-tests can be found at the end of the workbook.
Additionally, your online resources for SPEAK contain additional materials and activities, including links to Speech Builder Express(, Speech Studio, and InfoTrac College Edition. It also includes videos of most of the sample speeches featured in the text. Ask your professor if your course will use WebCT or Blackboard.
“Speech Builder Express” software has been developed to assist you in designing and producing quality speeches. “Speech Builder Express” is a web-based tool accessible through your online resources for SPEAK. “Speech Studio” provides an online system to upload and share your recorded speeches with instructors and/or other students.
I hope that you find this workbook useful in your study of public speaking. If you have any questions or comments, I would like to hear from you. Have a great experience in your public speaking course.
Leonard M. Edmonds
Faculty, Interdisciplinary Humanities and Communication
Arizona State University
7271 E. Sonoran Arroyo Mall
Mesa, AZ 85212
Larry.Edmonds@asu.edu
Chapter 1
FOUNDATIONS OF Public Speaking
Learning Outcomes
1. How does the communication process work?
2. What are the contexts in which communication occurs?
3. What is public speaking, and why is it important to study?
4. What does it mean to be an ethical speaker?
5. How does understanding the rhetorical situation help you prepare a speech?
6. What makes a speech effective?
7. What process can you use to prepare and make effective speeches?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
I. The Human Communication Process
A. _______________ is the process of creating shared meaning.
B. Elements of the Model of Communication include:
1. ______________: the individuals who assume the roles of __________ and __________ during an interaction.
a. As senders, ________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
b. Receivers _________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
2. Messages: ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.
a. ___________ are the interpretations participants make of the messages they send and receive.
b. ___________ is the process of putting our thoughts and feelings into words and nonverbal behaviors.
c. ___________ is the process of interpreting the verbal and nonverbal messages.
d. _________________are sent by receivers and intended to let the sender know how the receiver made sense of the original message.
3. Channels: ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.
4. Interference/Noise: ___________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.
5. Feedback: __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.
6. Context: Communication research reveals that there are specific contexts in which communication occurs including
a. ___________ ______________: self talk, communicating with yourself.
b. ___________ ______________: communication between two people.
c. _______ ______ ____________: communication that occurs among approximately three to ten people.
d. ___________ ______________: communication that occurs among more than ten people where one message is presented to the participants who function as receivers and whose own messages are limited primarily to feedback, including mass communication, newspapers and public speaking.
II. Public Speaking as a Liberal Art
A. The role of public speaking education in _______________ is that the process of preparing for speeches teaches students not _____________, but ____________—a central skill for a _________________________________.
B. Public speaking skills empower people to _______________________________, __________________________________________________________________________________, and ____________________________________________.
III. Ethical Principles for Public Speaking
A. Ethics are _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________.
B. Five generally agreed upon ethical standards are ________, ________, _______, _________, and __________.
1. Ethical communicators ___________. _______ speakers credit the ideas of others they use in their speech. ___________ is passing off the ideas, words, or created works of another as one’s own by failing to credit the source. Three common methods of _____________ are:
a. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.
c. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.
2. Ethical communicators _______________________.
3. Ethical communicators _______________________.
4. Ethical communicators _______________________.
5. Ethical communicators _______________________.
IV. Understanding the Rhetorical Situation
A. The _________ __________ is the composite of the ________, ________, and the ________ that influences the speech that is given.
B. ________ is some real or perceived need that a speech might help address.
C. The ________ is the source or originator of the speech.
D. The ________ is the specific group of people to whom your speech is directed. ________ ________ is a study made to learn about the diverse characteristics of audience members and then, based on these characteristics, to predict how audience members are apt to ________, ________, and ____________________
_______________.
E. The ________ is the setting in which the speech is given.
V. Principles of Effective Public Speaking.
Speech effectiveness is ___________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
A. Effective speakers are ________ ________. ________-________ speakers offer their ideas in ways that respond to a felt need, are appropriate to the occasion, reflect careful research, make sense, and sound interesting through the use of the rhetorical appeals of ethos, pathos, and logos.
1. Ethos ________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
2. Pathos _______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
3. Logos ________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
B. An effective speech includes ________-________ content so that it includes ________-________ ________ to make the exigence of your ideas transparent.
C. An effective speech is well structured.
1. _____________ is the overall framework you use to organize your speech content. It has four elements:
a. _____________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________________
d. _____________________________________________________
2. _____________ is the specific language and style choices you use as you frame your ideas and verbalize them to your audience.
3. _________ ________ are language techniques designed to create audience attention, hold interest, and aid memory.
D. An effective speech is delivered _____________. _________ is how you use your voice and body to present your message.
Key Terms
public speaking
communication
participants
senders
receivers
messages
meanings
encoding
decoding
feedback messages
channels:
interference/noise
feedback
intrapersonal communication
interpersonal communication
small group communication
public communication
mass communication
liberal art
ethics
plagiarism
rhetorical situation
exigence
speaker
audience
audience analysis
occasion
speech effectiveness
audience centered
ethos
pathos
logos
macrostructure
microsctructure
rhetorical devices
delivery
Activities
Activity 1.1
What Good Is Public Speaking?
Purpose: To understand the benefits of effective public speaking.
Instructions: On the Internet, use one or more major search engines (e.g., Google, Yahoo, Bing) to do a search on “benefits of effective public speaking.” You may find both academic and non-academic websites listed. Visit a number of sites and make a list of the ways you find that effective public speaking can benefit you in your life during college and/or after. Keep these reasons in mind as you begin your study of the field and begin to actually present speeches.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Activity 1.2
Will You Reach Your Audience?
Purpose: To help you see how concern for your audience and audience analysis can shape the content of a speech.
Instructions: Visit the following website and read the Ten Audience Analysis Exercises:
While these exercises were developed for writers, when we prepare a speech, we also need to consider our audience. Think about how you might adapt each of these exercises to assist you in making sure that you are preparing an audience-centered speech:
1. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
After analyzing these ideas, how important do you find it to analyze the audience in order to enhance the probability of sharing meaning with that audience?
Activity 1.3
Evaluating a Speech
Purpose: To help you think more carefully about the relevance of ethics to public speaking.
Instructions: Read the following hypothetical situation. In groups of two or three, discuss how you would respond as a student/peer evaluator in this situation, and how you would respond as a teacher. In your discussion, try to explain to others in your group the reasons for your responses and actions.
Situation:
It was the third week of class and students in Public Speaking 101 were scheduled to deliver their first speeches before the group. The speech assignment required students to introduce themselves to the group and to give a three-to-five minute speech on any topic of their choice. Students were to complete peer evaluations of the speeches delivered in class, and the teacher was to provide students with detailed feedback on their first graded public speeches.
John had volunteered to speak first. He regularly participated in class discussions and had said that he enjoyed sharing his opinions and was looking forward to gaining more practice and valuable experience at public speaking.
John’s speech started off strong. He confidently introduced himself in a clear voice, making good eye contact with the audience. He then announced that he would be speaking in support of the Ku Klux Klan, particularly advocating separation of the races due to white racial superiority! The speech was logically ordered, and John used evidence from Klan literature to support his point. As he finished, John was confident and smiling, but the class was oddly quiet…
1. As a peer evaluator of this speech, I would....
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. As a teacher evaluating this speech, I would....
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity 1.4
InfoTrac Activity: Speech Preparation Advice
Purpose: To help you prepare speeches.
Instructions: Locate and read the following article: “Your audience will thank you: Eight dos and don’ts to keep in mind when preparing your next presentation,” by Carmine Gallo. (Hint: Use the author’s full name as your search term.)
1. In one or two sentences, summarize the purpose of Gallo’s article.
2. What information about presenting a speech that you already knew was confirmed by Gallo’s information?
3. What did you learn that is new about effective presenting from the article that you feel is helpful?
4. What presentation skills would you like to learn more about? Why?
5. Gallo recommends avoiding jokes in the opening of your speech. What are some other options for getting your audience’s attention?
6. Gallo also recommends not reading to your audience. What are a few specific things you can do when practicing to decrease your reliance on speaking notes?
Activity 1.5
InfoTrac Activity: Speech Planning
Purpose: To help you explore the process of speech planning in a real life situation.
Instructions: Locate and read the following article: “Celebration and Dissent” by Nancy Gibbs. (Hint: Use George W. Bush Inauguration as your search term.)
1. According to the article, what was the goal of Bush’s second term in office?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. According to the article, what was the “message underlying the address?”
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. What were some of the elements of the physical context which the president should have known going into the address?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
4. If you had the opportunity to plan and deliver this speech, what would you choose as your primary goal and main points?
Primary Goal:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Main Points:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Activity 1.6
Speech of Self-Introduction
Prepare a two- to three-minute speech of self-introduction. Tell us about the following:
1. Your personal background
2. Something that makes you unique
3. Why you chose your major
As you prepare your speech, use the speech evaluation checklist in this section to check that your speech includes all elements of an effective speech.
Activity 1.7
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
Celebrity Chef Concocts Impressive Past
Celebrity chef Robert Irvine came to St. Petersburg in 2007 with a plan to turn it into “the next Monaco.” He claimed to be a royal knight and asked to be introduced as Sir Robert Irvine. He said he owned a castle in Scotland and had cooked for presidents and royalty.
Today, however, it’s difficult to separate fact from fiction when it comes to Sir Robert Irvine. What is known to be true is that he is an excellent chef and star of the Food Network’s, Dinner: Impossible, which is now in its eighth season. He published a cookbook with Harper Collins in 2007. He lives in Abescon, N.J., in a modestly priced house with his wife and two children.
But from there, the “facts” get murky:
• On his Web page, Irvine lists a BS degree in food and nutrition from the University of Leeds. Officials from the University of Leeds have no record of Robert Irvine having been a student there.
• In his book, Irvine claims to have worked on the wedding cake for Prince Charles and Princess Diana. He was at the school where the cake was made, but did he actually help make it? Does “picking fruit and things like that” count?
• On his resumé, Irvine says he received several Five Star Diamond Awards from the American Academy of Hospitality Sciences. The “academy” is actually housed in a Manhattan apartment, and recipients pay for the honor.
• On being a royal knight, according to Jenn Stebbing, press officer at Buckingham Palace: “He is not a KCVO Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order and he wasn’t given a castle by the queen of England.” Irvine now admits that was a lie.
• Irvine claims to have trained White House military cooks and served presidents and heads of state. White House spokespersons claim he has never had anything to do with planning, preparing, or serving at any public or private White House food function.
1. What, if any, ethical communication principles did Irvine violate and, if so, how?
2. When, if ever, is it acceptable to stretch the truth about your qualifications?
3. Is it acceptable to exaggerate the facts about yourself if you’re famous? If “everyone else does it” too? Explain.
Source: Littlejohn, S. W., & Foss, K. A. (2008). Theories of human communication (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth/Cengage.
Activity 1.8
Impromptu Speech Activity
Identify one of your “heroes.” Your hero may or may not be famous. Identify one of the five ethical principles this hero’s life adheres to and why. In your two- to three-minute impromptu speech, provide at least two incidents that serve as evidence regarding how this person demonstrates/demonstrated the principle.
Activity 1.9
Assessment Activity
Visit a local retail store in a nearby mall. Spend time observing what you see. Describe what you observe according to the elements of the rhetorical situation (occasion, speaker, and audience). Do you think the sales clerk you observed was effective? Again, based on what you observed regarding the rhetorical situation, why or why not?
Activity 1.10
Sample Speech Analysis
Watch and analyze Kris’ speech “Mirror Image” which is available at and answer the following questions.
1. What did Kris do well in terms of intelligibility, conversational style, vocal variety, poise, eye contact, and attire? What was less effective about the way Kris used her voice and her body during this speech?
2. What did Kris do well in terms catching her audience’s attention and making her speech relevant to them? Evaluate her use of language in her speech. What was effective and what was ineffective? Explain.
Speech Evaluation Checklist
General Criteria
You can use this checklist to critique a speech of self-introduction that you hear in class. (You can also use it to critique your own speech.) As you listen to the speaker, consider what makes a speech effective. Then answer the following questions.
Content
1. Were all main points addressed per the assignment? ______
2. Were two to three pieces of evidence provided for each main point? (breadth) ______
3. Was one extended piece of evidence provided for each main point? (depth) ______
4. Were listener-relevance links provided for each main point? ______
5. Did the speech fall within the time constraints of the assignment? ______
Structure
1. Did the speech provide all the basic elements of an effective speech: introduction, body, conclusion, and transitions? ______ (macrostructure)
2. Did the introduction catch the audience’s interest? ______ state the topic of the speech? ______ preview the main points of the speech? ______
3. Were the main points organized in a way that helped the audience understand and remember the ideas in the speech? ______
4. Were transitions provided between each main point? ______
5. Did the conclusion remind the audience of the main points? ______ motivate the audience to remember the main ideas of the speech? ______
6. Did the speaker use words that were accurate and clear? ______ vivid and emphatic? ______ appropriate and inclusive? ______ (microstructure)
7. Did the speaker use rhetorical devices that gained the audience’s attention? ______ held the audience’s interest? ______ (microstructure)
Delivery
1. Did the speaker use the appropriate volume? ______ rate of speaking? ______
2. Did the speaker use proper pronunciation? ______ enunciation? ______
3. Was the speaker’s voice intelligible? ______ conversational? ______ expressive? ______
4. Did the speaker look up from his or her notes most of the time and make eye contact with the audience? ______
5. Did the speaker use appropriate facial expressions and gestures to reinforce important points? ______
6. Did the speaker appear poised and confident? ______
You can use the CourseMate for SPEAK at to access this checklist, complete it online and compare your feedback to that of the authors, or print a copy to use in class.
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following test.
Multiple Choice
1. A speaker noticed many furrowed brows and puzzled looks from audience members, so she began to include illustrations and examples of some of her ideas. This is an example of a speaker who paid attention to
a. internal noise.
b. the channel of communication.
c. semantic noise.
d. feedback.
2. Which of the following is not an example of psychological noise?
a. The speaker’s cell phone is ringing.
b. The speakers is feeling ill.
c. The speaker just did poorly on an exam in another class.
d. The speaker is concerned that a previous speaker presented a similar speech.
3. Mass communication is a form of
a. interpersonal communication.
b. intrapersonal communication.
c. small group communication.
d. public communication.
4. Plagiarism refers to which of the following?
a. Using someone else’s ideas as one’s own
b. Demonstrating respect for others
c. The speaking situation
d. The speaking occasion
5. Speech effectiveness is the extent to which the audience does all of the following things except
a. hear.
b. listen.
c. understand.
d. be motivated to act.
6. Competence and good character are conveyed by which rhetorical appeal?
a. Ethos
b. Logos
c. Pathos
d. Pogos
7. Which of the following is a generally agreed upon ethical standard?
a. Equality
b. Respect
c. Deception
d. Competence
8. In a 2002-2003 survey, what percentage of university undergraduate students admitted to plagiarizing from internet sources in the past year?
a. 10 to 12
b. 23 to 25
c. 37 to 38
d. 50 to 53
9. You should always credit a source when you
a. paraphrase from it.
b. get common knowledge information from it.
c. borrow a general idea from it.
d. borrow from it directly.
10. A man who gives a speech on repealing the second amendment to the National Rifle Association is guilty of
a. failing to account for the speech occasion.
b. poor audience analysis.
c. lack of common sense.
d. all of the above.
True/False
11. ____ Public speaking skills empower you to participate in democratic processes.
12. ____ An effective speech is audience-centered.
13. ____ Macrostructure is the specific language and style used to frame ideas.
14. ____ As long as you paraphrase the information, you are not guilty of plagiarism.
15. ____ Because audiences listen for message, the nonverbal aspects of a speech are of little consequence.
Essay
16. List and describe the two specific behaviors fundamental to ethical speaking. For each of the behaviors, provide at least one example that illustrates why this guideline is important for ethical speaking. Focus on “degrees of rightness and wrongness in human behavior.”
17. Describe the role of each of the rhetorical appeals in public speaking. Be sure to give examples of specific behaviors, actions, and practices that would be witnessed when each appeal is used. Give examples from the book, the supplemental reading, and/or your own life to support your conclusions.
Chapter 2
Developing Confidence through the Speech-Planning Process
Learning Outcomes
1. What is public speaking apprehension?
2. Why do we experience public speaking apprehension?
3. What can we do to manage public speaking apprehension?
4. In what ways does careful planning help reduce public speaking apprehension?
5. What are the six steps in an effective speech action plan?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
I. Understanding Public Speaking Apprehension
A. Public speaking apprehension is _____________________________________
_________________________________________________________________.
1. Almost all of us have some level of public speaking apprehension, but about ____ percent of the U.S. population experiences ____ levels of apprehension.
2. This apprehension _____ stops people from speaking.
B. Symptoms of public speaking apprehension
1. The signs of public speaking apprehension vary from individual to individual, and symptoms range from mild to debilitating. Symptoms can be _________, _________, or _________.
2. The level of public speaking apprehension we experience seems to _____ and gradually _________ as we speak.
3. There are three phases of reaction.
a. Anticipation reaction: _______________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
b. Confrontation reaction: ______________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
c. Adaptation reaction: ________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
C. Causes of Public Speaking Apprehension
Self-talk is defined as _____________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________.
1. Biologically based temperament
a. Some public speaking apprehension may be _______.
b. The “___________________” theory suggests that, for some, public speaking apprehension stems from our _________________________.
c. ____________ people tend to experience _____ levels of public speaking apprehension than do people who are ____________.
d. Similarly, public speaking apprehension is likely to be ________ for those who naturally experience _________ levels of _____________ and shyness than people who do not.
2. Previous experience
a. Our level of apprehension may also result from __________________
________________________________________________________.
b. We are socialized in two main ways: ___________________________.
c. ____________ is learned by observing and then imitating those you admire or are close to.
d. ____________ is learning from personal experiences so that past responses to our behavior shape our expectations about how our future behavior will be received.
e. How have your past experiences affected your attitudes toward public speaking? ________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
3. Level of skills
a. The “______ _______” theory suggests that most of us become apprehensive because ______________________________________
or __________________________________________.
b. How would you assess your speaking skill levels? _______________
_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________.
II. Managing Public Speaking Apprehension
A. General methods
1. Communication orientation motivation (COM) techniques: __________
_____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________.
a. Performance orientation: ____________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
b. Communication orientation: _________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
c. When we focus on __________ and _____________________, and we recognize that our audience is concerned with understanding the content of the speech, not ______________, we have adopted a communication orientation rather than performance orientation and our anxiety at speaking will be lowered.
2. Visualization: _________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
a. Visualization helps us overcome the ________ and _________ causes of apprehension.
b. By visualizing the process of speech making, not only ______________
__________________________, but ____________________________
__________________________________________________________.
3. Relaxation exercises: ___________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
4. Systematic desensitization: ______________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
a. This method is used to help people overcome the _________ _________ of public speaking apprehension.
b. The ultimate goal of systematic desensitization is to ________________
__________ while __________________________.
5. Cognitive restructuring: ________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________. Cognitive restructuring involves four steps:
a. ________________________________________
b. ________________________________________
c. ________________________________________
d. ________________________________________
6. Public speaking skills training: ___________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
a. If we learn the processes and behaviors associated with _____________
___________, then we will be _______ anxious.
b. Public speaking skills include those associated with the processes of ______________, _______________________, ___________, _______, and ____-__________.
B. Specific techniques
1. ____________________________.
a. As soon as you know the day you are giving your speech and the expectations for it, identify the ______ and begin to _______.
b. Ideally you should spend ______________ researching, organizing, and practicing.
2. ____________________ to direct your audience’s attention to something else at carefully placed points during the speech which will diminish the sense of being constantly stared at and the anxiety that can accompany it.
3. ____________________________.
a. Get comfortable _______ ________ ______ about your topic.
b. By the ______ or ______ time you have practiced aloud, you will notice your __________ becoming easier and you will gain confidence in ______________________________.
c. Many successful speakers also practice in front of _________________.
4. ___________. We tend to feel more confident when we know we look good.
5. _____________________________. Choose to speak at the time that is optimal for you.
6. ______________________.
a. Give yourself a short “________________.”
b. Tell yourself that you are _________ and _________.
7. ___________________________.
8. ___________________________. Although you may feel nervous, your audience is unlikely to “see” it.
III. Effective Speech Planning: The Key to Confidence
A. Speech Plan: __________________________.
B. There are six steps to an effective speech plan.
1. ____________________________________________________.
a. Speech goal: ______________________________________________.
b. To arrive at a speech goal, choose a topic that you ________________ and ________________________________.
c. Think about __________________ and ___________________.
d. Your specific speech goal articulates exactly what you want your audience to __________, _________, or ________.
2. _________________________________.
a. Audience adaptation is ____________________________________
_______________________________________________________.
b. You will consider your ___________________’s needs and seek to meet these needs continually as you _________________.
c. It is important to consider the audience’s ___________________ in your goal, their _____________________ the content of the speech, and their _________ toward you and your topic.
3. _________________________________________.
a. When you select a topic, although you already know something about it, ______________________________________, which you can get from _____________ or ______________.
b. You will need to _________ the information you gather and ________ the items that you deem to be valid and truthful.
c. The ______ you know about your topic, the ______ it is to evaluate the information you uncover in your research.
4. __________________________________________.
a. You begin the process of organizing your speech by ________________
__________________________________________________________.
b. Combine the __________ with your __________ into a ______________
__________ that describes specifically what you want your audience to understand when you are done speaking.
c. Main points must be _______________, and then they must be _______
__________________________________________________________
_________________.
d. Having __________, __________, and _________ the main points, you are now ready to _________ the body of the speech, including the ___________ and ___________.
e. Most of us benefit from the discipline of ___________ and ___________ a complete speech outline.
5. ___________________________________________.
a. You may decide to create a visual aid that will help _______, ________, or ___________ what you say.
b. Audiences understand and retain information better when ___________
_________________________________________________________.
6. __________________________________.
a. The goal of practice is ________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
b. Deliver your speech extemporaneously—that is, practiced until _______
__________________________________________________________.
c. Engaging in effective practice sessions enables you to become comfortable with _____________, ______________________________, and __________________________________.
IV. Preparing a Narrative/Personal Experience Speech
A. Narrative/personal experience speech: ________________________________
_________________________________________________________________.
B. A moral is ________________________________________________________.
C. When using narrative/personal experience speeches, there are four elements that should be remembered.
1. _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
2. _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
3. _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
4. _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
Key Terms
public speaking apprehension
anticipation phase
confrontation phase
adaptation phase
self-talk
modeling
reinforcement
communication orientation motivation (COM) techniques
performance orientation
communication orientation
visualization
relaxation exercises
systematic desensitization
cognitive restructuring
public speaking skills training
speech plan
canons of rhetoric
speech goal
audience adaptation
narrative/personal experience speech
moral
Activities
Activity 2.1
Interviewing a Classmate/Speech of Introduction
Purpose: To guide you in interviewing a classmate so that you can prepare a brief speech of introduction. This worksheet can also be used to assist you in choosing a topic for your first speech.
Instructions: Use the following questions and prompts to help you interview a classmate and record their responses. You do not need to use all the questions; if your interview gains its own focus and momentum, you should feel free to develop your own questions. You are preparing a speech of introduction, so collect the information from your classmate, check to be certain it is accurate, and then organize the most interesting information into a brief speech.
1. The most interesting stories or facts that I heard or read in the news in the last month were
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
2. When I have free time, some of the things that I most enjoy are
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
3. The most interesting thing that I’ve learned in school over the last year is
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
4. The best movie I’ve seen in the past year is _______________________________ because ___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. The most intriguing entertainer or entertainment in America today is __________________________ and the reason I enjoy him/her/it so much is
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. The music (or television show) that has most influenced my life is
____________________________________________________
7. When my family gets together, we always end up talking about
____________________________________________________
8. When strangers meet my family, one of the first things they notice is
____________________________________________________
9. I would bet I’m the only person in this class who has
____________________________________________________
10. The strangest place I’ve ever visited is
____________________________________________________
11. A unique person who has influenced me is
____________________________________________________
12. People in this class would be surprised to learn that I
____________________________________________________
Activity 2.2
Preparing a Narrative/Personal Experience Speech
Purpose: To help you in developing ideas for your first speech.
Instructions: Use the following prompts to help you plan and organize your first speech.
1. Identify a story that you will use in your first speech (previous activities in this workbook can help you here).
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. What is the point of this story?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. Why are you sharing this story with the class? That is, what is your goal in sharing this story? To inform? To persuade? To entertain?
__________________________________________________________________
4. As you consider this story, what details and specifics can be included to make the story more vivid, memorable, and enjoyable to listen to?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
5. As you consider this story, what dialogue or conversational exchanges can you include to make the story more vivid, memorable, and enjoyable to listen to?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
6. As you consider this story, how can you add or incorporate humor into your narrative?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
7. As you consider your speech as a whole, how will it be organized? Chronologically or topically? What are the reasons for your decision?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
8. Now that you’ve got a working sense of the body of the speech, how can you relate this story or your speech goal to the audience’s needs and interests? Consider the following:
a. Is there a good rhetorical question that you could ask at the start of the speech to involve the audience?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
b. Is there a good line of dialogue that could start the speech?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
c. Is there a humorous aspect of the story or clever way of wording the beginning of the story to gain the audience’s attention? (Consider the audience and avoid humor that might be misunderstood or could be considered offensive.)
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
d. Is there a surprising fact or statistic that could gain the audience’s attention?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
9. With the introduction and body of the speech planned out, how can you conclude your speech? Plan a closing line that is clear, vivid, and memorable.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
10. Is there a visual aid you could bring to help the audience understand and retain ideas from your speech?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Activity 2.3
PRPSA (PERSONAL REPORT OF PUBLIC SPEAKING ANXIETY)
Purpose: To reveal your level of anxiety on a scale ranging from low, to moderately low, to moderate, to moderately high, to high.
Instructions: The following is composed of thirty-four statements concerning feelings about communicating with other people. Indicate the degree to which the statements apply to you by marking whether you (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) are undecided, (4) disagree, or (5) strongly disagree with each statement. Work quickly; just record your first impression.
____ 1. While preparing a speech I feel tense and nervous.
____ 2. I feel tense when I see the words speech and public speech on a course outline when studying.
____ 3. My thoughts become confused and jumbled when I am giving a speech.
____ 4. Right after giving a speech I feel that I have had a pleasant experience.
____ 5. I get anxious when I think about an upcoming speech.
____ 6. I have no fear of giving a speech.
____ 7. Although I am nervous just before starting a speech, I soon settle down after starting and feel calm and comfortable.
____ 8. I look forward to giving a speech.
____ 9. When the instructor announces a speaking assignment in class I can feel myself getting tense
____ 10. My hands tremble when I am giving a speech.
____ 11. I feel relaxed while giving a speech.
____ 12. I enjoy preparing for a speech.
____ 13. I am in constant fear of forgetting what I prepared to say.
____ 14. I get anxious if someone asks me something about my topic that I do not know.
____ 15. I face the prospect of giving a speech with confidence.
____ 16. I feel that I am in complete possession of myself while giving a speech.
____ 17. My mind is clear when giving a speech.
____ 18. I do not dread giving a speech.
____ 19. I perspire just before starting a speech.
____ 20. My heart beats very fast just as I start a speech.
____ 21. I experience considerable anxiety while sitting in the room just before my speech starts.
____ 22. Certain parts of my body feel very tense and rigid while giving a speech.
____ 23. Realizing that only a little time remains in a speech makes me very tense and anxious.
____ 24. While giving a speech I know I can control my feelings of tension and stress.
____ 25. I breathe faster just before starting a speech.
____ 26. I feet comfortable and relaxed in the hour or so just before giving a speech.
____ 27. I do poorer on speeches because I am anxious.
____ 28. I feel anxious when the teacher announces the date of a speaking assignment.
____ 29. When I make a mistake while giving a speech, I find it hard to concentrate on the parts that follow.
____ 30. During an important speech I experience a feeling of helplessness building up inside me.
____ 31. I have trouble falling asleep the night before a speech.
____ 32. My heart beats very fast while I present a speech.
____ 33. I feel anxious while waiting to give my speech.
____ 34. While giving a speech I get so nervous I forget facts I really know.
To determine your score on the PRPSA, complete the following steps:
Add the scores for items 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, 13, 14, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, and 34.
Add the scores for items 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 24, and 26.
Complete the following formula: PRPSA = 132 - (total from step 1) + (total from step 2).
Your score on the PRPSA can range between 34 and 170:
34-84 indicate a very low anxiety about public speaking.
85-92 indicate a moderately low level of anxiety about public speaking.
93-110 suggests moderate anxiety in most public speaking situations but not so severe that the individual cannot cope and be a successful speaker.
111-119 suggest a moderately high anxiety about public speaking. People with such scores will tend to avoid public speaking.
120-170 indicate a very high anxiety about public speaking. People with these scores will go to considerable lengths to avoid all types of public speaking situations.
Computing Your Score:
A: ______________________________ (TOTAL FROM ADDING #1 RESULTS)
B: ______________________________ (TOTAL FROM ADDING #2 RESULTS)
(132 - A) + B = _______
(PRPSA)
The PRPSA was taken from James C. McCroskey and Virginia P. Richmond, Communication: Apprehension, Avoidance, and Effectiveness, Fourth Edition (Scottsdale, AZ: Gorsuch Scarisbrick, Publishers, 1995) p. 131-132. Reprinted with permission of the publisher.
Activity 2.4
InfoTrac Activity: Managing Communication Anxiety:
Purpose: To give you strategies for managing speaking anxiety.
Instructions: Locate and read the article: “Taming the beast within: 6 coaches share their secrets for conquering speaking anxiety” by Mark Merritt. (Hint: Use “speaking anxiety” as your keyword search term.)
1. Luanne White argues that our fear of embarrassment or humiliation during a presentation often begins in our childhood. Do you agree with this argument? Why or why not?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. According to Susan Peterson, what is the difference between fear and anxiety?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. In your own words, describe what Robert Dickman considers being “present” during a presentation. How might being “present” reduce speaking anxiety?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. What does Sheri Jeavons suggest a speaker do to help make speaking to a large group more manageable?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Sam Del Brocco encourages strong familiarity with the material in a speech. In your own words, explain how this familiarity is different from memorizing a speech.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6. How does Melanie De Bond confirm and/or extend our understanding of speaking anxiety management techniques discussed in the textbook?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Activity 2.5
Cognitive Restructuring Activity
Purpose: To give you practice developing cognitive restructuring techniques.
Instructions: Read the article entitled: “Cognitive restructuring: From unhappiness to a positive outlook” on the following website:
Imagine that you are giving your first speech. Follow the cognitive restructuring process to help you transform negative thoughts into positive thoughts, using the textbook and article to help you.
1. Create a list of the fears (negative self-talk) you have when you know you need to give a speech.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Identify what might be irrational or distorted about each fear.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Replace the negative statements with positive coping statements.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Brainstorm a couple of ways you can incorporate your positive coping statements into your everyday life.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Activity 2.6
Relax
Purpose: To give you practice developing relaxation techniques.
Instructions: Imagine you are giving your first speech. You want to reduce public speaking apprehension by using relaxation techniques.
Visit the following website and read about the relaxation techniques provided:
Try each of the relaxation techniques, one at a time.
1. How did you feel while you did each technique?
2. How did you feel AFTER doing each technique?
3. Do you feel the benefits of doing each of these techniques?
4. Will you try these techniques before each of your classroom speeches? Why or why not?
Activity 2.7
Impromptu Speech Activity
Identify a character from the Peanuts comic strip who communicates either ethically or unethically toward Charlie Brown. Prepare a two- to three-minute narrative speech explaining why. Be sure to tell your story with details about the setting, the characters, and the event(s) that support the life lesson or moral of your story.
Activity 2.8
Assessment Activity
Practice a calming sigh to reduce anxiety right before you get up to give your speech. (1) Inhale deeply but gently through your nose. (2) Slowly let the air out while saying “Ahhh.” (3) Let your body go limp for a couple of moments. (4) Repeat. Do you feel more relaxed as you get up to speak?
Activity 2.9
Assessment Activity
Prepare and practice your personal cognitive restructuring by following this five-step process. (1) Create your own negative self-talk list by writing down four or five fears that come to mind when you know you must give a speech. (2) Identify why that fear is irrational, that is, how you’re blowing it out of proportion. (3) Create a positive self-talk statement to replace each negative one. (4) Place these statements on a small notecard you can keep in your pocket or wallet. (5) Practice your positive self-talk statements daily until they become second nature.
Activity 2.10
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
Football Coach Forced to Resign over Inaccurate Resumé
After taking the Georgia Tech football team to five straight bowl games and compiling a 52–33 win-loss record there, George O’Leary was delighted to be selected as the new football coach at the University of Notre Dame. However, after admitting he lied on his resumé, he resigned five days later.35 O’Leary’s resumé claimed he had earned a master’s degree in education from New York University in 1972 and that he was a three-time letter winner in football at the University of New Hampshire. In fact, O’Leary was a student at NYU but never earned a degree from there. In addition, he was on the football team at UNH, but he never played in a game.
He justified his lies by saying that “many years ago, as a young married father,” he was pursuing his dream to become a college football coach and that these inaccuracies were never removed from his resumé or biographical statement “in later years.” Some said he did the right thing by resigning, because Notre Dame needs a coach who can be trusted—his actions must demonstrate honesty and loyalty. Others, like UNH football coach Sean McDonnell, were “surprised and shocked that he had to resign because of something like this,” claiming he “was a guy with great integrity.”
1. What, if any, ethical principles did O’Leary violate and how?
2. Some people justify exaggerating, or even lying, on their resumés by saying that everybody does it. And if they don’t also do it, they will hurt their chances of getting a good job. In fact, according to , 38 percent of those surveyed admitted to embellishing their job responsibilities on their resumés, and 18 percent admitted to lying about their skill sets. Given these numbers, are the justifications reasonable? Why or why not?
3. If you believe stretching the truth is acceptable in certain circumstances, how far can you go before you cross the line into unacceptable behavior?
4. Do you think O’Leary should have resigned over this issue? Why or why not?
Source: Associated Press. (14 December 2001). O’Leary out at Notre Dame after one week. Sports Illustrated. Retrieved online at:
Activity 2.11
Preparing a Narrative/Personal Experience Speech
Prepare a three- to five-minute narrative/personal experience speech. Think about experiences you have had that shaped your morals in some way.
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. When choosing a topic for your first speech, it is recommended that you choose a subject that
a. you already know something about.
b. is controversial and highly emotional.
c. has lots of information already written about it.
d. all of the above.
2. Which of the following is NOT a phase of public speaking apprehension?
a. Consideration
b. Anticipation
c. Confrontation
d. Adaptation
3. The ____________ theory suggest that most of us become apprehensive because we don’t know how to plan or prepare effectively for public presentation.
a. adaptation inexperience
b. skill deficit
c. Motley
d. visualization
4. The type of intrapersonal communication that occurs when we engage our perceived success or failure in a situation is known as
a. back-talk.
b. after-talk.
c. pre-talk.
d. self-talk.
5. One method for reducing speech anxiety seeks to replace a “performance” orientation with a “__________________” orientation.
a. physical
b. emotional
c. communication
d. visualized
6. The gradual decline of your anxiety level that begins about one minute into the presentation is called the
a. anticipation reaction.
b. adaptation phase.
c. confrontation reaction.
d. chain reaction.
7. The five general rules for effective public speeches are known as
a. modeling.
b. reinforcement.
c. the canons of rhetoric.
d. none of the above.
8. For each speech, it is important to consider each of the following EXCEPT _________________ when adapting to the audience.
a. the audience’s initial level of interest in your goal
b. the audience’s attitude toward you and your topic
c. the audience’s ability to understand the content of the speech
d. all are important considerations
9. The purpose of visual aids is to _________________ what you say.
a. emphasize
b. dramatize
c. clarify
d. all of the above
10. If you are extremely nervous about delivering your first speech, you should
a. write it out word-for-word and memorize it.
b. realize that no one is listening anyway, so it really doesn’t matter.
c. jot down a few thoughts before you get up to speak.
d. none of the above.
True/False
11. ____ A speech plan is a specific statement of what you want your audience to know, believe, or do.
12. ____ Experts recommend that you memorize speeches that are shorter than five minutes so that you can concentrate on delivering your speech effectively.
13. ____ “I’m afraid everyone will be able to tell that I’m nervous,” is a positive coping statement.
14. ____ Unlike other speeches, a narrative is for entertainment only and has no point to it.
15. ____ A little nervousness about public speaking has been found to improve a speaker’s performance.
Essay
16. Discuss at least three specific actions that a speaker can take to manage his or her public speaking apprehension.
17. Discuss the four elements of narratives/personal experiences.
Chapter 3
Listening and responding Effectively
Learning Outcomes
1. Why is it important to study listening in a public speaking course?
2. What is the difference between listening and hearing?
3. What are five different types of listening?
4. What strategies can you employ to improve your listening skills?
5. How can you constructively critique speeches you hear?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
I. Listening
A. ________ is the biological process that occurs when the brain detects sound waves. ________ is the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and or nonverbal messages.
B. Of time spent communicating, 50 percent or more is spent _______, yet less than 2 percent of the population has had ____________________________.
C. Becoming a more effective communicator requires ___________ and ___________ effective listening skills.
II. Types of Listening - The type of listening we engage in varies based on the _________. Scholars have identified _______ types of listening, each requiring a different degree of ____________ ___________.
A. In ___________________, the goal is simply to enjoy the thoughts and experiences of others.
B. In ___________________, the goal is to understand the speaker’s meaning conveyed in other ways than the words themselves.
C. In ___________________, the goal is to understand, remember, and recall what has been said.
D. In ___________________, the goal is to be a sounding board to help another sort through feelings.
E. In ___________________, the goal is to evaluate the worth of a message.
III. Improving Your Listening Skills.
Effective listening is a complex psychological process made up of ___________, ___________, ___________, ___________, and __________________________.
A. Attending to the speech – ________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
1. First, ________________________. Reduce potential distractions in your environment and adopt a listening posture.
2. Second, _______________________________. Focus attention on what is being said by blocking out miscellaneous thoughts.
3. Third, ______________________________________.
a. Instead of __________ or ___________________, work that much harder to _______________, in order to fully understand the speaker’s position.
b. Likewise, if a speaker uses _________________, don’t be distracted, but focus on what is being said.
4. Fourth, ______________________________________________.
a. As motivation, ask why and how the information will be useful in the near future. For example ____________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________.
B. Understanding and remembering – You can utilize the following five listening techniques to better comprehend and retain speech content.
1. ________________________________ – this helps to establish a framework for understanding and remembering the information.
2. _______________ – asking questions can help you identify key aspects of the speech, and to determine whether enough information was presented.
3. ________________________________ – this is not simply repeating what has been said. A paraphrase is putting into your own words the meaning you have assigned to a message.
4. _____________ – notice where and how the speaker is attempting to use their tone of voice, facial expressions and gestures to emphasize important points.
5. _____________ – noting helps you take an active role in the listening process.
C. Evaluating and responding.
1. Evaluating is _________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.
2. Responding is ________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.
IV. Preparing a Constructive Critique - a constructive critique is ___________________
_____________________________________________________________________. There are four elements:
• _____________________________________________________________.
• _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
• _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
• _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
A. Content of Constructive Critiques – a constructive critique offers observations about a speech’s _________, _________, and _________.
1. Comments on content focus on __________________and ______________
___________________________.
2. Comments on structure may focus on both the _________________ (_______________) and _________ (_______________) of the speech.
3. Comments on delivery focus on __________________________________.
4. A speaker can also help himself or herself out by ______________________
_____________________________________________________________.
a. Start by noting one or two specific things that were done well in terms of _________, _________, and _________.
b. Consider one thing that you will improve for your next speech. _________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________.
Key Terms
hearing
listening
appreciative listening
discriminative listening
comprehensive listening
empathic listening
critical listening
attending
understanding
remembering
paraphrase
evaluating
responding
constructive critique
Activities
Activity 3.1
What’s Your Number?
Purpose: This activity should give you an experiential understanding of effective listening and the messages that we capture.
Instructions: Go to the following site and follow the instructions for listening to the short sentence about the phone numbers. Then, select the correct phone number noted (look in the box at the bottom of the page to see if you are correct). While doing this, determine why it might be difficult for listeners to distinguish and recall the CORRECT numbers.
Did you find it difficult or easy to select the correct phone number? Why do you think this is?
What did you discover about your listening skills that you might not have known before?
Activity 3.2
InfoTrac Activity: “Caveat Audiens”
Purpose: To allow you to reflect upon the importance of critical listening and to learn practical suggestions for critically evaluating messages that might be designed to mislead or manipulate you.
Instructions: Locate and read the article: “Caveat audiens (let the listener beware)” by Steven Doloff. (Hint: Use the author’s last name as your search term.) Don’t be put off by this author’s use of Latin phrases; this is a satirical article that criticizes both politicians for double-speak and their audiences for failing to critically evaluate messages.
1. According to Doloff, what is one of the logical errors or misleading speech tactics used by politicians and journalists today?
______________________________________________________________________
2. Give an example from your own experience (it need not be a political example) of this kind of misleading speech.
______________________________________________________________________
3. In your opinion, how should a listener respond to the above situation? That is, when this kind of misleading speech occurs, what would you do as a responsible listener?
______________________________________________________________________
4. Doloff suggests that the listening public is “either too stupid to see through these lazy or evasive tactics or, even worse, too apathetic to care.” If you were in a conversation with Doloff, how would you respond to this claim?
______________________________________________________________________
5. From your experience, are politicians and journalists guiltier of this kind of misleading communication than others are? That is, as a listener, do you need to worry about this kind of misleading communication from other professionals, ordinary business people, or others you communicate with?
______________________________________________________________________
Activity 3.3
InfoTrac Activity: Improving your Listening Skills:
Purpose: To identify practical ways of improving listening skills.
Instructions: Locate and read the article: “Six ways to be a better listener” by Paul Blodgett. (Hint: Use “better listener” as your keyword search term.)
1. Blodgett’s article lists six ways to improve your listening. Which of these skills do you need to work hardest at improving?
2. For the next 24 hours, work on this skill in classes, in personal interactions, and in professional relationships. What did you learn from this one-day exercise?
3. For one day, pay attention to the ways in which people listen to you. Which of the listening behaviors presented in the article was most often practiced by others?
4. Which of these listening behaviors was least often practiced by others?
5. As a speaker, which of the listening behaviors did you find most helpful or which did you most appreciate from those who listened to you?
6. After reading Blodgett’s article and closely attending to the listening behaviors that you encounter in a typical day, what do you think is the most important piece of advice you can give to those wishing to improve their listening skills?
Activity 3.4
Improving Note-Taking Skills
Purpose: To assist you in developing improved note taking skills.
Instructions: This is a three-part exercise. For Part I, do not take any notes. When completing Part II, take notes as appropriate. Part III is a brief analysis of the exercise. This exercise requires two 10-minute viewing sessions during a one-hour period of time (you will have any “off” time free).
Watch the first 10 minutes of CNN Headline News and complete Part I. Then watch the first 10 minutes of the next half-hour of CNN Headline News and complete Part II. (Any news show you prefer can be substituted in this exercise if the first 10-minute viewing period is videotaped for re-use in Part II.)
Part I. After the first viewing session, complete the following questions:
1. As far as you are able, list as many of the main stories reported:
2. Choose 3 of the stories you listed above and provide at least 2 details about each:
a. ____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. Finally, choose 1 of the stories you detailed above and write out, as best you can recall, at least 2 specific, meaningful bits of dialogue from the story:
a. ____________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________
Now complete the second viewing session and complete Part II. Be sure and use the techniques for effective note taking listed on p. 35 of the text.
Part II. After the second viewing session, complete the following questions:
1. As far as you are able, list as many of the main stories reported:
2. Choose 3 of the stories you listed above and provide at least 2 details about that story:
a. ____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. Finally, choose 1 of the stories you detailed above and write out, as best you can recall, at least 2 specific, meaningful bits of dialogue from the story:
a. ____________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________
Part III. Critical Analysis
1. Compare your responses to each question in Part I and Part II. Do you notice any differences?
2. Which techniques seem to work best for you?
Activity 3.5
Listening Test
Purpose: To help you become a more competent listener.
Instructions: Have a classmate or friend assume the role of a fellow worker on your first day in an office job. Ask your classmate/friend to read the following information to you once, at a normal rate of speech, as you take notes. Then give yourself the quiz that follows without referring to your notes. Then repeat the quiz, but use your notes this time. How much does your score improve? Resist the temptation to read this item yourself; try not to. You will miss both the enjoyment and the value of the exercise if you do.
Situation:
“Since you are new to the job, I’d like to fill you in on a few details. The boss probably told you that typing and distribution of mail were your most important duties. Well, they may be, but let me tell you answering the phone is going to take most of your time. Now about the typing. Goodwin will give you the most, but much of what he gives you may have nothing to do with the department—I’d be careful about spending all my time doing his private work. Mason doesn’t give much, but you’d better get it right because she’s really a stickler. I’ve always asked to have tests at least two days in advance. Berstein is always dropping stuff on the desk at the last minute.
The mail situation sounds tricky, but you’ll get used to it. Mail comes twice a day-at 10 a.m. and at 2 p.m. You’ve got to take the mail that’s been left on the desk to Charles Hall for pickup. If you really have some rush stuff, take it right to the campus post office in Harper Hall. It’s a little longer walk, but for really rush stuff, it’s better. When you pick up mail at McDaniel Hall, sort it. You’ll have to make sure that only mail for the people up here gets delivered here. If there is any that doesn’t belong here, bundle it back up and mark it for return to the campus post office.
Now, about your breaks. You get 10 minutes in the morning, 45 minutes at noon, and 15 minutes in the afternoon. If you’re smart, you’ll leave before the 10:30 classes let out. That’s usually a pretty crush time. Three of the teachers are supposed to have the office hours then, and if they don’t keep them, the students will be on your back. If you take your lunch at 11:45, you’ll be back before the main crew goes.
Oh, one more thing. You’re supposed to call Jeno at 8:15 every morning to wake him. If you forget, he gets very upset. Well good luck.” (348 words)
The Quiz
With Without
Notes Notes
_____ _____ 1. What are your main jobs, according to your boss?
_____ _____ 2. Who gives you the most work?
_____ _____ 3. What’s the problem with Goodwin’s request to do work?
_____ _____ 4. What is Paulson’s problem with his work?
_____ _____ 5. How often does the mail come?
_____ _____ 6. Where are you supposed to take outgoing mail that’s been left on the desk?
_____ _____ 7. Where is the post office?
_____ _____ 8. Where are you supposed to take the mail that does not belong here?
_____ _____ 9. How many minutes do you get for your morning break?
_____ _____ 10. How many breaks do you get each day?
_____ _____ 11. What is the best time to get back from lunch?
_____ _____ 12. Who are you supposed to give a wake-up call?
Constructive Critique Checklist
_____ 1. Did you offer specific comments about your observations about what the speaker did well? (Consider what, where, and how.).
_____ 2. Did you begin with observations about what the speaker did well, reinforcing positive behavior?
_____ 3. Did you offer specific comments about suggestions for what the speaker could do to improve? (Consider what, where, and how.)
_____ 4. Did you provide an explanation for each comment you made?
_____ 5. Did you focus on the speech, using “I” language to phrase each statement as a personal perception using “I” language?
_____ 6. Did you avoid focusing on the speaker personally, and avoid using “you” language, which can sound like a personal attack?
Activity 3.6
Impromptu Speech Activity
Consider the last time you listened to music. Prepare and present a two- to three-minute impromptu speech describing the situation, the type of listening you engaged in, and what you remember about the song(s) you heard.
Activity 3.7
Assessment Activity
Keep a log of three conversations you have with a friend, family member, or coworker. Try to limit how much talking you do. Keep the other person talking by asking “how” and “why” questions. Assess the experience in written form by answering the following questions: (a) How much of the conversations can you describe here? (b) Was it difficult to keep quiet? Why or why not? (c) Were you able to stay focused? If so, how? If not, why? (d) Do you think the other person noticed your efforts to listen rather than speak? Explain.
Activity 3.8
Sample Speech Analysis
Watch and analyze Tiffany’s speech “Meat Free and Me” which is available at and answer the following questions.
1. What did Tiffany do well in terms of intelligibility, conversational style, vocal variety, poise, eye contact, and attire? What was less effective about the way Tiffany used her voice and her body during this speech?
2. What did Tiffany do well in terms of catching her audience’s attention and making her speech relevant to them? Evaluate her use of language in her speech. What was effective and what was ineffective? Explain.
Activity 3.9
Preparing a Constructive Critique
After you watch Tiffany’s speech “Meat Free and Me”, prepare a constructive critique of the speech, using the general criteria offered in this chapter. Be sure to offer specific comments about positive aspects of the speech, provide specific suggestions for improvement, explain your observations, and use nonthreatening “I” language.
Activity 3.10
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
Kanye West Steals Taylor Swift’s Moment
At the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, Kanye West jumped on stage while Taylor Swift was delivering her acceptance speech and interrupted her by saying, “Yo, Taylor. I’m happy for ya. I’m gonna let you finish. But Beyonce had one of the best videos of all time. One of the best videos of all time.” Many have offered their opinions about how West was an unethical communicator at that moment because he violated the ethical principle of demonstrating respect for others. Similarly, many have commented about how Swift and Beyonce reacted to the situation ethically because they adhered to that same principle. West has retorted that his actions were okay because he was adhering to the ethical principle of honesty—he believed he was telling the truth. One commenter, “Down n TX,” posted a comment on Alison Bonaguro’s CMT blog that he or she wished Swift had hit West over the head with the award. Another commenter, “Bree,” said, “As for Pink, and all the other celebs bad-mouthing Kanye, more power to you!! What he did was cold, and he deserves everything he’s gonna get.”
1. How would you respond to West’s contention?
2. Do you support Down n TX’s and Bree’s reactions? Why or why not?
3. What advice would you give to someone who disagreed as vehemently as West did to a public message?
Source: Bonaguro, A. (2009, September 13). Kanye West steals Taylor Swift’s thunder at MTV Video Music Awards. Retrieved from
General Criteria for a Constructive Critique
Content of the speech
_____ 1. Does the speaker establish common ground and adapt the content to the audience’s interests, knowledge, and attitudes?
_____ 2. Does the speaker seem to have expertise in the subject areas?
_____ 3. Does the speaker have high-quality sources for the information given in the speech?
_____ 4. Does the speaker reveal the sources of the information?
_____ 5. Are the sources relevant? recent? varied? distributed throughout the speech?
_____ 6. Does the information presented explain or support each of the main points?
_____ 7. Are presentational aids appropriate and well used?
_____ 8. Is each main point supported with breadth? depth? listener relevance?
Structure of the speech
_____ 9. Does the introduction of the speech get attention, establish listener relevance and credibility, and lead into the topic?
_____ 10. Has the speaker stated a clear goal for the speech?
_____ 11. Are the main points of the speech clearly stated, parallel, and meaningful?
_____ 12. Do transitions lead smoothly from one point to another?
_____ 13. Does the information presented explain or support each of the main points?
_____ 14. Does the speaker use language that is appropriate, accurate, clear, and vivid?
_____ 15. Does the speaker use a compelling style?
_____ 16. Does the conclusion summarize the main points and end with a clincher?
Delivery of the speech
_____ 17. Does the speaker sound intelligent? conversational? expressive?
_____ 18. Is the presentation fluent?
_____ 19. Does the speaker look at the audience?
_____ 20. Does the speaker use appropriate facial expressions?
_____ 21. Were the pronunciation and articulation acceptable?
_____ 22. Does the speaker have good posture?
_____ 23. Does the speaker have sufficient poise?
Overall
Based on these criteria, evaluate this speech as (check one):
___ excellent ___ good ___ satisfactory ___fair ___ poor
Explanation for overall evaluation:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. We spend approximately what percentage of communication time in listening?
a. less than 10 percent
b. 30 to 40 percent
c. 50 percent or more
d. 90 to 100 percent
2. Understanding is
a. the ability to assign accurate meaning to what was said.
b. being able to retain and recall information that you have heard.
c. identifying the organization of ideas, asking questions and silently paraphrasing.
d. attending to nonverbal cues, and taking notes.
3. Shawn was seated near a window at the back of the classroom. Outside the door, several students were loudly discussing the lunch menu offered by the cafeteria. The roar of the large tractors used to mow the grass could be heard from the window. And in the next row, one student leaned toward another and asked for a pen and paper. This situation is an example of the difficulty in
a. attending.
b. decoding.
c. encoding.
d. all of the above.
4. During a speech by a visiting professor, Ali wanted to be sure to be able to understand, remember, and recall what the professor said. Ali needed to use
a. appreciative listening.
b. discriminative listening.
c. critical listening.
d. comprehensive listening.
5. Anne was introduced to her sister’s new boyfriend at the family reunion. She greeted him by name, and they chatted for a few minutes. Suddenly, Anne had the sickening realization that she wasn’t sure if the man she was talking to was named Bill, Jim, Tim, or Dave. This common situation is an example of what kind of listening problem?
a. Failure to hear the message
b. Failure to understand the message
c. Failure to remember the message
d. Failure to encode the message
6. Constructive critiques should
a. begin with positive feedback.
b. be as specific as possible.
c. follow observation statements with explanations.
d. all of the above.
7. The general criteria for a constructive critique include all of the following except
a. structure of the speech.
b. delivery of the speech.
c. content of the speech.
d. purpose of the speech.
8. The purpose of a paraphrase is to
a. state a speaker’s ideas in your own words.
b. take notes of a speech.
c. remember a speaker’s main points.
d. ask questions of a speaker.
9. Nonverbal cues include a speaker’s
a. diction.
b. word choice.
c. organization.
d. tone of voice.
10. Which of the following is NOT part of the focus of evaluating a speech?
a. Trustworthiness
b. Utility
c. Truthfulness
d. Good notes
True/False
11. ____ It is a good idea to make judgments while listening to a speaker.
12. ____ We should identify the benefits of attending to the speaker’s words only after the speaker has concluded the speech.
13. ____ Paraphrasing is providing feedback to the speaker about what is being said.
14. ____ Sandy listened and acted as a sounding board as her friend discussed a problem she had at home. Sandy was using compassionate listening.
15. ____ An analysis that evaluates how well a speaker meets a specific goal while following the norms for good speaking and recommends how the presentation could be improved is a constructive critique.
Essay
16. Discuss the difference(s) between hearing and listening and provide an example of each. Include in your response why listening is so important.
17. There are five different purposes for listening listed in the textbook. Choose three and define each, and provide an example of each.
Chapter 4
Selecting an appropriate Speech goal
Learning Outcomes
1. What strategies can you use to brainstorm for speech topics?
2. What should you consider about your audience when determining your speech goal?
3. How can you find out about your audience before giving your speech?
4. In what ways might the occasion for your speech influence your speech goal?
5. How should you phrase your specific speech goal?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
I. Identifying Potential Topics
A. Speech topics should come from subject areas in which we already have some _________ and _________.
1. Subject: ___________________________________________________.
2. Topic: _____________________________________________________.
B. Listing Subjects
1. You can identify potential subjects for your speeches by listing those areas that:
a. ______________________, and
b. __________________________.
2. These areas could include your __________, _______________________, and _______________.
C. Brainstorming for Topic Ideas
1. Brainstorming: _______________________________________________
2. When you brainstorm, you _______________________________________.
3. It is easier to _________________, than to ___________________________.
D. Concept Mapping for Topic Ideas
1. concept mapping: ______________________________________________
2. Concept maps are generated by ____________________________________
_______________________________________________________________.
II. Analyzing the Audience.
Because speeches are ________________________________, you need to understand __________________________________.
A. Types of Audience Data Needed
1. Demographic information can be used for several purposes:
a. Helps you choose a _____________ and the ___________ you will present by helping you make _____________ about what your audience knows about your subject area and what their attitudes are toward it
b. Helps you discover the ways in which your audience members are _____________ and _____________ one another and from you
c. Understanding who is in your audience will help you develop appropriate _______-________ ______, which are statements of how and why the ideas you offer are of interest to your listeners
2. Subject-related audience data: the average _____________ your audience members have on your subject, their __________ in the subject, their __________ toward the subject, and their __________ of your credibility.
a. __________________ - It is important that you choose a topic geared to the background knowledge you can expect audience members to have.
b. __________________ - You will need to choose a topic that can capture their interest or work hard as you develop your speech to overcome their disinterest.
c. __________________________________.
i. You can determine the audience’s attitudes toward your subject directly by __________, extrapolating ________________ for your audience, or estimating the audience’s attitudes from the ____________________________.
ii. Once you understand your audience’s attitude toward your subject, you can choose a topic that will allow you to __________ rather than __________ the audience.
d. __________________________________.
i. Credibility: ____________________________________________
________________.
ii. You will want to choose a topic that allows the audience to perceive you as __________ and to believe that you know what you are talking about.
B. Methods for gathering audience data.
1. You can collect data through surveys. It is the most direct way to collect audience data. A survey is ____________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
a. __________________: survey items that force the respondent to choose between two answers, such as yes/no, for/against, or pro/con.
b. __________________: survey items that give the respondent several alternative answers from which to choose.
c. __________________: survey items that measure the direction and/or intensity of an audience member’s feeling or attitude toward something.
d. __________________: survey items that encourage respondents to elaborate on their opinions without forcing them to answer in a predetermined way
2. You can gather data through __________________.
3. You can gather data by questioning ________________________. Ask your contact person to answer the demographic questions.
4. You can make educated guesses about audience ___________ and ________. It is based on such indirect information as the general makeup of the people who live in a specific community belong to a group like this, or the kinds of people who are likely to attend the event or occasion.
C. Using Audience Data __________. To demonstrate respect for your audience, you will want to avoid making inappropriate or inaccurate ___________ based on demographic or subject-related information you have collected.
1. Two potential pitfalls to avoid are:
a. Marginalizing: ____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________.
b. Stereotyping: _____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
2. You can minimize your chances of marginalizing or stereotyping by recognizing and acknowledging the __________________, range of demographic characteristics represented in an audience, your audience analysis reveals.
III. Understanding the Occasion – The occasion is essentially the setting, which includes the ________, _________ _________, and _________. The answers to several questions about the occasion should guide your topic selection and other parts of your speech planning.
A. __________________________________________________? Whether the speech assignment is defined by purpose or by subject, your topic should reflect the nature of that assignment.
B. __________________________________? You will want to choose a topic that is narrow enough to be accomplished in the time allotted.
C. _________________________?
D. _________________________?
1. Consider the factors that may affect your presentation.
2. Ask for specific information about seating capacity, shape, number of rows, nature of lighting, existence of a speaking stage or platform, distance between speaker and first row, and so on, before you speak.
E. _________________________?
F. _________________________________?
G. _______________________________________?
IV. Choosing a Topic and Developing a Speech Goal Statement.You will want to select a topic that is appropriate for your audience members and the occasion. First, __________
______________________. Then __________________.
A. Understanding General and Specific Goals.
1. General Goal: ____________________________________.
a. Most speeches intend to ________, to ________, or to ________, even though each type of speech may include elements of other types.
b. The general goal is generally dictated by the ________.
2. Specific Goal: _________________________________________________
_______________________.
B. Phrasing a Specific Speech Goal – Identify below the four guidelines to help you craft a well-worded specific goal.
1. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
2. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
3. ___________________________________________________________.
4. ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
Key Terms
audience analysis
audience adaptation
subject
topic
brainstorming
concept mapping
listener-relevance links
credibility
survey
two-sided items
multiple-response items
scaled items
open-ended items
marginalizing
stereotyping
demographic diversity
occasion
general goal
specific goal
Activities
Activity 4.1
Action Step 1, Activity 1A
Using Brainstorming and Concept Mapping to Identify Speech Topics
The goal of this activity is to help you identify prospective topics for speeches.
1. Develop a subject list.
a. Divide a sheet of paper into three columns. Label column 1 “major and career interests,” label column 2 “hobbies and activities,” and label column 3 “concerns and issues.” (try to list at least 20 possible speech topics)
b. Working on one column at a time, identify subjects of interest to you. Try to identify at least three subjects in each column.
c. Place a check mark next to the one subject in each list that you would most enjoy speaking about.
b. Keep the lists for future use in choosing a topic for an assigned speech.
2. For each subject you have checked, brainstorm a list of topics that relate to that subject.
3. Look at the topics you have brainstormed. In which do you have the most interest and expertise? Place a check mark beside one or two of these.
4. Then, for each item on the brainstorm list that you have checked, develop a concept map to identify smaller topic areas and related ideas that might be developed into future speeches.
You can use the worksheet on the next page to complete this activity or go online to print one out. Go to the CourseMate for SPEAK at to access Action Step 1, Activity 1A.
Major and Career Interests Hobbies and Activities Concerns and Issues
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Activity 4.2
InfoTrac Activity: Concept Mapping
Purpose: To provide additional understanding of concept mapping and its benefits.
Instructions: Locate and read the article “Applications of Concept Mapping” by Christina De Simone. (Hint: Use “concept mapping” as your search terms.)
1. How do concept maps differ from other learning strategies?
2. De Simone discusses three types of concept maps. What are they?
3. Using one of the three topics from Activity 4.1, create your own concept map to help generate related topic areas:
Activity 4.3
Demographic Audience Analysis
Purpose: To assist you in analyzing the audience for your first speech.
Instructions: Complete the following questionnaire. You need not respond to all questions; consider what information you are willing to share with the class. In order for class members to gain a sense of the commonalties and diversities of the class, members will need to share their results with the class. This can be done as a group activity, or questionnaires can be completed and given to the teacher who can compile results.
1. I am:
___ Male
___ Female
2. I am currently living:
___ on campus
___ with my parents
___ with a spouse or a significant other
___ with roommates
___ alone
3. I am:
___ under 18
___ 18 to 25
___ 25 to 30
___ 30 to 40
___ 40 to 50
___ over 50
4. I read the front section of the newspaper or a newsmagazine at least once a week:
___ Yes
___ No
5. I watch television:
___ Less than 4 hours a week
___ 4 to 10 hours a week
___ 11 to 20 hours a week
___ more than 20 hours a week
6. I am currently working:
___ Less than 4 hours a week
___ 4 to 10 hours a week
___ 11 to 20 hours a week
___ more than 20 hours a week
7. I have attended a religious service or meeting at least twice in the last month:
___ Yes
___ No
8. My expectation of a reasonable starting salary after college graduation is:
___ under $20,000
___ $20,000 to $30, 000
___ $30,000 to $40, 000
___ $40,000 to $50, 000
___ over $50,000
9. I believe that in order for a family of four to live comfortably in America, they must earn at least:
____ $15,000 to $30,000 per year
____ $30,000 to $45,000 per year
___ $45,000 to $60,000 per year
___ $60,000 to $75,000 per year
___ over $75,000 per year
10. If I had to identify with an American political party, I would identify myself as a:
___ Democrat
___ Republican
___ Independent
___ Reform Party member
___ Libertarian
___ Other
11. I think of home as:
___ America’s Northeast
___ America’s Southeast
___ America’s Midwest
___ America’s Southwest
___ America’s West
___ Outside America
Once you’ve completed this questionnaire, consider how you think that this information shapes your attitudes and beliefs as an audience member. What other questions would you like to know about your class to help you to adapt your speech topic to the audience?
Activity 4.4
You, Maslow, and Your Audience’s Needs
Purpose: To assist you in finding a topic for your classroom (or other) speeches.
Instructions: Visit the following website and read the brief section on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
Then, consider the following questions. An audiences’ needs can be used when seeking to develop a speech, but they are also a good place to start your search.
1. What are the likely physiological needs of my audience?
2. What are the likely safety needs of my audience?
3. What are the likely belongingness and love needs of my audience?
4. What are the likely esteem needs of my audience?
5. What are the likely self-actualization needs of my audience?
6. Underline any of the above needs which interest you as a possible speech topic for your informative speech.
7. Underline any of the above needs which interest you as a possible speech topic for your persuasive speech.
Activity 4.5
Selecting an Appropriate Topic:
Purpose: To help you select a topic for your first speech.
Instructions: Visit the Ron St. John’s website that provided tips for selecting a speech. Explore some of the subject areas and some of the media links provided:
1. Write down each of several subjects that you checked into:
2. Write down each of several topics that you checked into:
3. Write down each of several media sources that you checked into:
______________________ __________________________
______________________ __________________________
______________________ __________________________
4. How might you be able to use this type of technique (going from subject to topic to source) in selecting an audience-appropriate speech topic?
Activity 4.6
InfoTrac Activity: Controlling What You Can
Purpose: To provide practical suggestions on adapting communication to fit audience needs and interests.
Instructions: Locate and read the article “Make an impact with style: Presentation tips for leaders” by Steve Kaye. (Hint: Use the author’s full name as your search term.)
1. What advice does the author give for preparing a successful presentation? List the tips and provide an example of how you can implement each of the strategies into your presentations.
A. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
B. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
C. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
D. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
E. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
F. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
G. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
H. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
I. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
J. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
2. What practical advice does the author give for preparing for overcoming speaking anxiety? List the tips and provide an example of how you can implement each of the strategies into your presentations (You may omit joining Toastmasters).
A. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
B. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
C. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
D. ______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
Activity 4.7
Action Step 1, Activity 1B
Analyzing Your Audience
1. Decide on a method for gathering audience data.
2. Collect the data.
3. Copy or duplicate the Audience Analysis Summary Form (Exhibit 4.4).
4. Use the information you have collected to complete the form.
5. Write two short paragraphs to describe your initial impression of audience demographics, knowledge, and attitudes toward your subject.
6. Save the completed form. You will refer to this audience analysis information to address listener relevance throughout the speech-planning process.
You can download an online copy of this form. Go to CourseMate for SPEAK at to access the chapter resources for Chapter 4 and then click Audience Analysis Summary Form.
Activity 4.8
Action Step 1, Activity 1C
Understanding the Occasion
The goal of this activity is to help you understand your speech occasion. Fill in answers to the following questions:
1. What are the special expectations for the speech? _________________________________
2. What is the appropriate length for the speech? ____________________________________
3. How large will the audience be? _______________________________________________
4. Where will the speech be given? _______________________________________________
5. When will the speech be given? ________________________________________________
6. Where in the program does the speech occur? _____________________________________
7. What equipment is necessary to give the speech? __________________________________
Write a short paragraph mentioning which aspects of the setting are most important for you to consider in speech preparation and why.
You can complete this activity online, print it, and, if requested, e-mail it to your instructor. Go to the CourseMate for SPEAK at to access Action Step 1, Activity 1C.
Activity 4.9
Action Step 1, Activity 1D
Choosing a Topic
Use your responses to Activities 4.1, 4.7, and 4.8 (Action Step Activities 1A, 1B, and 1C) to complete this activity.
1. Look over the concept map you prepared in Activity 4.1. List each of the specific topics that you generated:
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
2. Using the information you compiled in Activity 4.7, the audience analysis, compare each topic to your audience profile. Eliminate topics that seem less appropriate for this specific audience. Write each of the topics that remain:
| | | |
| | | |
3. Using the information you compiled in Activity 4.8, your analysis of the occasion, compare each of the remaining topics to your setting profile. Eliminate topics that seem less appropriate. Write each of the topics that remain:
| | | |
4. The remaining topics are appropriate to your public speaking situation; you can be confident that you can develop an appropriate speech from any of these. So, from this list, select the one that you are most excited about sharing with others. My topic will be: _______________
You can go online to the CourseMate for SPEAK at to complete this activity and print out a worksheet that will help you choose your topic.
Activity 4.10
Action Step 1, Activity 1E
Developing a Specific Goal
Type of speech: ________________
1. Write a draft of your general speech goal using a complete sentence that specifies the type of response you want from the audience.____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Revise the infinitive to make it reflect the specific audience response you desire. _________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Check the number of ideas expressed in the statement. If the statement contains more than one idea, select one and rewrite the statement. _____________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. Improve the statement so that it describes the precise focus of your speech as it relates to your intended audience. _______________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Write the final draft of the specific goal:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Activity 4.11
Impromptu Speech Activity
Identify a pet peeve and prepare a two- to three-minute impromptu speech describing the pet peeve and why it bothers you. Include in your reasons which ethical communication principle(s) it violates in your opinion and why.
Activity 4.12
Assessment Activity
Suppose you were asked to give a speech about some aspect of your work to a group of your coworkers and managers. Explain what demographic and subject-specific information you would need, how you would collect it, and how you might use it in your speech planning. How would your approach differ if your audience were your speech classmates?
Activity 4.13
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
Jim Cramer and CNBC’s Mad Money
Jim Cramer hosts CNBC’s Mad Money, a program devoted to providing financial advice to its viewers. In an interview on Comedy Central’s The Daily Show, Jon Stewart claimed both Stewart and Cramer are “snake oil salesmen” but that The Daily Show is labeled as such. Stewart was essentially arguing that his program on Comedy Central admits to being satire, whereas CNBC’s Mad Money is duping viewers by claiming to offer sound financial advice, when actually it is not. For example, Stewart showed footage of Cramer recommending that his viewers buy Bear Stearns stock just before it collapsed. If you are personally unfamiliar with the show, watch at least one episode before answering the following questions. Then, with regard to Mad Money, consider the elements of the audience and the occasion we’ve discussed in this chapter (purpose, audience expectations, and location).
1 How would you respond to Jon Stewart’s claim that Mad Money’s host is being unethical?
2 How might Jim Cramer be demonstrating or violating the ethical principle of honesty in terms of the program’s purpose?
3 How might Jim Cramer be demonstrating or violating the ethical principle of integrity with regard to audience expectations?
4 Why might the fact that Mad Money is shown on CNBC (and not Comedy Central) influence your decision about its host as an ethical communicator?
5 Given that many people now rely on The Daily Show to get their news, was Jon Stewart behaving ethically when he made his charge? How does the fact that he made the claim on The Daily Show influence your decision?
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. When attempting to analyze an audience, what kind of subject-related audience data is collected?
a. Knowledge
b. Interest
c. Attitude toward the subject
d. All of the above
2. Which of the following ways of gathering audience data does the textbook not discuss?
a. Observing the audience
b. Using social networks
c. Questioning the contact person who scheduled the speech
d. Making intelligent guesses and assumptions about audience characteristics
3. Demographic information includes all of the following except
a. age.
b. political preferences.
c. income.
d. gender.
4. What kind of survey questions allow for a range of responses to a statement?
a. Two-sided questions
b. Multiple-choice questions
c. Scaled questions
d. Open-ended questions
5. The process of tailoring a speech’s information to the needs, interests, and expectations of the listeners is known as
a. speaking situation.
b. audience analysis.
c. audience data.
d. audience adaptation.
6. A good specific speech goal does all of the following except:
a. include the type of response desired.
b. contain only one idea.
c. preview the main points.
d. describe the precise focus of your speech.
7. If I choose to give a speech condemning abortion to a pro-abortion group meeting, I have not done a good job judging
a. audience knowledge.
b. audience interest.
c. audience attitude toward the subject.
d. audience attitude toward the speaker.
8. A visual means of exploring connections between a subject and related ideas is
a. concept mapping.
b. subject mapping.
c. topic mapping.
d. survey mapping.
9. If I choose to give a speech on the basics of pollination to a group of biology professors, I have not done a good job judging
a. audience knowledge.
b. audience interest.
c. audience attitude toward the subject.
d. audience attitude toward the speaker.
10. If a very rude person chooses to give a speech on etiquette, he has not done a good job judging
a. audience knowledge.
b. audience interest.
c. audience attitude toward the subject.
d. audience attitude toward the speaker.
True/False
11. ____ “To persuade my classmates that more student and faculty parking is needed on this campus” is an example of a specific speech goal.
12. ____ A speaker should never choose to speak about a topic in which the audience has little interest.
13. ____ Marginalizing is another term for stereotyping.
14. ____ When brainstorming a list of specific topics from a subject area that you have identified, it is important to try to order the items as you think of them.
15. ____ An example of a general speech goal is “To entertain the audience.”
Essay
16. What is the overall relationship between subjects, topics, general speech goals, specific speech goals, and thesis statements? Use an example of your own to illustrate and explain these concepts and the ways in which they are related to one another.
17. You are to give a speech to your local library on the anniversary of the city’s founding. Discuss the factors of your speech occasion and how they may affect your speech. Include how you would select the exact topic you might choose based on the occasion.
Chapter 5
Adapting to Audiences
Learning Outcomes
1. Why is it important to articulate the relevance of your speech to your audience?
2. What should you do if your audience does not share your attitude about the topic of your speech?
3. What can you do to help your audience see you as trustworthy and knowledgeable about your topic?
4. Why is it important to address diverse learning styles in your speech?
5. What can you do to overcome language and cultural differences between you and your audience?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
I. Relevance
Relevance is ________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
A. First, establish the __________ of a topic by demonstrating that it is useful to the audience at present, or will be in the near future.
B. Second, demonstrate the __________ of the topic by explaining its relevance of the information to personal life space.
1. As you research your speech, you will want to look for __________ and __________ that have __________ for your audience.
C. Third, demonstrate the topic’s ________ _________—its potential for serious physical, economic, or psychological impact on audience members.
II. Initial Audience Disposition
Initial audience disposition is ___________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________.
A. Adapting to the initial audience disposition means creating a speech that takes into account _________________________________________________ and _________________________.
B. During ________________, choose specific supporting material with these initial attitudes in mind.
III. Common Ground
Common ground is ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________.
A. Use Personal Pronouns: personal pronouns are ________________________
______________________________________________________________.
1. Using personal pronouns is the simplest way to establish ______________.
2. By using “____” instead of “_______”, the speaker includes the audience members and thus gives them a stake in listening to what follows.
B. Ask Rhetorical Questions: rhetorical questions are ______________________
_______________________________________________________________.
1. Rhetorical questions establish common ground because _______________
___________________________________________________________.
2. They are often used in __________ __________ but can also be effective as __________ and in other parts of the speech.
C. Draw from Common Experiences.
1. Select and present _______ ________ , __________ , and __________ that embody the connection shared between _______ and _________.
2. Determine how the __________ and __________ are similar with regards to the topic or in other areas that you can then compare to your topic
IV. Speaker Credibility
Credibility is __________________________________________________________.
A. Demonstrate Knowledge and Expertise. The audience’s assessment of your __________ and __________ depends on how well you convince them that you are qualified to speak on the topic.
1. You can establish your expertise directly by disclosing your experience with your topic, including ______________ , ____________ , __________ , and your “__________.”
2. Audience members can also assess your expertise through __________, such as how well prepared you seem and how much you demonstrate firsthand involvement by using personal examples and illustrations
B. Establish Trustworthiness - Trustworthiness is ________________________
______________________________________________________________.
1. Consider how to demonstrate that you are ________, _________, ________, and __________________.
2. How trustworthy you appear will also depend on how the audience views your __________.
C. Display Personableness - Personableness is __________________________
______________________________________________________________.
1. The _____ the listeners like you, the _____ likely they are to believe what you tell them
2. ______ __________ for the audience and occasion, ________ at individual audience members before beginning your remarks, ________ individuals as you speak, __________ them with a quick nod, and _________________ to increase personableness.
V. Information Comprehension and Retention — adapting information so that it is easier for audience members to follow and retain. There are six guidelines that can aid in this area
A. ____________________________ - A learning style is a person’s preferred way of receiving information, so that audience members with different learning styles can comprehend the information. Consider presenting new information in ways that appeal to watching and feeling and doing and thinking.
B. ____________________________ - A transition is a sentence or two that summarizes one main point and introduces another, to avoid confusing listeners.
C. ____________________________ - Make sure your listeners understand the meaning you intend.
1. ____________ clear up the confusion caused by general words by narrowing the focus in some way.
2. Avoid _______ and _____ terms unless
a. you ______ them clearly the first time you use them, and
b. they are central to your _______ _____.
D. ____________________________ - They help audience members understand and remember abstract, complex, and novel material.
E. ____________________________ – We personalize information by presenting it in a frame of reference that is familiar to the audience.
1. Personalized information is ______ for the audience to understand and remember.
2. The audience is able to recognize similarities between its ______________ and _________ and _________.
F. ________________________________ – This is an easy way to adapt your material to your audience. You will want to identify places where you can use adaptive comparisons as you prepare your speech.
VI. Language and Cultural Differences - You need to take into consideration variations in ______________ and ________________ when addressing an audience composed of people from ethnic and language groups other than your own.
A. Work to Be Understood When Speaking in Your Second Language
1. When the _____________ spoken by the audience is _______ from that of the speaker, audience members may not be able to understand what the speaker is saying due to _______, ____________, ______________, or _____________.
a. To help the audience, speakers can _____________ and ______________ their words as much as possible to give audience members time to “_____ _______” to more easily process what the speaker is saying.
b. _________________________________________________ is one of the best ways to improve second-language speaking.
2. The more you practice speaking the language, the more ____________ you will become with it and with your ability to _______________________.
B. Choose Culturally Appropriate Supporting Material.
1. A good speaker will ____________________________________________, in order to develop the material in a way that is meaningful to them. This may mean __________________________.
2. A speaker may need to ____________ on ideas that would be ____-________ in your own culture.
VII. Forming a Specific Plan of Audience Adaptation - ___________ the challenges presented by the audience and __________ how to meet them will help guide your research. The adaptation plan should answer the following six questions
A. ________________________________________________________________?
B. ________________________________________________________________?
C. ________________________________________________________________?
D. ________________________________________________________________?
E. ________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________?
F. ________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________?
Key Terms
audience adaptation
relevance
timeliness
proximity
initial audience disposition
common ground
personal pronouns
rhetorical questions
credibility
knowledge and expertise
trustworthiness
personableness
learning style
transition
Activities
Activity 5.1
Building Common Ground with Your Audience
Purpose: To give you the opportunity to apply the concept of sharing personal experiences in your next speech.
Instructions: One way of effectively developing common ground between you and your audience is to make reference in your speech to experiences and knowledge that you share with your listeners. Complete the following worksheet to help you develop a list of common experiences that can be integrated into your speech.
1. My speech topic is ______________________________________________________.
2. My audience is likely to bring what experience and knowledge to this topic?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. My audience is likely to bring what kinds of attitudes and opinions to this topic?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
4. List at least three movies that you believe the majority of the class has seen and is familiar with.
a. ____________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________________________________
5. Choose one of the above listed movies and describe the way in which a scene or character or quotation from the movie could be related to your speech topic.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
6. List at least three television shows that you believe the majority of the class has seen and is familiar with.
a. ____________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________________________________
7. Choose one of the above listed shows and describe the way in which a scene or character or quotation from the show could be related to your speech topic.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
8. List at least three musical acts or songs that you believe the majority of the class has heard and is familiar with:
a. ____________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________________________________
9. Choose one of the above listed songs or musical acts and describe the way in which a song or performer could be related to your speech topic.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
10. List at least three public figures (actors, sports stars, politicians, etc.) that you believe the majority of the class is familiar with.
a. ____________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________________________________
11. Choose one of the above listed public figures and describe the way in which the person or their actions and achievements could be related to your speech topic.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
12. On your own, brainstorm lists of shared experiences for the following topics, then pick the most promising items and relate them to your speech topic: everyday frustrations, things that most parents say, college experiences, economic choices and challenges, leisure time experiences, television and radio advertisements, local community experiences.
Activity 5.2
Adapting to a Specific Audience
Purpose: To offer you practice at adapting a speech topic for a specific audience.
Instructions: Imagine that you are asked to give a speech to your class on the use of Internet search engines. Complete the following worksheet to help you adapt your speech topic to audience needs and interests. (This worksheet can be used and reused to help you adapt any speech topic for any audience.)
1. My audience is likely to bring what experience and knowledge to this topic?
2. My audience is likely to bring what kinds of attitudes and opinions to this topic?
3. Imagine the audience all asking themselves, “So what? What does this have to do with me?” Provide as detailed a response as possible, answering these questions.
4. What are key terms that you will need to define in order to communicate successfully with your audience?
5. Use either comparison/contrast or personalization to explain one of these terms.
6. Provide an example of at least one sentence to be included in this speech in which you use personal pronouns to relate to the audience.
7. Provide an example of at least one sentence to be included in this speech in which you ask a rhetorical question to involve the audience.
8. Provide an example of at least one common experience related to this speech topic which you could use to relate to the audience.
9. Provide an example of a way in which you could demonstrate to the audience that this is timely information.
10. Provide an example of a way in which you could demonstrate to the audience the proximity of this information.
11. Provide an example of a way in which you could demonstrate to the audience the seriousness of this information.
12. List at least one key generalization that you would be likely to make in a speech on this topic.
13. Provide at least one specific example to support this generalization.
Activity 5.3
InfoTrac Activity: Adapting Language to Audiences
Purpose: To demonstrate the ways in which language choices influence the audience’s perception of a speaker.
Instructions: Locate and read the article: “Social IQ and MBAs: Recognizing the importance of communication” by Robert Dilenschneider. (Hint: Use the title of the article as your search terms.)
1. Review Dilenschneider’s speech for his use of pronouns. List at least four specific instances in which this speaker uses personal pronouns to involve his audience.
2. Dilenschneider also uses rhetorical questions to involve his audience. Locate and list at least one example of a rhetorical question in this speech.
3. Locate and list at least two examples in Dilenschneider’s speech of references to common experience and/or knowledge.
4. Locate and list at least one example from Dilenschneider’s speech that shows him applying the principle of proximity.
5. Locate and list at least one example from Dilenschneider’s speech that shows him convincing his listeners of the seriousness of his message.
6. Locate and list at least one way in which Dilenschneider effectively communicates new information to his audience.
7. Imagine yourself as an audience member for Dilenschneider’s speech. How would you evaluate his efforts to relate to the audience?
Activity 5.4
Kolb’s Preferred Learning Style Personal Inventory
Purpose: To reveal the style of learning you prefer. We all tend to learn in four general ways, however, each of us tends to prefer a certain style.
Instructions: Follow the steps outlined below.
Learning Styles Quiz
STEP 1: For each question, circle the letter next to the response that is most like you. Remember there are no wrong answers. Work quickly. Record your first thought.
1. When I purchase a kit where some assembly is required, I am most likely to begin by:
a. soliciting advice and possibly help from someone who has put together a similar item in the past.
b. studying the pieces, diagram, and picture of the item on the package or box.
c. reading through all of the directions.
d. putting the item together, referring to the directions only when I get stuck.
2. I am most likely to try making a new recipe when:
a. I can taste it myself first.
b. I see a picture of it in a magazine or on television.
c. I read through a recipe for it.
d. I want to try changing it in some way.
3. When I make decisions, I usually rely most on my:
a. feelings.
b. observations.
c. thoughts.
d. actions.
4. I tend to enjoy classes most where:
a. students interact with each other often.
b. professors use a lot of visual aids.
c. professors lecture most of the time.
d. students apply concepts directly with activities.
5. I tend to be persuaded most when:
a. I am presented with actual examples and experiences of people.
b. I have time to reflect about what I hear.
c. I am presented with specific facts and statistics related to the issue.
d. I experience issues first-hand.
6. If I were asked to choose only one, I'd say I am:
a. intuitive.
b. careful.
c. logical.
d. responsible.
7. I am most likely to enjoy participating in extra-curricular activities and functions:
a. that are new and different.
b. that allow me to observe for awhile before joining in.
c. that require logical analysis.
d. that let me be actively involved.
8. I prefer working in an environment where:
a. I can interact with others.
b. I am able to take time to reflect.
c. I am challenged to analyze logically.
d. I have opportunities to apply concepts and try things out.
9. I especially dislike classes where the main thing is:
a. professors lecturing about abstract concepts.
b. students doing lots of activities.
c. students engaging in open-ended discussions.
d. students taking lots of notes.
10. When discussing ideas with others, I am best at:
a. considering a variety of points of view.
b. taking time to reflect before responding.
c. using logic to analyze and evaluate.
d. getting things done and accomplishing goals.
11. When learning a new computer software program, I am most likely to begin by:
a. asking for advice from people who've used the program before.
b. following the directions carefully.
c. reading through the manual.
d. experimenting with the program and using the manual only when I get stuck.
12. When I take a vacation, I particularly enjoy:
a. getting to know the people who live there and learn from them about their customs and experiences.
b. taking time to plan each day carefully.
c. reading as much as possible about each place while I'm there.
d. experimenting with and trying out new customs, foods, and experiences.
STEP 2: Count up the number of “A,” “B,” “C,” and “D” responses you circled and record them in the space provided:
A = ____________ B = ____________ C = ____________ D = ____________
If you circled mostly As, you tend to prefer to learn by feeling.
If you circled mostly Bs, you tend to prefer to learn by watching.
If you circled mostly Cs, you tend to prefer to learn by thinking.
If you circled mostly Ds, you tend to prefer to learn by doing.
STEP 3: Add together the scores you got in STEP 2 as follows:
A + B = ________________________________
B + C = ________________________________
C + D = ________________________________
A + D = ________________________________
STEP 4: Circle the highest of the four sums you got in STEP 3.
If you circled the A + B score:
You tend to be a diverger. You prefer to learn by some combination of watching and feeling.
If you circled the B + C score:
You tend to be an assimilator. You prefer to learn by some combination of watching and thinking.
If you circled the C + D score:
You tend to be a converger. You prefer to learn by some combination of thinking and doing.
If you circled the A + D score:
You tend to be an accommodator. You prefer to learn by some combination of doing and feeling.
STEP 5: Consider how you will approach the speech preparation and presentation process in ways that address all of these learning styles. Remember, each learning style represents one stage on the cycle.
Diverger (Stage 1 preference): You probably want to know why you are learning things. You seek a personal connection with the content. So, one of your public speaking strengths is the ability to articulate listener relevance links. You also like to consider things from many points of view. A public speaking strength is your use of examples, testimonies, and quotations from interviews with real people in your speeches. (If you're a converger, you'll need to be sure to include these things in your speeches as well.)
Assimilator (Stage 2 preference): You are likely to enjoy absorbing lots of information and strive for an understanding of what it means. Your public speaking strengths lie in providing clear facts, statistics, definitions, and explanations and in arranging them in a logical and orderly fashion. (If you're an accommodator, you'll need to be sure to include these things in your speeches as well.)
Converger (Stage 3 preference): You probably like to see if the facts you learn actually work in daily life. You want to know how an idea, strategy, or method works by trying it out. Your public speaking strengths lie in providing practical applications for using information to improve current situations, as well as in conceptualizing a workable solution to a problem. (If you're a diverger, you'll need to be sure to include these things in your speeches as well.)
Accommodator (Stage 4 preference): You like to take what you've discovered and figure out where else you can use it to make a difference in your life and the lives of others. Your public speaking strengths lie in your ability to come up with new solutions to old problems. You enjoy interacting with others and probably excel at delivering your speech dynamically. (If you're an assimilator, you'll need to be sure to include these things in your speech as well.)
Activity 5.5
InfoTrac Activity: Adapting to Diverse Learning Preferences
Purpose: To encourage the adaptation of presentation material to appeal to multiple learning preferences.
Instructions: Locate and read the article: “Cater to learning styles and senses of your audience” by Randall Englund. (Hint: Use the title of the article as your search terms.)
1. Howard Gardner described seven types of “Intelligences”: ()
a. Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember information. Writers, poets, lawyers, and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.
b. Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, it entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively, and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.
c. Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence.
d. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related.
e. Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas.
f. Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious, and political leaders and counselors all need a well-developed interpersonal intelligence.
g. Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of ourselves and being able to use such information to regulate our lives.
2. Englund argues that it is important to acknowledge different learning preferences and intelligences throughout a presentation. How can knowing Gardner’s intelligences and Kolb’s learning style preferences help you to adapt to your audience?
3. What kinds of considerations might you need to make for each type of intelligence and/or preference?
Activity 5.6
No Place for Jargon and Buzzwords: “A Paradigm Shift”
Purpose: To learn more about avoiding jargon in speeches.
Instructions: Visit the following website which provides tips for avoiding business jargon.
While some of the tips refer primarily to writing, determine how each tip might be adapted to your own speech writing. Thus helping you to avoid the use of such language.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Activity 5.7
Action Step 2, Activity 2
Recognizing Opportunities for Audience Adaptation
To identify opportunities for audience adaptation and lay a groundwork for applying information from the next several chapters, state your potential topic and then answer the following questions.
Potential topic: ________________________________________________________________
1. How relevant will the audience find this material? How can I demonstrate that the material is timely, proximate, and has personal impact on the members of this audience?
2. What is my audience’s initial disposition toward my speech topic likely to be?
3. What common ground do audience members share with one another and with me?
4. What can I do to enhance my credibility?
5. How can I make it easier for audience members to comprehend and remember the information I will share?
6. What language or cultural differences do audience members have with one another and with me?
You can complete this activity online, view another student sample of this activity, and, if requested, e-mail your completed activity to your instructor. Go to the CourseMate for SPEAK at to access Action Step 2, Activity 2.
Activity 5.8
Impromptu Speech Activity
Identify a common practice that is taken for granted in your family or your community that may be an unusual or unique practice for other families or in other communities. (For example, one family celebrated Hanukkah-like birthdays where a present was received each day of the birthday week.) Prepare and present a two- to three-minute impromptu speech describing the practice in ways that employ the audience adaptation guidelines proposed in this chapter.
Activity 5.9
Assessment Activity
Identify a cultural group in your community with which you have limited experience. Learn more about this group by (1) observing an event or other gathering, (2) participating in a cultural practice, (3) interviewing a member of the culture, as well as(4) doing some secondary source research. Then write a two- to three-page paper in which you begin by comparing and contrasting what you have learned about this culture to your own. Then, in the second part of the paper, imagine that you were going to give a speech to an audience composed of members of this cultural group. Your assigned topic for the speech is “Reality TV.” Based on what you have learned about this culture, which three of the six issues of adaptation that would be the most important for you to address, and describe how you might do that.
Activity 5.10
Assessment Activity
Volunteer at a local service organization regularly (at least twice per week) for four weeks. Before doing so, consider some specific things you will do to seek common ground and gain credibility. Keep a journal throughout the experience, noting what worked and did not work. After four weeks, prepare a two- to three-page reflection paper regarding your adaptation experience. Focus on what you expected the experience to be like, what it was like (rewards and challenges), and what you learned about others and yourself as a result.
Activity 5.11
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
Maverick or Not?
In an interview for an April 3, 2010, Newsweek magazine article, Republican Senator John McCain said, “I’ve never considered myself a maverick. I consider myself a person who serves the people of Arizona to the best of his abilities.” This seems to be a 180-degree turn-about from what he considered himself during the 2008 presidential campaign, when he said, for example, “Sarah [Palin] and I don’t agree on every issue—what do you expect of two mavericks?” His ads then touted him as “the original maverick,” and he even referred to himself as a maverick when he hosted Saturday Night Live. Some analysts believe he may be shunning the “maverick” label now because being a maverick doesn’t play well with Republican primary voters. And he’s trying—some say desperately—to retain his Senate seat. To contrast McCain’s maverick image, his challenger, J. D. Hayworth, is portraying himself as the “consistent conservative.”
1. Is it ethical to adapt in a way that resonates with your audience but isn’t in keeping with what you really believe?
2. Could McCain achieve his current campaign goals by using different methods? If so, how?
3. What would you do if you were McCain in this situation and why?
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following pronouns would be least effective in establishing common ground with the audience?
a. We
b. Our
c. They
d. Us
2. Rhetorical questions are phrased to stimulate what kind of response?
a. Yes/No
b. Open-ended
c. Emotional
d. Psychological
3. Reuben was delivering a speech to his classmates on buying a new car. During his speech, he said, “The average cost of a new car is $25,000—almost exactly the amount that each of us pays per year in college tuition.” This is an example of
a. personalizing information.
b. using personal pronouns.
c. drawing from common experiences.
d. all of the above.
4. Questa attended her brother’s high school graduation and was listening to the speaker discuss the growing problem of violent crime in schools. She looked around her and thought “But what does that have to do with this place? The kinds of shootings he’s describing could never happen here.” In order to respond to this kind of audience reaction more effectively, the speaker should have been concerned with
a. timeliness.
b. proximity.
c. orienting listeners.
d. seriousness of the information.
5. Initial audience disposition is the
a. knowledge about your topic that listeners have before you speak.
b. opinions about your topic that listeners have before you speak.
c. experiences of hearing about your topic that listeners have before you speak.
d. A and B only.
6. Common ground includes all of the following except
a. background.
b. knowledge.
c. proximity.
d. philosophies.
7. The best way to practice a speech that you have to give in a non-native language is to:
a. practice in front of friends who are native speakers.
b. repetition.
c. practice over-enunciation.
d. practice multiple versions of the same speech.
8. In order to appear credible before an audience, you should do all of the following except
a. memorize your speech.
b. establish trustworthiness.
c. display personableness.
d. demonstrate knowledge and expertise.
9. A speech regarding the Iran/Contra affair would most significantly violate the principle of
a. personal impact.
b. proximity.
c. timeliness.
d. audience analysis.
10. If I gave a speech on the chemical make-up of water to a group of scientists, I would need to
a. orient listeners.
b. define key terms.
c. compare unknown ideas with familiar ones.
d. all of the above.
True/False
11. ____ Credibility is associated with the term pathos that Aristotle described.
12. ____ It is up to the audience to adapt to the delivery of non-native speakers.
13. ____ “Personableness” refers to the knowledge of and opinion about your topic that the audience already has before your speech.
14. ____ A person’s preferred way of receiving information is known as his or her learning style.
15. ____ A speaker’s credibility is largely based on how well he or she knows the audience and very little can be done once the speech has started.
Essay
16. You’ve just finished delivering a speech to your classmates on how to choose a credit card. Your local librarian heard very good things about your speech from her daughter (who is one of your classmates). To your surprise, you receive a call from the public library, inviting you to speak to the local senior citizens group on selecting the best card. Discuss the strategies that you will need to use to adapt your speech to this very different audience, and use examples and specifics to illustrate the changes that you will need to make.
17. Using the stages in Kolb’s Learning Cycle, how would you explain the concept of a hamburger to someone from a third-world nation who has never eaten meat, leavened bread, or condiments?
Chapter 6
gathering and evaluating information
Learning Outcomes
1. What are the differences between primary and secondary research?
2. Where can you locate information for your speech?
3. How will you evaluate information and sources?
4. How will you select and record relevant information for your speech?
5. How and why do you cite sources in a speech?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested. For this chapter outline, you will need to visit your library and “get your hands dirty” in using and applying concepts and skills discussed in the chapter. Think of this exercise as great preparation for your speech.
I. Locate and Evaluate Information Sources
• Secondary research – __________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
• Primary research – ____________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________.
A. Personal Knowledge and Experience
1. By ___________________, a speaker can rely on personal examples and experiences in the speech.
2. Sharing your personal knowledge and experience can also bolster your credibility if you share your credentials – ________________________
__________________________________________________________.
B. Secondary Research - the process of locating information about your topic that has been discovered by other people.
1. Locate sources by searching the ________, _______________________, and ______________.
2. Types of secondary sources
a. ___________ can serve as a good starting point, but because they only provide overviews, they should never be the only source.
b. ___________ – if the topic has been around for more than six months, there are likely to be books written on the subject.
c. ___________, which may contain more current or highly specialized information on your topic than a book would, are published in periodicals – magazines and journals that appear at fixed periods.
d. ___________ are excellent sources of facts about and interpretations of both contemporary and historical issues, but most newspaper articles are written by journalists who are not experts on the topics they write about.
e. ___________ present numerical information on a wide variety of subjects.
f. ___________ give accounts of a person’s life, from thumbnail sketches to reasonably complete essays.
g. ______________________ can provide quotations that can be provocative as well as informative.
h. ______________________ may provide useful information if your topic is related to public policy.
3. Skimming to determine source value. Skimming is ___________________
____________________________________________________________.
a. Spend a minute or two finding out whether an article really presents information on the exact area of the topic you are exploring and whether it contains any documented statistics, examples or quotable opinions by reading the abstract – ______________________________________.
b. Skimming helps you decide which sources ________________, which ________________, and which ________________.
4. Evaluating sources to determine their ________, ________, and ________. There are four criteria to use:
a. ________ – test the expertise of a resource’s author and/or the reputation of the publishing or sponsoring organization
b. ________ – Be wary of information that is overly slanted.
c. ________ – newer information is more accurate than older
d. ________ –information directly related to the topic and supports your main points, making your speech easier to follow and understand.
C. Primary research: the process of conducting your own study to acquire the information you need. It is much more labor intensive and time consuming than secondary research.
a. Fieldwork observations – also known as _____________, fieldwork observations are performed by ______________________________
______________________________________________________.
b. _________—a canvassing of people in order to get information about their ideas and opinions, which are then analyzed for trends.
c. _________—planned, structured conversation where one person asks questions and another answers them.
i. Selecting the best person who has ________in the topic area and can provide _________________.
ii. Preparing the ________ ________, the list of questions you plan to ask
I. ________ ________ are the lead-in questions about one of the major topics of the interview, typically related to the main points for the speech.
II. ________ ________ are follow-up questions designed to probe the answers given to primary questions.
III. ______ _________ are broad-based questions that ask the interviewee to provide perspective, ideas, information, or opinions as he or she wishes, which gives the interviewee more control, but they take longer to answer.
IV. ________ ________ are narrowly focused and require very brief answers.
V. ________ ________ are phrased in a way that does not direct a person’s answers.
VI. ________ ________ are phrased in a way that suggests the interviewer has a preferred answer.
iii. Conducting the interview
I. Dress ____________ to show you respect the interviewee’s time.
II. Be ________.
III. Be ________. Begin by _____________________________. ________ the person for his or her time. ________ what the person says regardless of ____________________________.
IV. Ask for ________________. If the interviewee says “no,” ________________________________.
V. ________________.
VI. ________________________.
VII. ________ your nonverbal reactions to make sure that they are ________________________________________.
VIII. Get permission to ________.
IX. Confirm ________.
X. End ________.
XI. ________ the interviewee.
iv. Processing the interview. ________________ after the interview, review any notes and make individual note cards of the information that will be included in the speech.
d. ________________or ________________. If the information you need has not been published, it may exist in an original unpublished source, such as an ancient manuscript, a diary, personal correspondence, or company files.
e. ____________ – You can design a study to test a hypothesis you have and then report the results of your experiment in your speech.
II. Identify and Select Relevant Information
A. Factual Statements – ________ ___________ are those that can be verified.
1. _________—numerical facts
a. Use only statistics you can ________________________.
b. Use only ________ statistics so your audience will not be misled.
c. Use statistics ________________.
d. Use statistics ________.
e. Remember that statistics are ________.
2. ________—specific instances that illustrate or explain a general factual statement.
a. They provide concrete ________ that make a general statement ________ to the audience
b. You may also use _____________ ________—specific instances based on reflections about future events.
c. When using examples, make sure they are ________, make sure they are ____________, and use at least one to ________________________.
3. ________: a statement that clarifies the meaning of a word of phrase
a. Definitions clarify the meaning of terminology that is specialized, technical, or otherwise likely to be unfamiliar to the audience.
b. Definitions clarify words and terms that have more than one meaning and might be misconstrued.
c. Definitions clarify your stance on a subject in an effort to draw listeners to interpret it as you do.
B. Expert Opinions - Expert opinions are ________________________________
_______________________________________________________________.
1. An expert is someone who has ________________________, usually through a long-term study, and is ________ by other people in the field as being a ________________ and ________________ authority.
2. When you use expert opinions in your speech, you should ______________
________________________.
C. Elaborations - both factual information and expert opinions can be elaborated upon through ________ and ________, ________ and ________, or ________ ________ and ________.
1. Anecdotes and narratives help ________________________________.
a. Anecdotes are ________________________.
b. Narratives are ________________________________________.
2. Comparisons and contrasts.
a. Comparisons ________________________________. They can be ________or ________.
i. ________________ show similarities of real things.
ii. ________________ express one thing in terms normally denoting another.
b. Contrasts ________________.
3. Quotations make a point in a ________ and ________ way. When using a direct quotation, you need to verbally acknowledge the person it came from to prevent ________, the unethical act of representing another person’s work as your own.
D. Drawing Information from Multiple Cultural Perspectives - How we perceive facts and what opinions we hold are influenced by our ________________. Therefore, it is important to draw information from ________________________________by ________________________________________________________and by ________________________________________.
III. Record Information
A. Preparing Research Cards - allows you to easily ______, _______, and _______ each item of information as you prepare your speech.
1. Each research card should contain three types of information:
a. Each card should have ________________________________
_________________________________________________.
b. The __________, ________, or ________________ should be recorded on the card.
c. ________________________ related to the source should also be recorded.
2. Avoid using only one source for your information, because ______________; furthermore, basing your speech on one or two sources suggests that _______ ________________________.
B. Citing Sources in the Speech.
1. You need to ________________ the sources of your ideas and statements.
2. Citing sources helps the audience ________________and also __________ ___________.
3. You must provide ________________, references to an original source, made at the point in the speech where information from that source is presented.
Key Terms
evidence
secondary research
primary research
credentials
periodicals
skimming
abstract
ethnography
survey
interview
interview protocol
primary questions
secondary questions
open questions
closed questions
neutral questions
leading questions
factual statements
statistics
examples
hypothetical examples
definition
expert opinions
anecdotes
narratives
comparison
contrast
plagiarism
oral footnote
Activities
Activity 6.1
Exploring the Library
Purpose: To help you to learn more about your library’s resources and to shape that information into a speech that can be shared to teach others.
Instructions: College libraries can be intimidating due to the large number of resources. From the list below, choose one area of your college’s library that you want to learn more about:
1. The reference room
2. Electronic databases
3. The online catalogue and book collection
4. The periodical collection and print periodical indexes
5. Partnerships with other libraries (interlibrary loan policies)
Either on your own or in groups of two or three, investigate this area of the library, answering the following questions:
1. Why does my audience (my speech class) need to know about these library resources?
2. What does my audience already know about these library resources? How much experience do my classmates have with these resources?
3. What do I already know about this area of the library?
4. What can I learn from visiting the library and observing patrons and librarians?
5. Who can I interview to learn more about the library?
6. What are five key questions that I would like to ask an expert about using these library resources?
7. What insider tips can I learn from experienced users about these library resources?
8. What printed materials prepared by the library can I use as resources for my speech?
9. What does my audience need to know about the physical location and setting of these resources?
10. What unfamiliar vocabulary might my audience need to know in order to effectively use these resources?
11. What useful information about using these resources can I gain from print sources (books and periodicals)?
12. What useful information about using these resources can I gain from electronic sources?
13. How can I organize this information so as to most clearly and effectively teach others about the importance of these library resources?
14. Are there any anecdotes or illustrations that I can provide that will help me to more clearly communicate about these library resources?
15. Are there any comparisons or contrasts, statistics or quotations that can help my listeners to better understand and remember information about these library resources?
Activity 6.2
Ethical Research and Speaking
Purpose: To apply research skills in learning more about plagiarism and public speaking.
Instructions: Using personal knowledge, library and electronic research sources, and interviews, complete the following worksheet.
During the 1992 Democratic primary race, Senator Joseph Biden (D. – Del) was forced to withdraw his candidacy because of an act of questionable ethics and public speaking. In more than one instance, it was discovered that Sen. Biden had used, directly and with some paraphrase, the words of others in his speeches.
Use an Internet search engine or the InfoTrac and attempt to find more information on this person and the accusations of speech plagiarism that were made.
1. What search terms did you use?
2. What additional sites did you find and what information did you learn? (Hint: In what year did the scandal occur? What state is the person from? Is the person still holding an elected office?)
3. With the information you now have, visit your library. What additional sources can you use to learn more about this incident? (Hint: Use periodical indexes from the year of the scandal as well as newspaper indexes to research the reporting of political events as they happened.) What additional sources did you locate? What information did you gain?
Source Information
_________________________ __________________________________________
_________________________ __________________________________________
_________________________ __________________________________________
_________________________ __________________________________________
_________________________ __________________________________________
_________________________ __________________________________________
_________________________ __________________________________________
_________________________ __________________________________________
_________________________ __________________________________________
4. With this background research, identify a person who is either an expert on politics, plagiarism, or who may recall the incident from firsthand experience. Prepare a list of at least three interview questions and conduct a brief interview with your source. Who did you choose to interview?
________________________________________________________________________
5. What questions did you prepare?
A. ___________________________________________________________________
B. ___________________________________________________________________
C. ___________________________________________________________________
6. What additional information or perspectives did you gain from this interview?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
7. After having completed this research, what is your opinion of the Biden scandal? Was justice served? Was the offense dealt with in an appropriate way? What have you learned about plagiarism and public speaking?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity 6.3
InfoTrac Activity: Exploring Internet Search Engines:
Purpose: To provide you with more in-depth information on using the Internet for research.
Instructions: Locate and read the following two articles: “An analysis of Internet search engines: Assessment of over 200 search engines” by Nicholas G. Tomaiuolo and Joan G. Packer and “Evaluating information on the Internet” by D. Scott Brandt. (Hint: Use the titles of the articles as your search terms.)
1. According to the Tomaiuolo and Packer article, how many search engines are available on the Internet?
2. In your own words, what is the difference between an evaluative and a nonevaluative search engine?
3. What evaluative search engines with previous high performance ratings were tested for this study?
4. What non-evaluative search engines with previous high performance ratings were tested for this study?
5. What did researchers do to learn how to more effectively use the search engines tested in their study?
6. According to this study, which search engines offer the clearest search tips?
7. According to this study, what search engine “currently outshines the rest of the field”?
8. According to the Brandt article, what are the three traditional ways in which information gets filtered or evaluated for reliability?
9. The Brandt article uses a comparison or a simile for describing the information available on the Internet and the process for posting it there. To what does the author compare Internet information?
10. According to the Brandt article, what differences are there between various search engines, and how do these differences relate to the reliability of information located by these search engines?
11. List a website provided by the Brandt article that can help you in evaluating the reliability of information on the Web.
12. List at least three suggestions given in the Brandt article for checking the reliability of Internet resources.
Activity 6.4
Using the Internet for Research
Purpose: To give you practice finding information on the Internet.
Instructions: Answer the following:
1. Who is the President of Afghanistan?
2. What is the average yearly rainfall of Tibet?
3. What is a working definition of Dadaism?
4. Who led the American Basketball Association in scoring?
5. When was the Southern Baptist Convention founded?
6. What was the highest rated television program of all time?
7. What is the progression of ranks in the Marine Corps?
8. Who were the rhapsodes?
9. To what does “Remember the Maine” refer?
10. What is Dramatism and who developed the concept?
Activity 6.5
Using InfoTrac
Purpose: To give you practice finding information using InfoTrac.
Instructions: Using the topic of the speech you are working on now, read the following steps and fill in the appropriate blanks.
The InfoTrac College Edition database contains hundreds of articles from reliable periodicals and journals. You can use this database to research sources for your speech. Use the password that accompanied a new copy of this text and your SPEAK CD-ROM to log onto InfoTrac College Edition.
Step 1. Use your SPEAK CD-ROM to access InfoTrac College Edition.
Step. 2. Enter you speech subject in the search bar. You can search for keywords in the title, source citation, or abstract of articles, or you can search for a keyword within the content of an article. You can also limit your search to articles that contain certain words. When you’ve entered your keyword and search criteria, click on “Search.”
A list of citations containing your keyword appears. Look for articles that include information that seems relevant to your speech. If you want to narrow your choice of citations to work from, check the “Mark” box, then click “View Mark List” in the menu at the left. A list of only the citations you selected will appear.
Step 3. Click on a link to view an article. When you click to view an article, you’ll see the full text of the article. The menu at the left allows you to print, e-mail, or retrieve an Adobe Acrobat version of the article you selected. When you click on “Links,” links to related articles will appear.
Step 4. Write down the necessary citation information for articles you plan to use in your speech. Write down one article related to your topic that you think will be useful:
Step 5. Brainstorm other possible search terms related to your speech topic.
Step 6. Repeat the search process until you have found the information for which you are looking.
Activity 6.6
Evaluating Internet Sources
Purpose: To help you evaluate Internet sources you may consider for your speech.
Instructions: Visit the website provided:
Read the material and visit the links provided so that you have a clearer understanding of what makes a source appropriately useable for you to cite in your speech.
1. How do you properly evaluate a website?
2. How do you properly evaluate social bookmarks?
3. How do you properly evaluate multimedia?
4. How can this information help you to use research sources more appropriately in your speeches?
Activity 6.7
Action Step 3, Activity 3A
Gathering and Evaluating Information Sources
The goal of this activity is to help you compile a list of potential sources for your speech.
1. Brainstorm a list of keywords that are related to your speech goal.
2. Identify gaps in your current knowledge that you would like to fill.
3. Use a search engine to identify sponsored and personal websites that may be sources of information for your speech.
4. Work with a library database (either physically located at the library or electronically) to list specific resources that appear to provide information for your speech.
5. Gather and skim the resources you have identified to decide which are likely to be the most useful.
6. Evaluate each resource to determine how much faith you can place in the information.
7. Determine what primary research you might conduct to fill gaps in the information you have collected.
Activity 6.8
Action Step 3, Activity 3B
Record Relevant Information on Research Cards
The goal of this activity is to review the source material that you identified in Activity 6.7 (Action Step Activity 3A) and to record on research cards specific items of information that you might wish to use in your speech.
1. Carefully read all print and electronic sources (including website material) that you have identified and evaluated as appropriate sources for your speech. Review your notes and tapes from all interviews and observations.
2. As you read an item (fact, opinion, example, illustration, statistic, anecdote, narrative, comparison–contrast, quotation, definition, or description) that you think might be useful in your speech, record the item on a research card or on the appropriate electronic research card form available at your CourseMate for SPEAK. (If you are using an article that appeared in a periodical source that you read online, use the periodical research card form.)
You can complete this activity online and, if requested, e-mail it to your instructor. You can also use online forms to prepare your own research cards and print them for use in preparing your speech. Go to the CourseMate for SPEAK at to access Action Step Activity 3B.
Activity 6.9
Action Step 3, Activity 3C
Citing Sources
On the back of each research card, write a short phrase that you can use in your speech as an oral footnote for the material on this card.
Activity 6.10
Impromptu Speech Activity
Draw an information source from a box in the front of the room. It might be a book; magazine or academic journal article; printout from a discussion board, blog, or website; and so forth. Read or skim the source. Then prepare a proper APA reference citation. Go to the front of the room and write the citation on the board. Then present a two- to three-minute informative speech on how well the source meets each of the four evaluation criteria for a speech on a related topic. Provide evidence for your assessments. Be sure to quote something from the information source using a proper oral footnote during the speech.
Activity 6.11
Assessment Activity
Go to VS Video Productions website at and click on the “Demo Reels” tab and then the “Corporate Video” sample. What kinds of information and information sources are used to compel viewers to use this company’s services? Which are most compelling to you and why?
Activity 6.12
Assessment Activity
Watch the opening story on a local or national news broadcast. Identify what information types and sources are used to support the story. Do they meet the criteria for good sources? Why or why not?
Activity 6.13
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
Coldplay Admits to Plagiarism
In 2005 the popular British rock band Coldplay admitted to Rolling Stone magazine that they plagiarized from various musical sources on their 2005 album X & Y. After admitting it, they also admitted that the album should have included a bibliography, discography, or references for the “borrowed” material. Despite their admission, they suffered no repercussions. Then, according to a report published in the December 5, 2008, issue of Rolling Stone, songwriter and guitarist Joe Satriani sued the band for “ripping off his 2004 track ‘If I Could Fly’” for their own Grammy-nominated hit “Viva La Vida.” The case was dismissed on September 14, 2009. Although Satriani’s lawyer would not say whether a financial settlement was involved, one thing was clear: “Under terms of the dismissal, Coldplay won’t have to admit to any wrongdoing.”
1. Which ethical principles did Coldplay demonstrate or violate in 2005?
2. Which ethical principles did the band demonstrate or violate in 2008?
3. Do you think Coldplay will plagiarize from other artists again? Why or why not? Be sure to point to ethical principles in your answer.
4. Would you consider that Satriani’s actions, his lawyer’s actions, and the court’s actions demonstrated ethical behavior? Why or why not?
5. What would you do if you were in Coldplay’s position? Satriani’s position?
Source: Kreps, D. (16 September 2009). Satriani’s ‘Viva La Vida’ copyright suit against Coldplay dismissed. Rolling Stone. Retrieved from
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. Any information that clarifies, explains, or otherwise adds depth or breadth to a topic is called
a. evidence.
b. general information.
c. credentials.
d. leading.
2. Magazines and journals that are published regularly at fixed intervals are called
a. indexes.
b. online sources.
c. periodicals.
d. all of the above.
3. Bess wanted to locate current information on incivility in college classrooms. The best place to begin this kind of research would be
a. the Internet.
b. a periodical index.
c. a general encyclopedia.
d. an online catalogue of books at her college library.
4. As well as being a good source of information, a good quotation can be
a. leading.
b. provocative.
c. objective.
d. irrelevant.
5. The age or date of a source is particularly important when you are providing what kind of information?
a. Anecdotes
b. Statistics
c. Expert opinion
d. Quotations
6. This general source gives you a good overview of a subject
a. Biographical reference
b. Encyclopedia
c. Quotation book
d. Statistical source
7. This general source can help you find information about a person’s life.
a. Biographical reference
b. Encyclopedia
c. Quotation book
d. Statistical source
8. This general source can help you find numerical data.
a. Biographical reference
b. Encyclopedia
c. Quotation book
d. Statistical source
9. Types of interview questions include all of the following except
a. neutral.
b. open.
c. primary.
d. leading.
10. When searching for information, it is best to
a. skim sources first.
b. read everything in detail.
c. read only the headings and sub-headings of your sources.
d. rely on what you already know.
True/False
11. ____ Oral footnotes are references to an original source, made at the point in the speech where information from that source is presented.
12. ____ When giving a speech, it’s always the case that the more statistics you can provide the better.
13. ____ It is usually recommended that researchers start their searches for information on the Internet before searching library, print, and online resources.
14. ____ When planning an interview, it is usually best to begin the interview by asking the most difficult and/or controversial questions so that the interviewee will know that you are prepared and know the subject well.
15. ____ After finishing an interview, it is best to “leave it alone” for a day or two so that you can later review your notes with more objectivity.
Essay
16. Imagine that you are researching the subject of amusement park rides for your first speech. List and describe how you would use personal knowledge, experience and observation, researched information, and interviews to gather material for this speech. Then, list and describe hypothetical examples of factual statements, expert opinions, and at least two forms of verbal information that you would research in preparing a speech on this subject. Your response should demonstrate your abilities as a creative thinker and as an informed, creative researcher.
17. Discuss how you would prepare for an interview of the mayor of your city and what interview protocol you might use.
Chapter 7
Organizing and Outlining the Speech Body
Learning Outcomes
1. Why is it important to limit your speech to two to four main points?
2. Why should you construct a clear thesis statement?
3. How might you arrange your points in your speech?
4. What are some types of supporting material you can use to elaborate your main points?
5. Why are transitions important?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
Good speech outlines allow you test the logic, development, and overall strength of the structure of your speech before you begin to prepare the wording or practicing your delivery.
I. Main Points
A. Identify Main Points - Main points are _______________________________ _______________________________________________________________.
1. Begin by listing the ideas you have found that ______________________.
2. Eliminate ideas that ___________________________________________.
3. Check to see if some of the ideas can be ___________________________.
4. __________ any ideas that might be too __________ or too ______ for this audience to comprehend in the time allotted for your speech.
5. From the ideas that remain, choose ____ to ____ that are the most important for your audience to understand if you are to accomplish your ____________.
II. Write the Thesis Statement:
A thesis statement is ___________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________.
a. You will use this sentence as a basis for the transition from the ___________ to the __________________.
b. Your thesis statement provides a blueprint from which you will ____________ ______________.
III. Outline the Body of the Speech.
A. A speech outline is ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________.
B. The length of your speech is determined not by ___________________ but by _________________________________. It’s often the _______ and _______ of elaborations that determine the length of a speech.
1. Each subpoint will be developed through one or more ________________.
2. And subpoints and/or sub-subpoints may be elaborated with _________, _________, _________, _______________, _________, _________, and _________.
C. Outline Main Points - Outline main points using ______________ because only ______________ can fully express the relationship among the _________ and _________ and between each _________ and the ________________.
1. Wording main points by starting with a __________________ that provides a starting point of main points but does not specify clearly how each _________ is related to the _________. Rework the points to make them clearer by ___________________________:
a. Is the relationship of each main point statement to the goal statement clearly specified?
b. Are the main points parallel in structure? Main points are parallel to one another when _____________________________________________ ____________________________________.
2. Selecting an organizational pattern for main points.
a. ___________ organizes the main points of the speech in a chronological sequence of by steps in a process.
b. ___________ conveys your ideas through a story or series of stories.
c. ___________ organizes the main points of the speech by categories or division of a subject.
d. __________________ organizes the main points of a persuasive speech by the reasons that support the speech goal.
D. Identify and Outline Subpoints. One of your subpoints should be a __________________, a statement alerting listeners about how a main point or subpoint relates to them or why they should care about it.
1. Identify subpoints by ___________________________while _________ _________________________________________.
2. Outlining subpoints. Subpoints should also be represented on the outline in _____________. Be sure to also include _______________ for items of information.
List Supporting Material – A good outline also includes short outline statements of supporting material—____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________.
1. Choose items to meet the _______ of your specific audience.
2. Be sure to include _______________ and develop a __________ as you go along.
IV. Create Transitions - Transitions are _______________________________________ ___________________________.
A. Section transitions: ______________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________.
1. The glue that holds the ______________ of your speech together
2. Help the audience follow the organization of ideas by _________ you are moving to the next point
3. Help audience members __________________
B. Signposts are ___________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________.
1. Usually _________ references
2. Can highlight ______________: “first,” “second,” or “third”
3. Can help audience focus on a _________: “foremost,” “most important,” or “above all.”
4. Can signify an _________: “to illustrate,” “for example,” or “to clarify”
5. Can signal an important idea is _____________: “in short,” “finally,” or “to summarize”
Key Terms
main points
thesis statement
speech outline
preparation outline
parallel
topic order
narrative order
time order
logical reasons order
listener relevance link
supporting material
transitions
section transitions
signposts
Activities
Activity 7.1
Writing Your Thesis Statement
Purpose: To help you construct a well-worded thesis statement
Instructions: Visit the website below:
After reading the information on the site, compare and contrast it with what your textbook says about writing a thesis statement for your speech.
1) How is the information on the site similar to that of your textbook?
2) How is the information on the site DIFFERENT from that of your textbook?
3) Could you use both sets of information for writing an appropriate thesis statement? Explain.
Activity 7.2
Developing the Preparation Outline
Purpose: To help you create an effective preparation outline.
Instructions: Visit the University of Hawaii site below and print the .pdf file on that site:
Now, use the template provided to create a preparation outline for a hypothetical speech (using hypothetical research) on topic you will NOT be considering for one of your in-class speeches.
Do you find such a preparation outline to be useful? Why or why not?
Activity 7.3
An Alternative Organizing Technique
Purpose: To give you experience in organizing ideas using an alternative brainstorming technique.
Instructions: Tree diagramming, also known as hierarchical outlining, gives you an opportunity to organize your ideas without the apparatus of traditional outlines (the Roman and Arabic numbering and lettering systems which many people find confusing and intimidating).
Use this “blank” outline to practice tree diagramming; fill in the blanks to organize your speech ideas. The large square on the left should state your thesis; the three medium-sized squares should list your main points in the order in which you plan to discuss them; the six small boxes should be used to list supporting details (facts, statistics, examples, stories, quotations, etc.) This exercise can also be done using a blank piece of paper, turned sideways (“landscape”).
Activity 7.4
Outlining the Speech
Purpose: To help you format the outline of a speech.
Instructions: After visiting the following website on speech outlines, consider the questions below.
1. How is the outline formatted with regard to main points?
2. How is the outline formatted with regard to subpoints?
3. Why are the transitions included in the outline? Is this necessary? Explain.
4. Do you think that the research sources (references) should be included in this outline? Why or why not?
Activity 7.5
InfoTrac Activity: Culture and Organizing Speeches
Purpose: To help you consider the ways in which the organization of ideas is culturally influenced and may change given audience expectations and demands.
Instructions: Locate and read the article “Understanding cultural preferences of Arab communication patterns” by R.S. Zaharna. (Hint: Use “intercultural communication” as your search term.) As this is a rather lengthy article, you may wish to focus on the sections entitled “Indirect and Direct,” “Linear and Non-linear,” “Cultural Differences in Message Design,” and “Oral Communications.”
1. Zaharna discusses the differences between Arabic and American cultural preferences in communicating. One of these differences is that which exists between indirect and direct communication styles. Which communication style is recommended by the text?
_______________________________________________________________________
Which communication style is more typically preferred by the Arabic culture?
_______________________________________________________________________
2. Zaharna also discusses the differences between linear and non-linear cultural preferences. Explain these differences, in your own words.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3. What other key differences exist in the preferred message designs for American and Arabic communication?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
4. What were the difficulties that you encountered as you tried to adapt Emming’s speech for the preferred communication style of many Arabic cultures?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
5. After having read this article and completed this exercise, write a one-paragraph “post script” or “additional thoughts” message that might be added to Chapter 7 in your textbook.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Activity 7.6
Action Step 4, Activity 4A
Identifying Main Points:
1. List all of the ideas you have found that relate to the specific purpose of your speech.
|a. |k. |
|b. |l. |
|c. |m. |
|d. |n. |
|e. |o. |
|f. |p. |
|g. |q. |
|h. |r. |
|i. |s. |
|j. |t. |
2. If you have trouble limiting the number, do the following:
A. Draw a line through the ideas that you believe your audience already understands, that you have no information to support, or that just seem too complicated.
B. Combine ideas that can be grouped together under a single heading.
3. From those ideas that remain, choose two to four you will use as main points in your speech.
|a. | |
|b. | |
|c. | |
|d. | |
You can complete this activity online with Speech Builder Express and, if requested, e-mail your completed activity to your instructor. Go to the CourseMate for SPEAK at to access Action Step Activity 4A.
Activity 7.7
Action Step 4, Activity 4B
Writing a Thesis Statement
The goal of this activity is to use your general and specific goals and the main points you have identified to develop a well-worded thesis statement for your speech.
1. Write the general and specific goals you developed in Activity 4.10 (Action Step 1, Activity 1E).
2. List the main points you identified in Activity 7.6 (Action Step 4, Activity 4A).
3. Now write one or two complete sentences that combine your specific goal with your main point ideas.
You can complete this activity online with Speech Builder Express, view a student sample of this activity, and, if requested, e-mail your completed activity to your instructor. Go to the CourseMate for SPEAK at to access Action Step Activity 4B.
Activity 7.8
Action Step 4, Activity 4C
Developing the Main Points of Your Speech
The goal of this activity is to help you phrase and order your main points.
1. Write your thesis statement.
2. Underline the two to four main points identified in your thesis statement.
3. For each underlined item, write one sentence that summarizes what you want your audience to know about that idea.
4. Review the main points as a group.
a. Is the relationship between each main point statement and the goal statement clearly specified? If not, revise.
b. Are the main points parallel in structure? If not, consider why and revise.
5. Choose an organizational pattern for your main points.
6. Identify the pattern you have used. _____________
You can complete this activity online with Speech Builder Express, view a student sample of this activity, and, if requested, e-mail your completed activity to your instructor. Go to the CourseMate for SPEAK at to access Action Step Activity 4C.
Activity 7.9
Action Step 4, Activity 4D
Outlining the Speech Body
The goal of this exercise is to help you get started on the outline for the body of your first speech. Using complete sentences, write the following:
1. The specific speech goal you developed in Activity 4.10 (Action Step 1 Activity 1E).
2. The thesis statement you developed in Activity 7.7 (Action Step 4 Activity 4B).
3. A transition to the first main point.
4. The first main point you developed in Activity 7.8 (Action Step 4 Activity 4C).
5. The outline of the listener relevance link, subpoints, and support for your first main point, similar to the sample shown earlier, under “Outlining Subpoints.”
6. A transition from your first main point to your second.
7. The other points, subpoints, support, section transitions, and signposts. Use the format for numeration, spacing, and so on shown in the Student Response to Activity 4D. For a sample of a completed outline, see pages 112-115 of Chapter 8. (Note that the labels Introduction, Conclusion, and Sources are included just to help you understand the requirements for your final outline.)
You can complete this activity online with Speech Builder Express and, if requested, e-mail your completed activity to your instructor. Go to the CourseMate for SPEAK at to access Action Step Activity 4D.
Activity 7.10
Impromptu Speech Activity
Identify a favorite toy, game, food, or hobby you had as a child. Come up with a goal statement and two to four main points you could talk about concerning that toy, game, food, or hobby. Present a short speech consisting of a thesis statement as the introduction, the two to four main points linked with section transitions for the body, and a thesis restatement for the conclusion. Be sure to consider the wording of your thesis statement and the best organizational pattern for your main points. Be prepared to defend your choices if asked to do so.
Activity 7.11
Assessment Activity
Watch a speaker in person or on television who demonstrates how to make or do something. Try to identify the thesis statement and main points. Does the speaker use parallel phrasing, section transitions, and/or signposts? How does using or not using them influence your ability to follow along?
Activity 7.12
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
A Snake in the Grass
Harriet Ziefert’s children’s book, A Snake Is Totally Tail, was to be published in early 2006 when a New York public librarian, John Peters, noticed that more than half of the text exactly matched a book by Judi Barrett. First published in 1983, Barrett’s book was by then out of print. Peters posted his observation to a listserv, and Ziefert responded with, “I have no recollection of ever seeing Ms. Barrett’s book—though it would be foolish of me not to consider the possibility that I might have seen it decades ago and that its structure and some of its language imprinted somewhere on my subconscious.” Although no formal suit was ever filed against Ziefert, the publisher decided not to publish the book after Peters’s listserv posting was made public.
1. Do you believe Harriet Ziefert’s explanation? Why or why not?
2. Suppose that Ziefert’s book did not match the earlier book word for word but instead just followed a very similar plotline that was organized the same way and used the same narrative voice. Would your opinion of Ziefert change?
3. Do you believe John Peters acted ethically? Why or why not?
Source: Deahl, R. (31 January 2006). Blue Apple to cancel book. Publishers Weekly. Retrieved from ; Kids book gets pulled. (31 January 2006). Associated Press. Retrieved online from .
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. A one- or two-sentence summary of your speech that incorporates your general and specific goals and previews the main points of the speech is a
a. speech goal.
b. main point.
c. preparation outline.
d. thesis statement.
2. The statement “Second, many students attend this college because of its affordable cost.” is an example of
a. an introduction.
b. a section transition.
c. a thesis statement.
d. supporting information.
3. A speaker describes the steps involved in changing a car tire. The organizational pattern most suited to this speech is
a. time or chronological order.
b. logical reasons order.
c. topic order.
d. none of the above.
4. A speaker describes why students should choose to attend XYZ University. The organizational pattern most suited to this speech is
a. time order.
b. logical reasons order.
c. topic order.
d. none of the above.
5. The part of a speech that states the speech goal and lists the main points is the
a. section transition.
b. organization pattern.
c. thesis statement.
d. logical reason.
6. All main points of a speech should be written
a. in parallel structure.
b. as full sentences.
c. specifying their relationship to the goal statement.
d. all of the above.
7. Parallel structure helps the audience
a. recognize main points by recalling a pattern in the wording.
b. stay attentive to the speech.
c. remember speech details.
d. remember the speech’s specific goal.
8. Section transitions are
a. one word signposts given between main points.
b. comments made between the introduction and body of the speech.
c. complete sentences that show the relationship between major parts of the speech.
d. comments made between the body and the conclusion of the speech.
9. “Three reasons to join a fraternity are social life, emotional support, and physical activity” is an example of a
a. transition statement.
b. general goal.
c. specific goal.
d. thesis statement.
10. When giving a speech about gardening, Twila discussed asparagus, lettuce, carrots, and peas. Twila chose which of the following organization patterns?
a. Time order
b. Logical reasons order
c. Topic order
d. Narrative order
True/False
11. ____ The process of organizing a speech most commonly begins with the development of supporting material for the main points.
12. ____ A good working thesis statement should be general enough to allow for audience members to add their own ideas.
13. ____ A time ordering of a speech’s main points is common when giving a narrative speech.
14. ____ When preparing a speech outline, the main points should be expressed as single words or short phrases so that they can be more easily remembered.
15. ____ A good example of a thesis statement that uses parallel structure is: “Many students choose this college for its cost, its exciting athletic teams, and because teachers really care about students here.”
Essay
16. Discuss why outlining a speech is an important aspect of speech preparation, and explain how each part of the outline is included.
17. Provide an example of a transition and discuss how that transition can contribute positively to the effectiveness of a speech.
Chapter 8
the Introduction and Conclusion
Learning Outcomes
1. Why are solid introductions and conclusions so important to effective public speaking?
2. How can you get your audience’s attention in your introduction?
3. Why should you summarize your main points again in the conclusion?
4. How might you motivate listeners to remember your speech in your conclusion?
5. How do you determine which sources to include in your outline and reference list?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
The primacy-recency effect is __________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________.
I. Creating the Introduction - An introduction is generally about ____ percent of the length of the entire speech.
A. Goals of the Introduction.
1. Get attention: create an opening that will win your listeners’ attention by arousing _________. Determine which attention-getting device to use by considering what __________ ______is appropriate for your topic.
a. Make a _________ _________, a sentence or two that grabs your listeners’ attention by shocking them in some way
b. _______________ to encourage your audience to get involved with the topic.
i. A ______________ seeks a mental rather than a direct response.
ii. A ______________ demands an overt response from the audience.
c. Tell a _______—an account of something that has happened (_______) or could happen (_____________).
d. Tell a _______—an anecdote or a piece of wordplay designed to be funny and make people laugh.
e. Supply a __________________—a brief story about something that happened to you or a hypothetical situation that listeners can imagine themselves in.
f. Recite a _________—a comment made by and attributed to someone other than the speaker.
g. Perform or motivate an _________, an attention-getting act designed to highlight your topic or purpose.
h. __________________ to generate uncertainty or mystery during the first few sentences and excite the audience.
2. Motivate your audience to listen to your speech by creating clear _____________________.
3. Establish your _________ and _________ to highlight how you are a credible speaker on this topic who respects the audience and the occasion.
a. To be successful, you need to begin to establish ______ (competence, good character, and goodwill) during your introductory remarks.
b. This initial ______ responds to the questions listeners may have such as: Why should I trust you? Why should I believe you?
4. State your thesis statement to introduce our audience to your ____________, ____________, and ____________.
B. Selecting the Best Introduction - It’s worth investing the time to compare different openings. Try working on two or three different introductions; then, pick the one you believe will work best for your ____________ and _____________.
II. The Conclusion. The conclusion will be relatively short part of the speech—seldom more than _____ percent. Therefore it is important that it be _________________.
A. Goals of the Conclusion:
1. Summarize the _________ and _________.
2. Clinch - Provide a sense of closure that leaves the audience with a vivid impression of your message with a clincher, _______________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
a. Develop __________________ with any of the devices discussed for getting audience’s attention
b. Appeal to action – ________________________________________
_______________________________________________________.
B. Selecting the Best Conclusion. Create two or three conclusions; then choose the one you believe will best ____________________________________________.
III. Completing the Outline – To complete the ______________, you will want to compile a list of the source material you will be drawing from in the speech, create a title, and review your outline to make sure it conforms to a logical structure.
A. Listing Sources – This enables you to __________________________________ _____________________ and will allow you to __________________________ __________________.
1. The two standard forms for organizing the source list are _______________ ___________ or __________________.
2. Many formal bibliographical styles can be used in citing sources. These include: ______________________________________________________.
3. Regardless of the style, the elements that are essential to all are _________, _____________, ______________, _____________, and ______________.
B. Writing a Title - A title lets the audience know what to expect. Titles should be _________, _____________________, and, if possible, _________. Name the following three kinds of titles.
1. ___________________. Captures the subject of the speech in a few words.
2. ___________. To spark greater interest and motivate potential listeners to attend the speech.
3. __________________. Combines a familiar saying or metaphor with the simple statement of subject.
C. Reviewing the Outline – Identify below the five questions to ask when reviewing your outline. You can use it as a checklist to complete the final review of the outline before you move into adaptation and rehearsal.
1. ___________________________________________________________?
2. ___________________________________________________________?
3. ___________________________________________________________?
4. ___________________________________________________________?
5. ___________________________________________________________?
Key Terms
primacy-recency effect
startling statement
direct question
story
joke
personal reference
quotation
action
creating suspense
clincher
appeal to action
formal outline
Activities
Activity 8.1
Notable and Memorable Speeches
Purpose: To give you the opportunity to learn more about effective introductions and conclusions through listening to and analyzing the speeches of others.
Instructions: For this activity, you are to locate examples of specific types of introductions. Be creative in looking for your examples. You are invited to research movie speeches that can be found on video or excerpted on the Internet (for example, there are several memorable speeches in Braveheart, Animal House, Gettysburg, and A Few Good Men). You can also research historical speeches that can be found on videotapes (often at local libraries) and on websites such as:
You are also encouraged to use InfoTrac College Edition and browse the journal Vital Speeches for examples.
1. Identify an example of a speech which opens with a startling statement (give the source of the speech as well as the startling statement).
2. Identify an example of a speech which opens with a rhetorical question (give the source of the speech as well as the rhetorical question).
3. Identify an example of a speech that opens with a story (give the source of the speech as well as a brief description of the story).
4. Identify an example of a speech that opens with a personal reference (give the source of the speech as well as the personal reference. Remember that the personal reference is a speaker’s reference to the audience, not to himself or herself.
5. Identify an example of a speech that opens with a quotation. Give the source of the speech as well as the quotation.
6. Identify an example of a speech that opens by using suspense. Give the source of the speech as well as a brief description of the speaker’s use of suspense.
Activity 8.2
Action Step 4, Activity 4E
Creating Speech Introductions
The goal of this activity is to create choices for how you will begin your speech.
1. For the speech body you outlined earlier, write three different introductions—using different rhetorical devices (a startling statement, a question, a story, a personal reference, a joke, a quotation, an action, or suspense) to get attention—that you believe meet the primary goals of effective introductions and would be appropriate for your speech goal and audience.
Specific Goal: __________________________________________________________
a. _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
b. _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
c. _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2. Of the three introductions you drafted, which do you believe is the best? Why? _________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. Write the introduction in outline form, indicating in parenthesis where you are meeting each goal. _____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
You can complete this activity online with Speech Builder Express, view a student sample of this activity, and, if requested, e-mail your completed activity to your instructor. Go to your CourseMate for SPEAK at to access Action Step Activity 4E.
Activity 8.3
Action Step 4, Activity 4F
Creating Speech Conclusions
The goal of this activity is to help you create choices for how you will conclude your speech.
1. For the speech body you outlined earlier, write three different conclusions that review important points you want the audience to remember, and include a clincher that provides closure by leaving the audience with a vivid impression.
Specific Goal: __________________________________________________________
a. _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
b. _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
c. _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2. Which do you believe is the best? Why? _____________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. Write that conclusion in outline form. _______________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
You can complete this activity online with Speech Builder Express, view a student sample of this activity, and, if requested, e-mail your completed activity to your instructor. Go to the CourseMate for SPEAK at to access Action Step Activity 4F.
Activity 8.4
Action Step 4, Activity 4G
Compiling a List of Sources
The goal of this activity is to help you record the list of sources you used in your speech.
1. Review your research cards, separating those whose information you have used in your speech from those whose information you have not used.
2. Note on your research card or your outline where you’ll reference the source during your speech.
3. List the sources whose information was used in the speech by copying the bibliographical information recorded on the research card.
4. For short lists, organize your list alphabetically by the last name of the first author. Be sure to follow a form given in the text. If you did not record some of the bibliographical information on your notecard, you will need to revisit the library, database, or other source to find it.
You can complete this activity online with Speech Builder Express, view a student sample of this activity, and, if requested, e-mail your completed activity to your instructor. Go to the CourseMate for SPEAK at to access Action Step Activity 4G.
Activity 8.5
Action Step 4, Activity 4H
Completing the Formal Speech Outline
Write and review a complete sentence outline of your speech using material you’ve developed so far with the Action Steps in Chapters 4 through 8. You can complete this activity online with Speech Builder Express, view a student sample of this activity, and, if requested, e-mail your completed activity to your instructor. Go to your CourseMate for SPEAK at to access Action Step Activity 4H.
Activity 8.6
Attention Getting Devices in Speech Introductions
Purpose: To give you practice analyzing other speakers’ introductions and conclusions so that you can more effectively plan and prepare introductions and conclusions for your own speeches.
Instructions: Locate and print copies of the following speeches:
“Speech from Hell” by Don Imus at the 1996 Radio/TV Correspondents Association Annual Dinner ()
“Farewell to the Yankee Fans” given by Lou Gehrig on July 4, 1939 at Yankee Stadium ()
“A Bridge to the Future” by Bill Clinton on August 29, 1996 at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago (InfoTrac College Edition in Vital Speeches, Sept. 15, 1996)
1. Look at each of these three speeches and mark the “boundary” between the speech’s introduction and body. (If you’re working in a group, you should be ready to explain your sense of the transition point between the speech introduction and body.)
2. Begin by examining Gehrig’s introduction and comparing it with the five goals for an introduction listed in the text. Gehrig’s speech introduction focuses on meeting which goals?
3. What kind of tone does Gehrig’s introduction set for his speech?
4. Next, examine the introduction of Clinton’s speech. Clinton’s speech introduction focuses on meeting which goals?
5. How does the introduction of Clinton’s speech work to establish his credibility?
6. Finally, examine Imus’ introduction: how does he gain the audience’s attention?
7. How does Imus’ introduction set a tone for the speech, and what kind of tone is set?
8. How does Imus’ introduction create a bond of goodwill with the audience?
9. How does Imus’ introduction establish his credibility?
10. What rules for effective introductions does Imus appear to violate?
11. Rate the effectiveness of Imus’ introduction.
12. In your opinion, which introduction was most effective and why?
13. Now, look to the endings of these three speeches and mark the boundaries between the body of the speeches and their conclusions. (If you’re working in a group, you should be ready to explain your sense of the transition point between the speech body and conclusion.)
14. Begin by examining the conclusion of Gehrig’s speech. The conclusion to this very short speech is also quite brief. How does Gehrig summarize his message and connect with his audience in this conclusion?
15. Does Gehrig use a story, an appeal to action, or an emotionally charged statement in concluding his speech?
16. Next, look at the conclusion of Clinton’s speech. How does Clinton summarize his message and connect with his audience in this conclusion?
17. What concluding device does Clinton use in his speech?
18. Finally, look at Imus’ conclusion. What rules for effective conclusions does Imus appear to violate?
19. Rate these three conclusions. Which do you find most effective and why?
Activity 8.7
The Conclusion
Purpose: The goal of this activity is to create choices for how you will conclude your speech.
Instructions: Visit the following website and read the information you find:
1. Using the information on the site and the information in your textbook, write three pairs of different conclusions (summary, story, appeal to action, or emotional impact), suing each source’s information. Do your reviews of important points that you want the audience remember included and do you have a clincher that provides closure by leaving the audience with a vivid impression when you use each set of information?
a. _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
b. _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
c. _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2. Which of the conclusions do you believe is the best suited for a classroom audience? Do you find both sets of information to helpful?
Why? ___________________________________________________________________
3. Now, write the conclusions in outline form.
Activity 8.8
InfoTrac Activity: Pathos and Public Speaking
Purpose: To learn more about preparing speeches with emotional impact.
Instructions: Locate and read the article “Ache for the impact: Four steps to powerful oratory” by Andrew B. Wilson. (Hint: Use “speechwriting” as your search term.)
1. Wilson compares speechwriting with ski jumping. What are some of the similarities that he draws between the two activities?
2. Wilson compares the speech opening with the take-off in ski jumping. What is his advice about delivering effective introductions?
3. In your own words, apply this advice to the introduction for your next speech: what specific plans and revisions can you make to put Wilson’s advice into practice?
4. Wilson compares the speech ending with the landing in ski jumping. What is his advice about delivering effective conclusions?
5. In your own words, apply this advice to the conclusion for your next speech; what specific plans and revisions can you make to put Wilson’s advice into practice?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Activity 8.9
APA or MLA
Purpose: The goal of this activity is to help you to become familiar with the differences between APA and MLA styles.
Instructions: Review the information on this website:
1. How do the two styles differ when citing a book with an editor?
2. Click the links on the left side of the page (How to Make a Works Cited page in APA format), then (How to Make a Works Cited page).
What differences do you see?
Why do you think it is that difference disciplines use different styles/formats?
Are you more comfortable with one than the other? Why?
Activity 8.10
Titles, Titles, and MORE Titles!
Purpose: The goal of this activity is to give you experience titling your speeches.
Instructions: Look at the speeches from 8.1. Title ten of these speeches using all 3 of the methods offered in your text.
1. a. ________________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________________
c. ________________________________________________________________________
2. a. ________________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________________
c. ________________________________________________________________________
3. a. ________________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________________
c. ________________________________________________________________________
4. a. ________________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________________
c. ________________________________________________________________________
5. a. ________________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________________
c. ________________________________________________________________________
6. a. ________________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________________
c. ________________________________________________________________________
7. a. ________________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________________
c. ________________________________________________________________________
8. a. ________________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________________
c. ________________________________________________________________________
9. a. ________________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________________
c. ________________________________________________________________________
10. a. ________________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________________
c. ________________________________________________________________________
Activity 8.11
Impromptu Speech Activity
From a basket of thesis statements provided by your instructor, create two introductions and conclusions following the guidelines offered in this chapter. (Be sure to address all the goals of an introduction and conclusion.) Deliver both versions to the class as though you were giving an actual speech on the topic. Ask for feedback regarding which version the class liked better and why.
Activity 8.12
Assessment Activity
Attend a public presentation on campus or in your community or watch and listen to one of the speeches you’ll find on your CourseMate for SPEAK. Listen carefully to the speaker’s introduction and conclusion. Did he or she address all the goals we identified in this chapter for introductions and conclusions? In your opinion, what could he or she have done differently to improve and why?
Activity 8.13
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
Imus Humor: Ethical or Not?
On his April 2, 2010, Fox Business Network program Imus in the Morning, talk show host Don Imus offered humor in his introduction to colleague Stuart Varney and Varney’s upcoming program, Varney and Company, this way:
It’s time for Varney and Company here on the Fox Business Network. And the man hosting that, just emerging from the basement down there with John Batchelor, where they have been cutting up Girl Scouts . . .
He and his two cohosts proceeded to chuckle and comment with retorts like, “What is wrong with you?” and “Maybe there’s something that came before that—cutting up Girl Scouts” and “You can do anything with a British accent.” If you haven’t seen the introduction, search for it on .
1. Do you think Imus’s use of humor was ethical? Why or why not?
2. What ethical principles did his cohosts adhere to or violate?
3. If people laugh, does that make it okay? Why or why not?
4. What would you have said in response to Imus if you were on the program? If you were Stuart Varney or John Batchelor?
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following is not a goal of a speech introduction?
a. Getting the audience’s attention
b. Identifying your thesis statement
c. Giving an appeal for action
d. Establishing the credibility of the speaker
2. Courtney began her speech: “Violence, profanity, sex. That’s what American culture craves and what World Wrestling Entertainment provides.” This is an example of what type of introduction?
a. A rhetorical question
b. A personal reference
c. A suspenseful opening
d. A startling statement
3. Questions audience members may have about who the speaker is, what makes him or her an authority on a topic, why they should believe the speaker, the speaker’s likeability, etc. may be answered when which of the following is established?
a. Initial pathos
b. Initial ethos
c. Initial logos
d. None of the above
4. Emily concluded her speech by saying, “My cousin died because infant car seats were not used. It didn’t have to happen. And it doesn’t need to happen ever again.” This is an example of a(n)
a. summary.
b. example with vivid imagery.
c. appeal to action.
d. rhetorical question.
5. Which of the following is not an example of a type of attention-getting technique for the introduction of a speech?
a. Emotional impact
b. Startling statement
c. Quotation
d. Story
6. A conclusion is seldom more than what percentage of a speech?
a. 5
b. 10
c. 20
d. 30
7. A rhetorical question asks your audience for
a. a show of hands.
b. a vocal response.
c. a mental answer.
d. some type of action.
8. An introduction is generally about what percentage of a speech?
a. 5
b. 10
c. 20
d. 30
9. Which is not part of a speech’s conclusion?
a. New evidence
b. Summary
c. Clincher
d. Appeal to action
10. An appeal to action occurs at the conclusion of what kind of speech?
a. Persuasive
b. Entertaining
c. Informative
d. Introduction
True/False
11. ____ Listing sources is a vital part of completing the outline.
12. ____ The total words in an outline should be limited to approximately one-half to three-quarters of the total number of words anticipated in the speech.
13. ____ One of the reasons speech introductions and conclusions are so important is due to the primacy-recency effect.
14. ____ An abrupt speech ending is often effective as it gains the audience’s attention.
15. ____ Using personal references in the introduction of a speech is an effective way for a speaker to tell the audience something about himself or herself.
Essay
16. Your roommate sees you hard at work, preparing the introduction and conclusion for a speech that you are to deliver in class in two days. He laughs and says, “I don’t get it. Why all the research and outlining? It’s just a waste of time! Everyone knows that all you need to do at the start of a speech is tell them what you’re going to talk about, and all you need to do at the end is to tell them what you told them!” Using concepts from the chapter and your own examples, respond to your roommate.
17. Discuss how you can begin to establish credibility in the introduction of the speech. Be sure to include why establishing credibility is important.
Chapter 9
PRESENTATIONAL Aids
Learning Outcomes
1. Why should you incorporate presentational aids into your speech?
2. What are some types of presentational aids you can choose from?
3. What are some common mistakes speakers make when constructing and using presentational aids?
4. What are some important considerations to keep in mind when choosing presentational aids?
5. What are some important considerations to keep in mind when preparing presentational aids?
6. What are some important considerations to keep in mind when presenting with your presentational aids?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
Presentational aids are any visual, audio, or audiovisual material you use in a speech. Presentational aids can help you adapt to the audience’s level of knowledge, increase audience recall of information, allow you to address diverse learning styles, can increase the persuasive appeal of your speech, and can help you feel more competent. Visual aids are a common type of presentational aid. When someone says “visual aids,” what immediately comes to mind?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Identify the four categories of presentational aids:
1. ___________________________________________________________.
2. ___________________________________________________________.
3. ___________________________________________________________.
4. ___________________________________________________________.
I. Types of Presentational Aids.
A. Visual aids enhance the verbal message by _________________________ ___________________________________________________________.
1. Actual Objects: ________________________________________________.
a. Inanimate objects make good visual aids if they are:
i. _____________________________________.
ii. _____________________________________.
iii. _____________________________________.
iv. _____________________________________.
b. Some animate objects also make effective visual aids.
i. You can be a visual aid by ______________________________ ____________________________________________________.
ii. Another person can be a visual aid by helping you ___________ ____________.
iii. ___________ can also be effective visual aids.
c. When an object is too _____ or too ______, too ________, potentially ________ or ______________, a model, a ______________________ _____________________________________, can be an effective aid.
d. If an exact reproduction of material is needed, photographs can be excellent visual aids. Be sure the image is ________________________ and that the object of interest in the photo is _____________ and, ideally, ________________.
e. Simple drawings and diagrams—_______________________________ _______________________—can be effective because you can choose how much detail to include.
f. Maps can be effective visual aids because they allow you to orient audiences to ________, ________, ________, ________, ________ ________, and ________.
g. A chart is _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________.
i. A flowchart __________________________________________ _____________________________________________________.
ii. An organizational chart ________________________________ _____________________________________________________.
iii. A pie chart is _________________________________________ _____________________________________________________.
h. A graph is ________________________________________________.
i. A __________ is a diagram that uses vertical or horizontal bars to show relationships between or among two or more variables at the same time or at various times on one or more dimensions.
ii. A __________ is a diagram that indicates change in one or more variables over time.
B. Audio aids enhance a verbal message through ______. Audio material should make up no more than about ___ percent of your speaking time.
C. Audiovisual aids enhance the verbal message through ______________. Keep them to no more than ___ percent of your speaking time, so choose clips that are to the point and really enhance your message.
D. Other sensory aids. Depending on your topic, you may want to choose sensory aids that appeal to ______, ______, or ______.
II. Criteria for Choosing Presentational Aids. It is important to decide what content you want to highlight and how. Identify the nine questions below which can help you make your decision.
A. ________________________________________________________________?
B. ________________________________________________________________?
C. ________________________________________________________________?
D. ________________________________________________________________?
E. ________________________________________________________________?
F. ________________________________________________________________?
G. ________________________________________________________________?
H. ________________________________________________________________?
I. ________________________________________________________________?
III. Preparing Effective Presentational Aids. The goal is to prepare professional-looking presentational aids that will enhance your _____ (perceived __________, _________, and __________) in addition to clarifying your message and making it more memorable. There are several guidelines to follow:
A. _________________________________________________________________.
B. _________________________________________________________________.
C. _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________.
D. ________________________________________________________________.
E. ________________________________________________________________.
F. ________________________________________________________________.
G. ________________________________________________________________.
1. Use the same ____________ color for all your presentational aids and theme for the slides on your computerized slideshow.
2. Use the same color to show ____________ and opposite colors (on a color wheel) to show ____________ between ideas.
3. Use bright colors to _____________________. Avoid using red and green together, because _____________________________________________ ____________________________.
4. Use dark colors for _________ on a _______ background and light colors for __________ on a ______ background.
5. Use no more than _____ or _____ colors on any presentational aid that is not a photograph or video clip.
6. Pretend you are your audience. Sit as far away as they will be sitting, and evaluate the colors you have chosen for their readability and appeal.
H. _______________________________________________________________.
IV. Methods for Displaying Presentational Aids. Speakers can choose from the following methods for displaying presentational aids:
A. ________ are one of the easiest methods for displaying simple drawing, charts, maps, photos and graphs, but because they tend to be fairly ______, use them only with _________ audiences.
B. _________ or _________
1. They are not suitable for depicting __________________.
2. ___________ or ___________ should be written on prior to speaking or during a break in speaking.
3. “___________” are easiest to prepare, but they are the most likely to result in damage to speaker credibility because they often signal a ________________.
C. Flipcharts – a flipchart is ____________________________________.
1. Flipcharts are prepared _________ the speech using colored markers to record the information.
2. Leave several blank pages _________ each visual on the pad.
3. You can flip to the empty page while ______________________________ __________________.
4. The information that is hand written or drawn must be ____ and _________ _______.
D. _________. Use when it may be useful for everyone in the audience to have a personal copy of the visual aid. You should carefully consider why a _________ is superior to other methods. Distribute them at the _____ of the speech.
E. Document Cameras. These allow you to _________________________________ ___________________________.
F. DVD Players and LCD Projectors. An LCD multimedia projector is a ______ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________.
G. Computerized Slide Shows. Always have a backup plan in case _________ __________________. To direct attention from your slideshow to you, ____________________________________.
V. Guidelines for Using Presentational Aids During the Speech – Identify the following seven guidelines for using presentational aids effectively:
A. _______________________________________________________________.
B. _______________________________________________________________.
C. _______________________________________________________________.
D. _______________________________________________________________.
1. When you display the visual, ____________, _________ _________ and _________ (point to it with your arm or a pointer), then with your back to the screen and your body still at a slight forty-five-degree angle to the group, ___________________________.
2. When you finish making your comments, ___________________________ and _____________________________________________.
E. _______________________________________________________________.
F. _______________________________________________________________.
G. _______________________________________________________________.
Key Terms
presentational aid
visual aid
audio aid
audiovisual aid
other sensory aid
actual object
model
diagram
chart
flowchart
organizational chart
pie chart
graph
bar graph
line graph
presentation software
flipchart
LCD multimedia projector
Activities
Activity 9.1
Action Step 5, Activity 5A
Choosing, Preparing, and Using Presentational Aids
The goal of this activity is to identify information where a presentational aid would increase audience interest, understanding, and retention.
1. Identify the key ideas from your speech where a presentational aid would increase audience interest, facilitate understanding, or increase retention.
2. For each idea you have identified, list the type of presentational aid you think would be most appropriate to develop and use.
3. For each aid you have identified, decide how you will design it.
4. For each aid you have identified, decide on the method you will use to display it and how you will reference it during the speech.
You can complete this activity online with Speech Builder Express, download a Presentational Aids Planning Chart to help you organize your aids, and, if requested, e-mail your completed activity to your instructor. Go to the CourseMate for SPEAK at to access Action Step Activity 5A.
Activity 9.2
Using Presentational Aids to Communicate Statistics
Purpose: To give you the opportunity to practically apply your knowledge on using visual aids to effectively communicate numbers and statistics.
Instructions: Locate an article on InfoTrac College Edition or from another source that presents numerical data. If you wish, look for data that will be relevant to your speech. If you are unsure of where to look or what to look for, check out one of these two InfoTrac articles: “Women in the legislature: Numbers inch up nationwide” or “The Father, the son & the holy numbers” (this cover story from Sport magazine reviews the statistics on Barry Sanders’ football career).
After having located an article or resource that presents numerical data, select the data that you would like to present in visual form. The next step is to select the type of visual which is most appropriate for displaying the information (review the text for guidelines). Using PowerPoint (or comparable presentation software), arrange the information in visual form (for example, a chart, bar or line graph, or word chart). Print either a slide or transparency, reviewing the text for layout and presentation guidelines.
When you have finished preparing your visual aid, exchange it with a peer reviewer from your class. Use the evaluation form at the end of this chapter to provide each other with feedback on your visual aid (this form can also be used to analyze a class speaker’s use of visual aids).
Activity 9.3
For a Song and a Dance
Purpose: To give you practical knowledge about visual aids.
Instructions: It is often helpful to learn from experts the “insiders’ tips” on a subject.
Visit the following website and read how the article teaches one to add videos and music to PowerPoint presentations.
Try adding a song and try adding a video to a PowerPoint presentation that you create for this activity.
1. Were you able to add a video? Did you find the process to be difficult or relatively easy? Explain.
2. Were you able to add a song? Did you find this process to be difficult or relatively easy? Explain.
Activity 9.4
Developing Good Presentational Aid Habits
Purpose: To apply the knowledge discussed in chapter 9 about the effective use of presentational aids.
Instructions: Prepare a one-page handout on “Mistakes to avoid when using presentational aids.” The audience for this handout is your speech class. Your handout should emphasize your main points, organize your information so that it is visually pleasing, and reflect knowledge of the concepts discussed in this chapter.
It is suggested that you review the chapter first to select what you feel is the most important and relevant material. Then, use the section of Chapter 9 entitled “Preparing Effective Presentational Aids” to plan and revise the specific details of your handout.
Activity 9.5
Noticing Presentational Aids
Purpose: To help you see how presentational aids are used in the “real world” and let you apply those principles to your own work.
Instructions: Find five visual images used to communicate a message that you find visually appealing. They can come from billboards, magazines, newspapers, whatever, as long as it is a still image and its purpose is to help convey information. Then, answer the following questions.
1. What is it about this image that attracts your attention? What about this image is appealing to you?
a. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
d. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
e. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. How does this image convey its message?
a. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
d. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
e. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. What principles of preparation from your textbook does the image follow? Which does it ignore?
a. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
d. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
e. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
4. Which principles of design can you take from this image to apply to your own visual aids?
a. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
d. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
e. ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Activity 9.6
Training to Use Microsoft( PowerPoint(
Purpose: To provide you with the opportunity to learn the basics of Microsoft PowerPoint
Instructions: The University of Rhode Island Department of Computer Science has developed a tutorial for teaching Microsoft PowerPoint. This tutorial is available for the public to use. Go to the following web address:
Select the first lesson.
1. What is PowerPoint?
2. List 3 things that you can do with PowerPoint.
1. __________________________________________
2. __________________________________________
3. __________________________________________
You are encouraged to complete any or all of the tutorials if you have the time. Use this page to jot any additional main notes about Microsoft PowerPoint.
Activity 9.7
InfoTrac Activity: Using Color with Your Presentational Aids
Purpose: To learn more about the ways in which presenters can use color to increase the impact of their message.
Instructions: Locate and read the article “Envisioning persuasion: Painting the picture for the jury” by Rodney Jew and Martin Q. Peterson. (Hint: Use “visual communication technique” as your search term.)
1. List at least three statistics or facts presented in this article that argue for the use of visual images and color.
2. In less than two sentences, summarize the advice that this article gives about the use of visual images in the “Select” and “Compare” phases of the message.
3. List and briefly describe the three “guideposts” for using visuals that are offered by this article.
a.
b.
c.
4. What suggestions does this article offer for using the speaker as a visual aid?
5. This article discusses color symbolism and preferences at length. Identify information that you found surprising or interesting.
6. Write a two-to-three sentence action plan for applying material from this article to your next speech.
Presentational Aid Assessment Checklist
| |Excellent |Good |Competent |Poor |
|Type of visual is well-suited to information and | | | | |
|audience | | | | |
|All information is clearly labeled | | | | |
|Size of type face is appropriate | | | | |
|Appearance of type face is visually pleasing | | | | |
|Visual presents an appropriate amount of | | | | |
|information and is not cluttered with details | | | | |
|Information is presented in a way that is easily | | | | |
|and quickly grasped | | | | |
|Layout of information uses white space | | | | |
|effectively | | | | |
|Layout of information uses special font qualities| | | | |
|effectively (boldface, underlining, etc.) | | | | |
|Color, if used, enhances the impact of the visual| | | | |
|General impression of the visual | | | | |
Activity 9.8
Impromptu Speech Activity
Form groups of four or five people. Your instructor will provide you with three sample visual aids that might be used in a speech. Based on the criteria and guidelines you learned in this chapter, evaluate each visual aid and select the best one. At your instructor’s request, one member of each team should go to the front of the room and give a two- to three-minute speech that makes a case for why the visual aid you selected is the best of the three. After all groups have made their presentations, vote as a class on the best one and discuss why.
Activity 9.9
Assessment Activity
Locate a visual, audio, and audiovisual aid example that you believe represents an effective and ineffective presentational aid based on the information and guidelines offered in this chapter. Prepare a two- to three-page paper explaining why you assessed them as you did.
Activity 9.10
Sample Speech Analysis
Watch and analyze Elizabeth’s speech “The Three C’s of Down Syndrome,” which is available at and answer the following questions.
1. What language device did Elizabeth use at the beginning of her speech to help her audience remember her ideas?
2. How effective was Elizabeth’s use of visual aids in her speech?
3. How did Elizabeth establish credibility during her speech?
Activity 9.11
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
Ethics, Free Speech, and Images
At the University of Notre Dame’s 2009 commencement ceremony, President Barack Obama received an honorary law degree from the university and gave the commencement speech. In the days before and while he spoke, protests erupted on the campus and in the community of this Catholic university regarding his positions on abortion and embryonic stem cell research. Some protesters chose to use visual aids that offended some members of the community. For example, some protesters drove trucks that were covered with bloody anti-abortion images through neighborhoods. Others pushed carriages with baby dolls drenched in fake blood. These protesters maintained that they were exercising their right to free speech. But some community members were distressed because they were unable to protect their children and grandchildren from seeing the images. One concerned grandmother said, “[My granddaughter] saw one of the pictures. She’s three and a half. I didn’t get a chance to protect her. I didn’t get a chance for her not to see it.”
1. Setting aside your personal beliefs regarding abortion for a moment, what if any ethical principles do these protesters violate with these images? Explain your reasoning.
2. Given that the Catholic Church is pro-life and sees abortion as sin, was it ethical for the school’s administration to invite a pro-choice person to speak at commencement? Defend your answer by reviewing each of the ethical principles explaining why it was or was not violated.
3. Because the U.S. Constitution guarantees the right to free speech, the protesters were within their constitutional rights. So how do you reconcile what is ethical with what is legal? Explain.
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following is an example of using yourself as a presentational aid?
a. Demonstrating the steps of the fox-trot for a speech on dancing
b. Wearing a Derek Jeter shirt for a speech on the New York Yankees
c. Indicating through gestures the baseball signs for “hit and run” for a speech on base running strategy
d. All of the above
2. Which kind of material would be best suited for presentation in a pie graph?
a. The change in the American divorce rate from 1990-1998
b. The make-up of this year’s freshman class at Yale University, according to major
c. The three major points being discussed in a speech on preventing school shootings
d. The total rushing yards accumulated in 2010 for each of the thirty-two teams in the National Football League
3. Which kind of material would be best suited for presentation in a line graph?
a. The change in the American divorce rate from 1990-1998
b. The make-up of this year’s freshman class at Yale University, according to major
c. The three major points being discussed in a speech on preventing school shootings
d. The total rushing yards accumulated in 2010 for each of the thirty-two teams in the National Football League
4. Visual aids include all of the following except
a. actual objects.
b. maps.
c. the aromas of foods.
d. diagrams.
5. Preparing effective presentational aids includes all of these steps except
a. using photos in their natural sizes in order to avoid distortion.
b. using consistent print style.
c. adding visual symbols to add interest.
d. using color strategically.
6. The best visual aid for demonstrating where to change the oil on a car would be
a. an object.
b. a chart.
c. a model.
d. a simple drawing.
7. The best visual aid to assist a speech on a civil war battle would be
a. an object.
b. a map.
c. a model.
d. a word chart.
8. When using color in your presentational aid, you should
a. use different background colors to enhance audience interest.
b. be consistent in using the same colors when showing differences and similarities.
c. use red and green together for maximum contrast.
d. use dark colors for lettering on white backgrounds.
9. When using a presentational aid in your speech, you should do all of the following except
a. show your presentational aid the entire time you are speaking for maximum benefit.
b. talk to the audience, not the presentational aid.
c. avoid passing objects around while you are speaking.
d. display the presentational aides so all audience members can see them.
10. Guidelines for using color in a presentational aid include all of the following except
a. use the same color background for each aid.
b. use no more than four colors.
c. use black or blue for lettering.
d. use contrasting colors.
True/False
11. _____ Experts recommend that handouts be distributed before a speech begins so that the audience can preview the content.
12. _____ A bar graph and a line graph serve the same functions.
13. _____ An audiovisual aid enhances the verbal message by simply adding sound.
14. _____ When using an object as a visual aid, you should avoid passing it around the audience.
15. _____ LCD projectors are ideal for displaying computerized slide shows.
Essay
16. Imagine that you are asked to prepare a speech for your class audience on the highlights of your hometown. Suggest at least one presentational aid that you would use to more effectively communicate your message. Also, describe how and why you selected the visual(s) that you did and how you would present the visual(s) in the context of your speech.
17. Discuss the guidelines provided in the textbook for using presentational aids during your speech. Why do you think the authors find these guidelines so important?
Chapter 10
language and oral style
Learning Outcomes
1. How does oral style differ from written style?
2. How can you word your speech to avoid offending some listeners?
3. What should you do to make sure your language and style is appropriate?
4. What should you consider to make sure your word choices will be interpreted accurately by your audience?
5. What can you do to make sure your message is clear?
6. What are some strategies you can employ to make your ideas vivid?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
Speaking notes - ______________________________________________________________.
I. Oral Style - Oral style is __________________________________________________.
A. The oral style is _____ formal than everyday talk. The degree of formality is based on the _________ _________.
B. There are four primary characteristics that distinguish an effective _________from an effective _________.
1. An effective oral style __________________________________________.
2. An effective oral style __________________________________________.
3. An effective oral style __________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________.
4. An effective oral style __________________________________________.
II. Speaking Appropriately – Speaking appropriately means ______________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ___________________________.
The term verbal immediacy describes ______________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________.
A. Use “We” Language - “We” language is ______________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________.
B. Use Bias-Free Language - Bias-free language demonstrates ________________ _________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________. Bias-free language avoids:
1. Generic language uses __________________________________________ ___________________________.
2. Nonparallel language is _________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________.
a. _________is the addition of sex, race, age, or other group designations to a description. It is inappropriate because you trivialize the person’s role by introducing an irrelevant characteristic.
b. _________ ___________ is when we emphasize one person’s relationship to another when that relationship is irrelevant to the point.
C. Adapt to Cultural Diversity. When you are a member of a cultural group that operates differently from that of the majority of your audience members, you need to ______________________________________________________.
D. Avoid Offensive Humor. Some jokes may not be intended to be offensive, but if some listeners are offended, you will have lost __________________. Being inclusive means ___________________________.
E. Avoid _________and _________.
F. Shun Hate Speech. Hate speech is ____________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________.
III. Speaking Accurately. Using accurate language means _________________________ ____________.
A. Speaking accurately is not that simple.
1. Language is _________.
2. We are not born _________ a language; we must _________ it.
3. Although every language has a system of _________and _________, each utterance of a word is a _____________.
4. Even though two people may know the same words, they may _________ the _________ of the words differently.
B. Using accurate language is crucial to effective speaking because it helps you to be _________, clearly understood.
C. Denotation - Denotation refers to ____________________________________ _____________________________________________ (dictionary definition).
1. Denotation reflects _______and ______ practices in the language community.
2. Meaning may vary depending on the _________, the position of a word in a sentence and its relationship to the other words around it, in which the word is used.
D. Connotation - Connotation refers to ____________________________________ __________________________________________________________________.
1. Our perception of a word’s _________ may be even more important than its _________ in how we interpret the meaning of the word.
2. Connotations give _________ power to words, so much so that people will even fight and die for them.
E. Dialect. Dialect is _________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________.
1. If your audience doesn’t share the dialect you normally speak, using it during your speeches can _____________________________________________.
2. Because most audiences are diverse, the best way to ensure being understood by all and conveying positive ethos is to use Standard English—_________ ______________________________________________________________.
IV. Speaking Clearly. Speaking clearly _________ ambiguity and audience confusion when we speak.
A. Using Specific Language. Specific language ____________________________ _________________________________________________________________.
1. Choosing specific language is easier when you have a __________________ __________________. Identify below three methods for increasing vocabulary.
a. Increase vocabulary by _______________________________________.
b. Increase vocabulary by _______________________________________ __________________________________________________________.
c. Increase vocabulary by _______________________________________.
2. During practice sessions, you will want to _________ _________ using specific words that ___________________________.
3. Don’t substitute _________and _________ _________ with pompous, affected or stilted vocabulary; there’s no need to speak _________. Use a more difficult word only when it is _______________________________.
B. Choose Familiar Terms
1. Avoid the use of jargon and slang unless ___________________________ __________________ and ______________________________________.
a. Jargon refers to ___________________________________________ ________________________________________________________.
b. Slang refers to ____________________________________________ ________________________________________________________.
2. Overusing and misusing ___________ and ___________ can also hinder clarity. Even if you think the ___________ or ___________ is a common one, always define it the first time you use it in the speech.
C. Provide Details and Examples. Clarity can be achieved by __________________ _________________________________________________________________.
D. Limit Vocalized Pauses. Vocalized pauses are ___________________________ _________________________________________________________________.
V. Speaking Vividly – Speaking vividly is one effective way to ____________________ and ___________________________. Vivid language is ________________________ __________________.
A. Use Sensory Language - Sensory language is ___________________________ ___________________________. To develop vivid sensory language, consider how you can re-create what something, someone or someplace ______, ______, ______, ______, or ________.
B. Use Rhetorical Figures and Structures of Speech - ________________________ make striking comparisons between things that are not obviously alike, and _______________________ combine ideas in a particular way.
1. A simile is ____________________________________________________. Similes can be effective because ___________________________________.
2. A metaphor is _________________________________________________ ___________________________. Metaphors can be effective because ____ ____________________________________.
3. An analogy is __________________. Analogies can be effective for ______ ____________________________________.
4. Alliteration is _________________________________________________ __________________. Used sparingly, alliteration can ________________ and ___________________________.
5. Assonance is __________________________________________________.
6. Onomatopoeia is ______________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________.
7. Personification ________________________________________________.
8. Repetition is __________________________________________________.
9. Antithesis is __________________________________________________ ____________________________________.
Key Terms
speaking notes
oral style
speaking appropriately
verbal immediacy
“we” language
bias-free language
generic language
nonparallel language
marking
irrelevant association
hate speech
accurate language
intelligible
denotation
context
connotation
dialect
Standard English
specific language
precise words
jargon
slang
vocalized pause
vivid language
sensory language
rhetorical figures of speech
rhetorical structures of speech
simile
metaphor
analogy
alliteration
assonance
onomatopoeia
personification
repetition
antithesis
Activities
Activity 10.1
Developing Effective Language Strategies
Purpose: To apply the chapter’s information about effective language to the analysis of an actual speech.
Instructions: Locate the transcript of a sample speech that you find particularly effective in its wording and language. Particularly good samples to work with can be found at:
or
A good example is George Graham Vest’s “Tribute to the Dog.” Once you have identified the speech you wish to work with, use it to complete the following worksheet.
1. How would you characterize the oral style of this speech?
2. Identify a word or phrase used in this speech which is particularly effective due to the connotations it evokes.
3. Locate a word or phrase or sentence that is particularly effective due to its use of specific words.
4. Locate a word or phrase or sentence that is particularly effective due to the use of concrete words and sensory language.
5. Locate a word or phrase or sentence that is particularly effective due to the precision of the words used.
6. Locate a word or phrase or sentence that uses a word you are not familiar with or which you think others in the audience might be unfamiliar with.
7. In your opinion, was the use of this unfamiliar word justified? Why or why not?
8. Locate a word or phrase or sentence that is particularly effective due to the use of a metaphor.
9. Locate a word or phrase or sentence that is particularly effective due to the use of a simile.
10. Locate a portion of this speech that is particularly effective due to its use of repetition.
11. Locate an instance of a specific and active verb that contributes to the effectiveness of this speech.
12. Locate an internal or a sectional transition in this speech which contributes to the effectiveness of the communication.
13. In your opinion, what one or two language resources/effects best explains the impact of this speech’s wording?
Activity 10.2
Considering the Use of Sensitive Language
Purpose: To allow you to compare various reactions to sensitive language.
Instructions: Complete the following worksheet, then discuss your answers in groups of two to four students. As you compare responses to this worksheet, attempt to describe not only what you answered, but also why you responded as you did. (You may wish to review the chapter before completing this activity)
For each of the following sample sentences, choose whether or not you would feel comfortable using these phrasings in a speech given to your class. If you would not use the sentence as worded, rewrite it in a form that you find more acceptable.
1. All men are created equal.
2. This was a retarded decision that cost the company millions.
3. Many scherzos have real problems in communicating clearly with others.
4. When a teacher gives an assignment, he should also provide a handout detailing the requirements.
5. The blonde and blue-eyed lawyer argued her side of the case with great intensity.
6. At garage sales and flea markets, the practice of “jawing down” the price of items is common.
7. When my friends and I go out to eat, we find that the easiest way to settle the bill is to simply go Dutch treat.
8. A student should be certain that they understand the total financial aid package before committing to any school.
9. The perky secretary is always in early, with coffee ready for all the staff.
10. If a businessman wants to succeed in this economy, he must have a college degree.
11. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is one of the only Negroes to be honored with a national holiday in America.
12. Last week’s newspaper reported that Orientals are over-represented in national advertising.
13. In order for a student to succeed at this college, he/she must study at least ten hours a week.
14. Supply a sentence or word or phrasing which you have heard someone else use which you found inappropriate or insensitive:
15. After discussing your responses with others in your class, what insights have you gained about sensitivity and language choices?
Activity 10.3
InfoTrac Activity: Using Inclusive Language
Purpose: To help you to consider the practical benefits of attending to language sensitivity issues.
Instructions: Locate and read “Effects of inclusive vs. exclusive language on evaluations of the counselor” by Mark E. Johnson and Sean Dowling-Guyer. (Hint: Use “inclusive language” as your search term.) The social science methodology that is described in this article may be difficult to follow; focus your reading on the introduction and discussion sections of the text.
1. How does this article explain the difference between inclusive and exclusive language?
2. According to previous research, who is more likely to use inclusive language?
3. According to previous research, who is more likely to use exclusive language?
4. What has previous research found to be true about the generic use of “he”?
5. In previous studies that rated how audiences’ views of speakers were shaped by speakers’ use of inclusive/exclusive language, what were the findings?
6. What were the findings of this study as to how listeners rated speakers, based upon speakers’ use of inclusive/exclusive language?
7. What might explain the difference in the findings of this research on counselors, as compared to the previous research on preachers?
8. What does this research study suggest about listeners’ attitudes and perceptions that you can use in preparing your own speeches?
9. Other research studies have documented strong resistance to the use of inclusive language, especially among college students (see the InfoTrac College Edition article “The Lawyer, the Baby-sitter, and the Student” by Diana K. Ivy et. all.). If you do not choose to use inclusive language, what reasons can you give to explain your decision?
Activity 10.4
InfoTrac Activity: Using Language More Effectively
Purpose: To provide you with practical suggestions for using language more effectively.
Instructions: Locate and read “Speak with style and watch the impact” by Carl Wayne Hensley. (Hint: Use the author’s full name as your search term.)
1. How does Hensley characterize the speaking style of modern America?
2. Hensley’s first suggestion for improving the style of speeches is “Guard against language homicide.” What metaphors does Hensley use to develop this idea and to give listeners a more specific sense of his meaning?
3. List and briefly describe what you see as the most useful advice Hensley provides as to how to avoid language homicide.
4. Hensley’s second suggestion for improving speaking style is “Choose correct words and correct grammar.” Review Hensley’s examples of commonly misused language. Which of these misuses do you struggle with?
5. The text does not include a discussion of correctness in its examination of using language effectively. In your opinion, is Hensley overly picky in his insistence on correct grammar?
6. Hensley’s third suggestion is to use sensory language. Review liner notes of your CD cases of run a search on the Internet to identify a song lyric that applies Hensley’s advice.
7. Hensley’s fourth suggestion is to develop lively figures of speech, and he focuses on five specific uses of figurative language. Again, working with song lyrics, identify examples of at least three of these uses of language:
Metaphor:
_______________________________________________________________________
Simile:
_______________________________________________________________________
Rhetorical questions:
_______________________________________________________________________
Alliteration:
_______________________________________________________________________
Antithesis:
_______________________________________________________________________
8. What suggestions from Hensley’s speech would you be most likely to use in improving your own speaking style? Provide an example that demonstrates your use of this advice.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Activity 10.5
Are We Using Precise Language?
Purpose: To give you insights into precise language
Instructions: Visit the website:
and read the article that focuses on the word “fact.”
1. Do you agree with the author about the use of the word “fact?”
2. Do you use the word “fact” when something is not known conclusively?
3. Do you know people who use the work “fact” when they really mean something else?
4. Why do you think the use of precise language can enhance your credibility as a speaker?
Activity 10.6
Building Your Speaking Vocabulary
Purpose: To help you build your speaking vocabulary by noticing vivid language.
Instructions: Watch television! Take the following steps.
1. Watch a one hour segment of television, preferably two 30-minute shows as this will allow you to hear the wording of two different writers.
2. Write down any one-liners that you find particularly interesting, engaging, or vivid.
a. In “real life” what would the line have probably been?
______________________________________________________________
b. How could you have said the same thing differently?
______________________________________________________________
c. Is there a metaphor or simile that could have been used?
______________________________________________________________
d. Look for a way to use the line, or something similar in conversation or in a public speaking environment within the next day or two.
______________________________________________________________
3. Write down any words that stick out to you as interesting, engaging, or vivid.
a. Why did this word stand out for you?
______________________________________________________________
b. Is this word specific, concrete, and precise?
______________________________________________________________
c. What would have been a better word?
______________________________________________________________
d. In “real life” what word would probably have been used?
______________________________________________________________
e. Look for a way to use the word in conversation or in a public speaking environment within the next day or two.
______________________________________________________________
Activity 10.7
Vocabulary Exercises
Purpose: To help you build your speaking vocabulary.
Instructions: Visit the following website and read the information on the site:
1. How can knowing word roots, prefixes, and suffixes help you to improve your overall vocabulary?
2. Try some of the quizzes at the end of the website.
a. How did you do on the quizzes?
b. What did you learn from these quizzes?
Activity 10.8
Impromptu Speech Activity
Draw a nonsensical word from a stack of cards created by your instructor (e.g., extrumpulate, platanginous, mangrid, argorsical). Develop your own definition for this word. Then, prepare and deliver a two- to three-minute impromptu speech explaining the meaning of the word using specific language, familiar terms, details, and examples.
Activity 10.9
Assessment Activity
Go online to the American Rhetoric: Top 100 Speeches website at . Select and listen to one of the speeches posted there. As you listen, take notes regarding the speaker’s vivid language choices (sensory language and rhetorical figures and structures of speech). To what degree does the use of them pique your interest and add to the memorability of the message? Explain.
Activity 10.10
Sample Speech Analysis
Watch and analyze Hilary’s speech “Shakespeare,” which is available at , and answer the following questions.
1. Did Hillary give the audience a reason to listen to her speech? Did she use devices such as language or compelling examples to capture audience attention? Did she cite credible sources?
2. Does Hillary seem confident? Is she fluent? Does she vary her voice for emphasis? Are her gestures and facial expressions appropriate?
3. Were her visual aids well suited to the information and the audience? Did she use her visual aids effectively?
Activity 10.11
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
Insensitive Humor
On April 21, 2010, National Security Advisor James L. Jones opened his speech at the Washington Institute for Near East Policy—a pro-Israel think tank—with a joke. Many in the largely Jewish crowd laughed, while others claimed that it demonstrated a lack of sensitivity. Here’s the joke:
A member of the Taliban who gets separated from his fighting party stumbles upon a shack, which it turns out is a little store owned by a Jewish merchant.
“I need water,” the Taliban fighter says to the merchant. “Get me some water.”
“I’m sorry I don’t have any water, but would you like to buy a tie?” the merchant says. “We have a nice sale of ties today.”
The Taliban warrior goes on a tirade against the merchant, against Jews, about Israel. “I need water; you try to sell me ties. You people don’t get it.”
“Well, I’m sorry, I don’t have water for you,” the merchant says. “I forgive you for all of the insults you’ve levied against me, my family, my country. But I will help you out.”
The merchant steers the Taliban toward a restaurant two miles away.
“They have all the water you’ll need,” the merchant says.
The Taliban fighter walks toward the restaurant, then returns about an hour later.
“Your brother tells me I need a tie to get in the restaurant,” he says.
Ba-dum-bum.
ABC Senior White House Correspondent Jake Tapper called it the worst kind of joke Jones could have told in trying to reach out to the Jewish community. A Jewish member of Congress responded by saying ABC News should “lighten up.” General Jones later offered this statement regarding his comments: “I wish that I had not made this off the cuff joke at the top of my remarks, and I apologize to anyone who was offended by it. It also distracted from the larger message I carried that day: that the United States’ commitment to Israel’s security is sacrosanct.”
1. What ethical communication principles do you believe James Jones adhered to and violated in telling this joke?
2. Would your answer change if he had been speaking to an audience not made up primarily of Jewish individuals? Why or why not?
3. How would you evaluate Jones’s apology in terms of ethical communication and why?
4. What will you do regarding cultural sensitivity and humor in your speeches and why?
Source:
“Anti-Defamation League: National Security Adviser Jones told “inappropriate, stereotypic” joke about Jewish merchant” (26 April 2010). . Retrieved online from
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. “She’s as smart as a whip” is an example of
a. a metaphor.
b. the passive voice.
c. a simile.
d. all of the above.
2. One of the key differences between an oral style and a written style is that
a. an oral style tends toward shorter sentences and familiar language.
b. the oral style uses more figurative language.
c. the written style is more formal.
d. all of the above.
3. Rachel wants to reduce the psychological distance between her and her audience. In order to do this, she will want to use language that contributes to
a. “You” language.
b. “I” language.
c. markers.
d. verbal immediacy.
4. “My flustered, frantic friends didn’t know what to do” is an example of
a. analogy.
b. assonance.
c. onomatopoeia.
d. alliteration.
5. Which of the following is NOT a strategy for developing verbal immediacy?
a. Using “we” language
b. Including offensive humor
c. Using bias-free language
d. All of the above
6. The dictionary meaning of a word is its _______________ meaning.
a. connotative
b. concrete
c. denotative
d. metaphorical
7. The feelings or values we associate with a word is its _______________ meaning.
a. connotative
b. sensory
c. denotative
d. metaphorical
8. All of the following are types of language that shows no concern for fairness and respect to others except
a. generic language.
b. marking.
c. irrelevant association.
d. bias-free language.
9. Using accurate language is crucial to effective speaking because it helps you be _________________ or clearly understood.
a. biased
b. bntelligible
c. denotative
d. connotative
10. Which of the following does not help make your speech more vivid?
a. Using sensory language
b. Using alliteration
c. Using creative figures and constructions of speech
d. Using curse words
True/False
11. _____ As a general rule of thumb, when choosing between two words, a speaker should use the word that is more difficult and learned so as to impress the audience with his or her credibility.
12. _____ The words slim, lean, gaunt, and skeletal all have the same connotative meanings.
13. _____ As a general rule of thumb, speakers should use longer rather than shorter sentences so as to develop ideas as fully and completely as possible.
14. _____ “My brother is up to his ears in alligators” is an example of a metaphorical use of language.
15. _____ A regional or ethnic variety of a language is called a dialectic.
Essay
16. Write a paragraph describing your hometown. In the paragraph, provide an example of a simile, a metaphor, and an analogy. Underline and label each example in this paragraph.
In a separate paragraph, relate your description to an audience (e.g., the class) by developing verbal immediacy, sensory language, and clarity. Then, discuss how your revisions improve your messages for oral delivery.
17. Using examples from your own and your friends’ vocabularies, discuss the difference between denotation and connotation, paying particular attention to how it affects understanding both within your group of friends and with those outside of it.
Chapter 11
Practicing Delivery
Learning Outcomes
1. What are the characteristics of effective delivery?
2. What can you do to use your voice effectively as you deliver your speech?
3. What can you do to use your body effectively as you deliver your speech?
4. Why and how should you rehearse your speech?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
I. Characteristics of an Effective Delivery Style. Delivery is _______________________ ____________________________________________________________. Nonverbal communication _________________________________________________________.
A. Use a __________ ______ so your audience feels you are talking with them, not at them. The hallmark of conversational tone is ____________, the ability to sound natural as you speak.
B. Be __________, lively, energetic, enthusiastic, and dynamic. The secret is to focus on conveying the passion you feel about your topic through your voice and body.
II. Effective Use of Voice – Your voice is _____________________________________. Focus on not only _____ you say but also on ____ you sound as you say it.
A. Characteristics of Voice – There are four major characteristics of voice.
1. ______ is the highness or lowness of the sounds produced in your larynx by the size and vibration of your vocal cords.
2. ______ is how loudly or softly you speak.
3. ______ is the speed at which you talk. Most people speak between 130 and 180 words per minute.
4. ______ is the tone or timbre of your voice and what distinguishes it from the voices of others.
B. Speak Intelligibly – To be intelligible means ____________________________.
1. Pitch that doesn’t ________ often ________ intelligibility.
2. Appropriate ________ is a key to intelligibility.
3. The rate at which you speak can __________________________________.
4. ____________ is using the tongue, palate, teeth, jaw movement, and lips to shape vocalized sounds that combine to produce a word. ____________ can affect how intelligible your message is.
5. Accent is _____________________________________________________ ________. If your accent is very different from that of most of your audience, practice pronouncing key words so that ___________________, speak slowly to ____________________________________________________, and consider using visual aids to reinforce ________, ________, and ________ ________.
C. Use Vocal Expressiveness – You achieve vocal expressiveness by ___________ _________________________________________________________________.
1. Actual or near ________, a voice in which the pitch, volume, and rate remain constant, with no word, idea, or sentence differing significantly from any other, diminishes the chances of audience understanding.
2. Use ________, emphasis placed on certain words by speaking them more loudly than the rest of the sentence, to shape your meaning.
3. ________, moments of silence strategically placed to enhance meaning, can also mark important ideas.
III. Effective Use of the Body – How you use your body contributes to how conversational and animated your audience ________ you to be.
A. ____________ is looking directly at the people to whom you are speaking.
1. You should look at your audience at least ____ percent of the time.
2. Maintaining eye contact is important for several reasons:
a. Maintaining eye contact helps audiences __________ on the speech.
b. Maintaining eye contact bolsters _____. Be aware of cultural differences to determine ___________________________________.
c. Maintaining eye contact helps you gauge audience _________ to your ideas.
3. When speaking to large audiences of ___________, you must create a ______ of looking listeners in the eye even though you actually cannot. This process is called audience contact.
B. Facial Expressions - Facial expressions are ______________________________ ___________________________ (bolstering _____). They can help animate your speech (bolstering _______). When speaking, you should be natural and appear to spontaneously reflect what you are saying and how you feel about it.
C. Gestures - Gestures, the movements of your _____, _____, and _______, can help _______________ and _______________. Effective gestures must appear __________ and ________ even though they are carefully _______ and ________.
D. Movement - Movement refers to _______________________________________ ________. During your speech, it is important to engage only in motivated movement, ____________________________, such as emphasizing an important idea, referencing a presentational aid, or clarifying macrostructure.
E. Posture - Posture refers to ___________________________________________.
F. Poise - Poise is ____________________________________________________ ________________________.
G. Appearance - Appearance, ______________________, matters; studies show that a ______ ________ and ____________ appearance sends important messages about a speaker’s commitment to the topic and occasion, as well as the speaker’s credibility. Identify the following three guidelines to help you decide how to dress for your speech:
1. ____________________________________________________________.
2. ____________________________________________________________.
3. __________________; you want your audience to focus on your message, so your appearance should be neutral, not distracting.
IV. Delivery Methods
A. Impromptu Speeches - An impromptu speech is _______________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________.
B. Scripted Speeches – A scripted speech is _____________________________ _______________________________________________________________.
C. Extemporaneous Speeches – An extemporaneous speech is _____________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________.
V. Rehearsal – Rehearsing is ____________________________________________ __________________________.
A. Preparing Speaking Notes - Speaking notes are _________________________ ________________, plus hard-to-remember information such as __________ and __________, as well as ____________ designed to trigger memory.
1. The best notes contain the _________ words possible written in lettering ________ enough to be seen instantly at a distance.
2. To develop notes, begin by reducing your ______________ to an abbreviated outline of ___________ and ________.
3. The act of compiling speaking notes _____________________________ and ________________________________________.
4. Notes don’t include all the _______________ __________.
5. During __________ _________, use your actual speech notes.
B. Handing Presentational Aids. – Identify the following guidelines for handling presentational aids.
1. _____________________________________________________________.
2. _____________________________________________________________.
3. _____________________________________________________________.
4. _____________________________________________________________.
5. _____________________________________________________________.
6. _____________________________________________________________.
C. Rehearsing and Refining Delivery.
1. First rehearsal should include the following steps.
a. _________________________________________________________.
b. _________________________________________________________.
c. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________.
d. _________________________________________________________.
e. _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________.
f. _________________________________________________________.
2. __________ your first practice to make any necessary changes before your second rehearsal.
3. Second practice. _________________________.
4. Additional rehearsals to further refine your delivery. For beginners, at least _______ rehearsal sessions are recommended.
VI. Adapting to Your Audience as You Give Your Speech: The Rhetorical Situation – Identify the following six tips for adapting to your audience.
A. ___________________________________________.
B. ___________________________________________.
C. ___________________________________________.
D. ___________________________________________.
E. ___________________________________________.
F. ___________________________________________.
Key Terms
delivery
nonverbal communication
conversational style
spontaneity
animated delivery
voice
pitch
volume
rate
quality
intelligible
articulation
pronunciation
accent
vocal expressiveness
monotone
stress
pauses
eye contact
audience contact
facial expression
gestures
movement
motivated movement
posture
poise
appearance
impromptu speech
scripted speech
extemporaneous speech
rehearsing
speaking notes
Activities
Activity 11.1
Practicing with Vocal Variations
Purpose: To give you practice at experimenting with rate of speech and vocal expressiveness while delivering a speech.
Instructions: In groups of two or three, complete the following exercises. (You will need a stopwatch or a watch with a sweep second hand for the timed exercises.)
1. Have each group member read a set of sentences, varying the emphasis according to the bold-faced words. After each sentence, group members should give feedback as to how they interpret the sentence.
Give me five dollars, please. What are you looking at? I just love this college.
Give me five dollars, please. What are you looking at? I just love this college.
Give me five dollars, please. What are you looking at? I just love this college.
Give me five dollars, please. What are you looking at? I just love this college.
Give me five dollars, please. What are you looking at? I just love this college.
2. Have each group member read the following passage three times: first, at the speaker’s normal rate of speed; second, as slowly as possible, while remaining “normal”; and third, as rapidly as possible, while remaining “normal.” Have another group member time the three readings. (This speech, delivered over one hundred years ago, uses male pronouns to refer to both genders. You are invited to revise the speech to make the language more inclusive. You are also encouraged to discuss the effects of this non-inclusive language if it were used today.)
The one absolutely unselfish friend that man can have in this selfish world, the one that never deserts him, the one that never proves ungrateful or treacherous, is his dog. A man's dog stands by him in prosperity and poverty, in health and in sickness. He will sleep on the cold ground when the wintry winds blow and the snow drives fiercely, if only to be near his master's side. He will kiss the hand that has no food to offer, he will lick the wounds and sores that come in encounters with the roughness of the world. He guards the sleep of his pauper master as if he were a prince. When all other friends desert, he remains. When riches take wing, and reputation falls to pieces, he is as constant in his love as the sun in its journey through the heavens. If fortune drives his master forth, an outcast in the world, friendless and homeless, the faithful dog asks no higher privilege than that of accompanying him, to guard him against danger, to fight against his enemies.
– Senator George Graham Vest, speaking to a jury about Old Drum, a dog shot in 1869. Johnson County Circuit Court, Warrensburg, Missouri.
3. This excerpt of Vest’s 19th century jury speech contains 180 words. For each group member, calculate the number of words spoken per minute.
4. What is the normal rate of speed for each group member?
5. What is the range of speed for each group member?
6. What has each group member learned about his or her personal rate of speech, as compared to normal speech rates?
7. Note at least three different ways of providing emphasis in the reading of this tribute to dogs. How can vocal expression add to or alter the meaning of this speech?
Activity 11.2
Fun with a Face
Purpose: This exercise is designed to familiarize you with aspects of nonverbal communication.
Instructions: Visit this website that provides a game for exploring different facial expressions:
(If you do not have Java installed, you will need to install the free program)
Try clicking some of the different options available on the right side of the screen, next to the face.
How are you able to manipulate the expressions?
Do you find these expressions to mirror real-life expressions? Explain.
Activity 11.3
Verbal Filler Exercise
Purpose: This exercise is designed to help you become aware of and eliminate verbal fillers while speaking.
Instructions: You will need to prepare a brief speech to give to a friend, classmate or the entire class. Take the following steps.
1. Give your mini-speech to your listener(s).
2. Have them count the number of verbal fillers you use. These include “um,” “er,” “uh,” “you know,” “like,” “I mean,” “well,” and even “right.” Other words that you repeat simply out of habit can become verbal fillers as well if they are not being used correctly or are being overused.
3. Discuss your verbal fillers with your designated listener.
4. Give the speech again (or another one if you choose), but this time, the listener is to raise their hand every time you use a filler. This will make you aware of the fact that you are doing it.
5. Finally, give the speech (or another one) for a third time. This time, the listener is to make an audible sound on every filler. I recommend dropping a penny into a coffee tin, but that’s not really practical! Have them clap their hands, snap their fingers, or whistle. Verbal fillers tend to happen when you are distracted, and this noise will distract you. When you learn to overcome this, and not let one filler lead to several more, you will be well on your way to fluency.
Activity 11.4
Eye Contact Exercise
Purpose: To give you practice in describing objects, places, and people.
Instructions: This is a classroom exercise. Your instructor will have to facilitate it.
1. Every one in the class should think of a story or joke they can tell, a description they can offer, an argument they can make, etc. The point is that everyone needs to be able to address the class for about 2 minutes.
2. At the beginning of each address every person in the class raises their hand. For classes larger than 25-30, you may want to limit the number.
3. As the person speaks, they are required to look at each member of the audience for 3 seconds. It is the responsibility of the audience member to count to 3 (silently!) when the speaker is looking at them. Once they get to three, they can put their hand down.
4. The job of the speaker is to have every hand in the class down by the end of their talk.
Activity 11.5
Exploring Gender and Communication
Purpose: This exercise is designed to stimulate critical thinking about the role that gender plays in human communication.
Instructions: Becky Mulvaney of the Florida Atlantic University Department of Communication has posted an article entitled “Gender differences in communication: An intercultural experience.” In her essay, Mulvaney argues that gender plays an important and essential role in human communication. Visit the following website (use the search string ‘+“gender communication”’ on Google if you have any difficulty accessing the site) at
Read Mulvaney’s article (focus on the first part of the article), and then complete the following study questions:
1. Communication is epistemic. “Epistemic” describes how we come to ___________________ things about ourselves, other people, and the world. Mulvaney argues that human communication serves this function. Briefly discuss how you believe communication helps us to know and understand the world around us.
2. Communication is axiological. “Axiological” refers to values and aesthetics. Mulvaney argues that human communication is inherently ____________________ laden. Briefly discuss how you believe communication helps us to understand values.
3. Gender affects our communication behaviors because boys and girls learn different ____________________ practices. Give two examples of how gender affects human communication behaviors.
4. How do gender and culture interact and influence one another?
Activity 11.6
InfoTrac Activity: Culture and NVC:
Purpose: To give you information about the ways in which gestures and other nonverbal communications can differ from culture to culture.
Instructions: Locate and read “Thumb and Thumber” by Judith Stone. (Hint: Use “culture” and “gestures” as your search terms.)
1. According to this article, what was the original meaning of the “thumbs up” gesture as used in ancient Roman gladiatorial contests?
2. How do you typically interpret the “thumbs up” gesture?
3. Are you aware of any other interpretations of the “thumbs up” gesture?
4. What other gestures used in America are you aware of that can be misinterpreted?
5. What gestures do you or those you spend time with use regularly or with some degree of frequency?
6. Could any of these gestures be effectively integrated into a speech or presentation? In other words, what are the possible differences between gestures we use in conversation and gestures used in more formal public speaking situations?
Activity 11.7
Action Step 6, Activity 6
Rehearsing Your Speech
The goal of this activity is to rehearse your speech, analyze it, and rehearse it again. One complete rehearsal includes (a) a practice, (b) an analysis, and (c) a second practice.
1. Find a place where you can be alone to practice your speech. Follow the six points of the first rehearsal described in the text.
2. Watch and listen to the recording. Review your outline as you listen and then complete a speech evaluation checklist to see how well you presented your speech during this rehearsal. (You can find the Speech Evaluation Checklist: General Criteria on page 12 in Chapter 1, a more detailed checklist in this chapter, and checklists for informative and persuasive speeches in later chapters.)
List three specific changes you will make in your next practice session.
One:
Two:
Three:
3. Go through the six steps outlined for the first rehearsal again. Then assess: Did you achieve the goals you set for the second rehearsal?
Reevaluate the speech using the checklist and continue to practice until you are satisfied with all of your presentation.
You can complete this activity online, print copies of this rehearsal analysis sheet, see a student sample of a practice round, and, if requested, e-mail your work to your instructor. Go to CourseMate for SPEAK at to access Action Step Activity 6.
Activity 11.8
Impromptu Speech Activity
Draw a slip of paper from a container provided by your instructor. The slip of paper will identify an element we’ve discussed about effective speech preparation (identifying a topic and writing a speech goal, audience analysis and adaptation, locating and evaluating secondary research sources, types of developmental material, conducting primary research, elements of an effective macrostructure, elements of effective microstructure, constructing presentational aids, effective delivery, use of voice, use of body, delivery methods, rehearsal sessions, and so on). Prepare and present a two- to three-minute impromptu speech explaining the element with specific examples.
Activity 11.9
Sample Speech Analysis
Watch and analyze Alyssa’s speech ““College Student Volunteering and Civic Engagement,” which is available at , and answer the following questions.
1. What type of delivery was used in the “Volunteering” speech?
2. Did Alyssa use her voice effectively during her speech?
3. Did Alyssa use her body effectively during her speech?
Activity 11.10
Sample Speech Analysis
Watch and analyze Katy’s speech “Why Pi?” which is available at , and answer the following questions.
1. What type of delivery was used in the “Why Pi?” speech?
2. Did Katy use her voice effectively during her speech?
3. Did Katy use her body effectively during her speech?
Activity 11.11
Sample Speech Analysis
Watch and analyze Hans’s speech “No More Sugar,” which is available at , and answer the following questions.
1. Did Hans use his voice effectively during his speech?
2. Did he use his body effectively during his speech?
3. How effective are Hans’s visual aids?
Activity 11.12
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
Notes or Not?
During her speech at the First National Tea Party Convention in February 2010, former Alaska Governor Sarah Palin exclaimed that the Tea Party movement is “bigger than any charismatic guy with a teleprompter.” She was referring to President Barak Obama, who often uses a teleprompter to deliver scripted speeches. Later, it was revealed in visual recordings of her speech and the question-and-answer session she participated in that she had relied on a “cheat sheet” of notes written on her hand. CNN political editor Mark Preston (among others) criticized Palin as a hypocrite:
Look, the fact that she wrote on her hand isn’t really that big of a deal. We all work off of notes, certainly in television. But the fact that she was critical of President Obama and called him “that charismatic guy with the teleprompter”—and as you just saw, I looked down at my notes to give that direct quote. It’s very hard to be critical of one person when you yourself are using the same kind of aids when you’re speaking.
1. Do you agree with Preston’s assessment of Palin’s use of notes? Explain.
2. What, if any, ethical principles did Palin violate?
3. What, if any, ethical principles did the political media analysts violate in the way they covered this story?
4. Can you think of situations where the delivery method chosen for a speech might raise ethical questions or violate ethical principles? Explain.
Source:
“Palin’s ‘cheat sheet’ on hand.” . Retrieved online from
Speech Evaluation Form
Check items that were accomplished effectively.
Content
___ 1. Was the goal of the speech clear?
___ 2. Did the speaker offer breadth and depth to support each main point?
___ 3. Did the speaker have high-quality information?
___ 4. Did the speaker use a variety of kinds of developmental material?
___ 5. Were presentational aids appropriate?
___ 6. Did the speaker establish common ground and adapt the content to the audience with listener relevance links?
Macrostructure
___ 1. Did the introduction gain attention and establish credibility and listener relevance, as well as state the goal of the speech and preview the main points?
___ 2. Were the main points clear, parallel, and meaningful complete sentences?
___ 3. Did transitions lead smoothly from one point to another?
___ 4. Did the conclusion tie the speech together?
Microstructure
___ 1. Was the language appropriate?
___ 2. Was the language accurate?
___ 3. Was the language clear?
___ 4. Was the language vivid?
Delivery
___ 15. Was the speaker conversational?
___ 16. Was the speaker intelligible?
___ 17. Was the speaker vocally expressive?
___ 18. Did the speaker look directly at and throughout the audience?
___ 19. Did the speaker use appropriate facial expressions?
___ 20. Did the speaker have good posture that communicated poise and confidence?
___ 21. Were the speaker’s gestures and movement appropriate?
___ 22. Did the speaker conceal, reveal, and reference the presentational aids effectively?
Based on these criteria, evaluate the speech as (check one):
___ excellent ___ good ___ satisfactory ___ fair ___ poor
You can go to to access this checklist online under the resources for Chapter 11.
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. What type of speech is prepared and practiced in advance, even though the actual performance and wordings may vary from occasion to occasion?
a. Impromptu
b. Extemporaneous
c. Manuscript
d. Memorized
2. What is the approximate rate of speech for most people in normal conversation?
a. 30 to 80 words per minute
b. 80 to 130 words per minute
c. 130 to 180 words per minute
d. 180 to 230 words per minute
3. The breathiness, nasality, and harshness of a voice are all aspects of vocal
a. pitch.
b. volume.
c. articulation.
d. quality.
4. A typical fault of articulation for many students is
a. speaking so slowly that listeners are bored.
b. distorting sounds.
c. adding expressions such as uh, like, um, and you know.
d. all of the above.
5. Which of the following groups speaks with an accent?
a. Natives of New York City
b. Natives of London, England
c. Television and radio broadcasters
d. All of the above
6. _______________ refers to how high or low you talk.
a. Volume
b. Rate
c. Pitch
d. Quality
7. _______________refers to how loudly or softly you speak.
a. Volume
b. Rate
c. Pitch
d. Quality
8. _______________ refers to the tone, timbre, or sound of your voice.
a. Volume
b. Rate
c. Pitch
d. Quality
9. _______________ is using the tongue, palate, teeth, jaw movement, and lips to shape vocalized sounds that combine to produce a word.
a. Pronunciation
b. Accent
c. Volume
d. Articulation
10. _______________ is the form and accent of various syllables of a word.
a. Pronunciation
b. Accent
c. Volume
d. Articulation
True/False
11. _____ Vocal expressiveness affects the meaning that listeners get from words, phrases, and sentences.
12. _____ Accents are not a problem for public speakers.
13. _____ One rehearsal session of three hours is better than two rehearsal sessions of one-and-one-half hours each because speech practice is most effective when you can devote long, uninterrupted periods of time for constant repetition.
14. _____ Your appearance has only a minimal impact on the success of your speech.
15. _____ If you don’t know the answer to an audience member’s question, it is acceptable to make up a response.
Essay
16. Imagine that one of your colleagues at work has just delivered a presentation to the company. The ideas were good and well researched and the speech was clearly organized, but the delivery was completely lackluster (one of the managers even dozed off during the speech).
Your co-worker comes to you, complaining that no one at work appreciates her research and hard work. Compose a response in which you explain the importance of delivery in a speech. As well, your answer should offer at least four specific pieces of advice for improving speech delivery.
17. How it is that pauses can actually enhance meaning and mark important ideas? Discuss.
Chapter 12
Informative Speaking
Learning Outcomes
1. What is the goal of an informative speaker?
2. What are the characteristics of effective informative speaking?
3. What are the major methods of informing?
4. What are the two most common informative speech frameworks?
5. What are the major elements of process speeches?
6. What are the major types of expository speeches?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
An informative speech is ________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________.
I. Characteristics of Effective Informative Speaking
A. Intellectually Stimulating - Intellectually stimulating information is _________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________.
1. If your audience is __________ with your topic, consider how to tap their natural curiosity.
2. If your audience is __________ with your topic, you will need to identify new insight about it.
B. Relevant - Don’t assume the audience will _______________________________ _______________. Incorporate __________________—a statement that clarifies how a particular point may be important to listeners—throughout the speech.
C. Creative – Information is perceived to be creative ________________________ _________________.
1. Creative information speeches begin with ________________.
2. Creativity takes _______.
3. Use productive thinking—_______________________________________ _____________________________________________________________.
a. Productive thinking can ______________________________________.
b. Productive thinking can ______________________________________.
D. Memorable - Effective informative speeches emphasize the _________________, __________, and _________ in ways that help audience members remember them.
E. Diverse Learning Styles - develop your informative speech in ways that address diverse learning styles based upon ________, ________, or ________ dimensions.
II. Methods of Informing - You have to decide what methods you will use to ____________ ___________________.
A. Describe - Description is the __________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________. To describe something effectively:
1. You can describe size subjectively as ______ or ______ and obectively by noting the ____________________________.
2. You can describe shape by reference to common _________________ or by reference to common _________.
3. You can describe weight subjectively as ______ or ______ and objectively by ______ and ______ or __________, ______, and __________.
4. A safe way to describe color is to ___________________________________.
5. You can describe the composition of something by _____________________ or ____________________________________________________________ _______________.
6. You can describe something by _____ as old or new and by _______ as worn or pristine; descriptions of ______ and __________ can give the audience cues about the worth or value of what is being described.
7. You can describe by ___________________, going from top to bottom, left to right, or outer or inner.
B. Definition - Definition is ___________________________________________ ______________________.
1. You can define a word or idea by _________________________________ ___________________.
2. You can define a word by ____________________________.
3. You can define a word by ____________________________.
4. You can define a something by using a synonym or antonym.
a. Synonym: ______________________________________.
b. Antonym: ______________________________________.
C. Comparison and Contrast - Comparison and Contrast is __________________ _________________________________________________________________ __________________.
D. Narration - Narration is _____________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________.
1. Stories generally have four parts:
a. The narration _______ the listener by ___________________________ _____________ and by ______________________________________.
b. The narration _______ the sequence of events that _________________ __________, including _____________________________.
c. The narration _________ how the ______________________________ __________________.
d. The narration _________ how the ______________________________.
2. Your narration will be effective if your audience can ________ and ________ with you and the situation and events you describe.
E. Demonstration - Demonstration is a ____________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________.
1. Effective demonstration requires _________.
2. Consider the ___________________ and the ______________________.
3. Be sure that all of your audience can _____________________________.
4. Pre-prepare a step or two if _____________________________________ _____________________.
III. Common Informative Frameworks
A. Process Speeches - the goal of a process speech is ________________________ _________________________________________________________________.
1. Most process speeches rely heavily on ______________________________.
2. If your speech is not suited for demonstration, ________________________ ______________________________.
B. Expository Speeches – An expository speech framework is ________________ _________________________________________________________________ __________________________.
1. All expository speeches require that the speaker use an _________________ ______ for preparing the presentation, choose an ___________________ that helps the audience understand the material being discussed, and use a variety of informative methods to sustain the audience’s attention and comprehension of the material presented.
2. You will want to use reputable sources and cite them in the form of oral footnotes—__________________________________________________ ____________________________.
3. A hallmark of effective expository speaking is that ____________________ ____________________________.
4. Expository speeches include the following:
a. Exposition of _____________________________________________ – help your audience understand the background or context of an issue, including the forces that gave rise to the issue and continue to affect it. The speaker should present all sides of the issue.
b. Exposition of ______________________.
c. Exposition of ______________________ – inform the audience by explaining theories, principles and laws that they do not understand or that they do not know how it affects them.
d. Exposition of ______________________.
Key Terms
informative speech
intellectually stimulating
creativity
productive thinking
description
definition
synonym
antonym
comparison and contrast
narration
demonstration
process speech framework
expository speech framework
oral footnote
Activities
Activity 12.1
Process Speech
Prepare a three- to six-minute speech in which you explain how something is made, how something is done, or how something works. An adaptation plan and a complete outline are required. To help you prepare your speech and your outline, go to your CourseMate for SPEAK to access Speech Builder Express and complete the Speech Planning Action Step Activities. Notice that the sample Process Speech Evaluation Form includes both primary criteria related to process and demonstration speeches and general criteria items that are common to all speeches.
The following topics are examples of ones that would be appropriate for a process explanation speech:
|How to do it |How to make it |How it works |
|select running shoes |finishing flies |helicopter |
|install a toilet water saving device |origami birds |air bags |
|apply for a loan |plastic |asexual reproduction |
|build a compost bin |solar cells |3-D movies |
Activity 12.2
Expository Speech
Prepare a five- to eight-minute informative speech in which you present carefully researched, in-depth information about a complex topic. To help you prepare your speech and your outline, go to to access Speech Builder Express and complete the Speech Planning Action Step Activities. Notice that the sample Expository Speech Evaluation Checklist that follows includes both primary criteria related to expository speeches and general criteria items that are common to all speeches.
To see sample topics that would be appropriate for this speech assignment, review the topic lists provided earlier with the descriptions of types of expository speeches.
Activity 12.3
Generating Topics for Informative Speeches
Purpose: To help you in generating topics and creative approaches to be used in informative speeches.
Instructions: Either on your own, or in discussions with group members, complete the following worksheet.
1. Informative speeches often provide knowledge about an object. Take three minutes and brainstorm a list of as many objects as you can think of that could be described or defined in an informative speech.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Informative speeches often provide knowledge about a person or a group of people. Take three minutes and brainstorm a list of as many individuals and/or organizations as you can think of that could be described or defined in an informative speech.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Informative speeches often provide knowledge about an event. Take three minutes and brainstorm a list of as many events as you can think of that could be described or defined in an informative speech.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Informative speeches often provide knowledge about a process. Take three minutes and brainstorm a list of as many processes as you can think of that could be described or defined in an informative speech that explains “how to.”
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. Informative speeches often provide knowledge about a complex idea or theory. Take three minutes and brainstorm a list of as many complex ideas as you can think of that could be described or defined in an informative speech.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Review the lists that you have just generated and circle the ten most interesting ideas that could serve as potential topics for an informative speech. Now, consider what would happen if you were to “mix and match” these ten ideas. List and briefly describe any new ideas that you have generated or new angles that are suggested by combining ideas.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity 12.4
Informative Versus Persuasive Speech Topics
Purpose: To help you in differentiating between informative and persuasive approaches to public speaking.
Instructions: Informative speeches provide audience members with objectively presented knowledge or with objectively presented information on how to apply knowledge. On the other hand, persuasive speeches attempt to influence or change the beliefs or behaviors of the audience members. With this distinction in mind, complete the following worksheet.
1. List an object that could be defined or described in an informative speech.
Imagine that you are planning an informative speech about this object. Draft a statement that expresses your speech goal.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Now imagine that you are planning a persuasive speech related to this object. Draft a statement that expresses your speech goal.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. List a person or an organization that could be defined or described in an informative speech.
Imagine that you are planning an informative speech about this person or organization. Draft a statement that expresses your speech goal.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Now imagine that you are planning a persuasive speech related to this person or organization. Draft a statement that expresses your speech goal.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. List an event or a complex idea that could be defined or described in an informative speech.
Imagine that you are planning an informative speech about this event or idea. Draft a statement that expresses your speech goal.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Now imagine that you are planning a persuasive speech related to this event or idea. Draft a statement that expresses your speech goal.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Review the distinction between informative and persuasive speeches provided at the beginning of this exercise and review the informative and persuasive speech goals that you have written. In your opinion, is a topic either suitable for an informative speech or a persuasive speech, or can the same topic be adapted for either kind of speech?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. Imagine that a classmate has just asked you, “What’s the difference between informative speech topics and persuasive speech topics? I can’t seem to figure out the distinction between the two.” Provide a detailed and helpful response.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity 12.5
Description Exercise
Purpose: To give you practice in describing objects, places, and people.
Instructions: This is a classroom exercise. Your instructor will have to facilitate it.
1. Everyone in the class should think of one object, place, or person to describe.
2. One at a time, they should describe their subject in as much detail as possible.
3. After the description, another student should attempt to describe the same subject.
4. Discuss the following:
a. What is the object?
b. What details were omitted from the second description?
c. What details would have been helpful in the first description?
d. What sensual details would have allowed the audience feel (see, smell, hear) the object more?
e. What descriptions could have been more concrete? More precise?
f. What metaphors or similes would have been helpful?
g. Was proper emphasis given to the predominant characteristics? If so, how? If not, what could have been done differently?
Activity 12.6
Adapting Your Informative Speech to Your Audience
Purpose: To help you adapt your informative speech topic to audience needs and interests.
Instructions: For this exercise, you need to begin by identifying a potential informative speech topic. (If you haven’t already done so, Activities 12.1 and 12.2 can help.) Once you’ve identified a potential speech topic, complete the following worksheet.
1. The topic that I am considering for an informative speech is
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. My tentative goal statement for this speech is
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. I am personally interested in this speech topic because
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. My audience is likely to already know the following about this topic
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. If a classmate were to listen to my idea for this speech and respond “So what? Why should I care about this topic?” I would respond
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Although my classmates may not realize it, this topic has relevance for their lives because
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. If my classmates were to learn more about this speech topic, it could benefit them in the following ways:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity 12.7
The Expository Speech
Purpose: To give you insights into an expository speech.
Instructions: Visit the following site on the Internet and print the full-sentence speech outline provided.
1. Why is this an example of an expository speech?
2. What oral footnotes do you find?
3. Does the organizational pattern chosen by the speaker work for this type of speech? Why or why not?
4. Into which category of expository speech does this example fit?
Activity 12.8
InfoTrac Activity: Have Fun, Think Creatively
Purpose: To provide you with practical suggestions for developing your creativity and improving your informative speaking skills.
Instructions: Locate and read the article “Creative fitness” by Tom Verberne. (Hint: Use the title as your search term.)
1. According to this article, what is creative thinking?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. According to these articles, what is a common myth about creativity?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. After reading these articles, list and briefly describe three strategies for improving your own creative thinking skills.
a.
b.
c.
4. Take five minutes and generate as many ideas as possible that explain how and why creativity is important for effective informative public speaking.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity 12.9
Impromptu Speech Activity
You will draw three slips of paper from a container offered by your instructor. Each slip will identify a historical event or historical figure on it. Select one event you’d like to experience or figure you’d like to meet if you could travel back in time. Do a two- to three-minute impromptu speech about why you’d like to experience that historical event or meet that historical figure if you could travel back in time and why.
Activity 12.10
Assessment Activity
Select a current event that’s “in the news” today. Learn more about it from three different sources (e.g., a local newspaper, a national news broadcast, and an online blog or social networking site). Compare what you learn from each source and evaluate the ways in which the source cited research, acknowledged fact checking, and established the credentials for sources. Which source seems to be most credible as a result and why? Prepare a two- to three-page reflection paper explaining your conclusion. Be sure to attach copies or transcripts of the three sources.
Activity 12.11
Sample Speech Analysis
Watch and analyze Cindy’s speech “U.S. Flag Etiquette,” which is available at , and answer the following questions.
1. How effective was Cindy’s speech?
2. How did using the flag add to the clarity of her speech?
3. What might she have done differently to deliver a more effective speech?
Activity 12.12
Sample Speech Analysis
Watch and analyze Louisa’s speech “Making Ethanol,” which and answer the following questions.
1. What type of informative speech does Louisa present?
2. In what ways was Louisa’s speech effective?
3. What could she have done better?
Activity 12.13
Sample Speech Analysis
Watch and analyze Megan’s speech “Understanding Hurriances,” which is available at , and answer the following questions.
1. How does Megan gain attention in this speech?
2. How does she establish credibility?
3. Is the structure of this speech logical?
4. Do the visuals add to our understanding of the speech material?
5. Is the speech concluded effectively?
Activity 12.14
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
Ethics of Online News: “Gizmodogate”
Today more and more people are acquiring their news online, not only from online newspapers, but also from blogs (short for web logs) and social networking sites like Twitter and Facebook. In March 2010, one of these news sources, tech blog Gizmodo, became news itself.
Allegedly, Gizmodo paid to obtain a prototype of Apple’s iPhone 4G, which an Apple employee left at a local bar and that was then picked up by someone else. Nick Denton, CEO of Gizmodo’s parent company, Gawker Media, admitted he paid $5,000 for the prototype, knowing the person he was paying was not the owner. Gizmodo then posted photos of the prototype, without knowing whether the prototype was even real and scooping Apple, who hadn’t yet made any announcements about the phone.
Gizmodo’s blog posts spurred a criminal investigation, as well as a debate about the rights and responsibilities of online journalists. As part of the investigation, county prosecutors searched the home of Gizmodo’s editor, Jason Chen, and seized his computers. In response, Gizmodo claimed that this seizure violated laws that limit newsroom investigations.
1. What, if any, ethical principles did Gizmodo violate by posting the photos and stories about the prototype iPhone?
2. Should online journalists who host blogs be held to the same ethical codes of fact checking and credential verification as traditional journalists? If so, how?
3. Should the laws that limit newsroom investigations also protect online journalists who work on computers in their homes? Why or why not?
Source:
Sandoval, G. (20 April 2010). “How Gizmodo got its iPhone scoop. (Q&A).” CNET News. Retrieved online from
Process Speech Evaluation Form
You can use this form to critique a process speech that you hear in class. As you listen to the speaker, outline the speech. Then answer the questions below.
Primary Criteria (Content)
_____ 1. Was the specific goal appropriate for a process speech?
_____ 2. Did the speaker show personal expertise with the process?
_____ 3. Did the speaker emphasize the process steps?
_____ 4. Did the speaker have good presentational aids that helped explain the process?
_____ 5. If the speaker demonstrated the process, or parts of the process, was the demonstration fluid and skillful?
_____ 6. Could the audience easily see the presentational aids or demonstration?
_____ 7. Did the demonstration or presentational aids help you understand the main ideas?
_____ 8. Did the speaker adequately answer the overarching question of how to do it, how to make it, or how it works?
General Criteria (Structure and Delivery)
_____ 1. Was the specific goal clear?
_____ 2. Was the introduction effective in creating interest and introducing the process to be explained?
_____ 3. Was the macrostructure easy to follow?
_____ 4. Was the language appropriate, accurate, clear, and vivid?
_____ 5. Was the conclusion effective in summarizing the steps and clinching?
_____ 6. Was the speaker’s voice conversational, intelligible, and expressive?
7. Was the speaker’s use of facial expressions, gestures, and movement effective?
Based on these criteria. evaluate the speech as (check one):
_____ excellent _____ good _____ satisfactory _____ fair _____ poor
Explanation for overall evaluation:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Expository Speech Evaluation Checklist
You can use this form to critique an expository speech that you hear in class. As you listen, outline the speech and identify which expository speech type it is. Then answer the questions below.
Type of Expository Speech
_____ Exposition of political, economic, social, religious, or ethical issues
_____ Exposition of historical events or forces
_____ Exposition of a theory, principle, or law
_____ Exposition of a creative work
Primary Criteria (Content)
_____ 1. Was the specific goal of the speech to provide well-researched information on a complex topic?
_____ 2. Did the speaker effectively use a variety of methods to convey the information?
_____ 3. Did the speaker emphasize the main ideas and important supporting material?
_____ 4. Did the speaker use high-quality sources for the information presented?
_____ 5. Did the speaker use a variety of supporting material?
_____ 6. Did the speaker present in-depth, high-quality information?
General Criteria (Structure and Delivery)
_____ 1. Was the specific goal clear?
_____ 2. Was the introduction effective in creating interest, as well as introducing the topic and main points to be explained?
_____ 3. Was the macrostructure easy to follow?
_____ 4. Was the language appropriate, accurate, clear, and vivid?
_____ 5. Was the conclusion effective in summarizing the main points and clinching?
_____ 6. Was the speaker’s voice intelligible, conversational, and expressive?
_____ 7. Was the speaker’s use of facial expressions, gestures, and movement appropriate?
Based on these criteria. evaluate the speech as (check one):
_____ excellent _____ good _____ satisfactory _____ fair _____ poor
Explanation for overall evaluation:
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. Carla was giving a speech on Broca’s aphasia, a language disruption caused by damage to an area of the brain. Explaining the characteristic of the language disorder, Carla explained how the disorder affected the daily lives of individuals with the disorder by telling a story of a close friend who suffered from Broca’s aphasia. What method of informing did Carla use?
a. Description
b. Demonstration
c. Narration
d. Compare and contrast
2. Which of the following is not a method of informing?
a. Description
b. Comparison and contrast
c. Narration
d. Call for action
3. A general informative speech that attempts to explain an idea and that uses researched information is called a(n)
a. expository speech.
b. impromptu speech.
c. extemporaneous speech.
d. persuasive speech.
4. Which of the following is an example of an oral footnote?
a. Research suggests that being prepared for a presentation decreases public speaking anxiety.
b. Now that we have discussed where to go in case of a tornado, we will look at some first-aid techniques that may be useful in times of emergency.
c. All of us will probably need health care at some point in our lives.
d. During my interview with Dr. Robert Hernandez on September 22nd of this year, he said that many incoming freshmen face feelings of loneliness and depression.
5. Which of the following is not an effective or appropriate method for emphasizing key information?
a. Using visual aids
b. Using repetition
c. Using humor
d All of the above are effective methods for emphasizing key information
6. For a piece of information to be intellectually stimulating, it must be/do all of the following except
a. new to the audience.
b. pique their curiosity.
c. excite their interest.
d approached from a variety of angles.
7. A process speech
a. explains a complex idea.
b. describes a work of art.
c. demonstrates how something is done, is made, or works.
d explains a historical event.
8. Most expository speeches rely on
a. extensive research.
b. personal experience.
c. second-hand sources.
d audience interaction.
9. All of the following are elements to consider in an object’s description except
a. size.
b. origin.
c. spatial organization.
d. color.
10. The following are all characteristics of informative speaking except
a. intellectually stimulating.
b. creative.
c. relevant.
d forgettable.
True/False
11. _____ Addressing different learning styles is an effective strategy for informative speaking.
12. _____ Informative speeches are concerned with quality research and knowledge and need not deal with audience concerns.
13. _____ Narration includes autobiographical events but not biographical events.
14. _____ Grouping together similar information is a recommended strategy to increase audience understanding of your speech.
15. _____ Things can go wrong anyway when demonstrating, so practice is unnecessary.
Essay
16. As you are leaving speech class, your friend whispers “I hate this next speech assignment. Informative speeches are always so dull and boring. Blah, blah, blah...we’re all just supposed to stand up there and unpack our brains in front of the class. One big brain dump, that’s what this will be.” Respond to your friend, discussing specifics about the ways in which informative speeches need to do much more than “gather and dump” knowledge.
17. Discuss how it is that narrations can be presented in a first, second, or third person voice and how the choice of voice can impact how the audience is brought “into” the speech.
CHAPTER 13
UNDERSTANDING PERSUASIVE MESSAGES
Learning Outcomes
1. What is the nature of persuasion?
2. How do people process persuasive messages?
3. What is the role of logos in persuasion?
4. What is the role of ethos in persuasion?
5. What is the role of pathos in persuasion?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
Persuasion is _________________________________________________________________.
Persuasive speaking is _________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________.
I. The Nature of Persuasion
A. Argument means _________________________________________________ _________________________.
1. ______ is everything you say and do to appeal to logic and sound reasoning.
2. ______ is everything you say and do to convey competence and good character.
3. ______ is everything you say and do to appeal to emotions.
B. The speaker’s primary goal is to ______________________________________ ______________________.
C. Persuasive speakers have an extra burden to _____________________________ ________________________________.
II. How People Process Persuasive Messages: The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
A. People process information in two ways:
1. ______________ – listen carefully, think about what is said, and may even mentally elaborate on the message
2. ______________ – shortcut that relies on simple cues such as a quick evaluation of the speaker’s competence, credibility, and character
B. Route is determined by __________ of the issue.
C. When we form attitudes as a result of __________________, we are less likely to change our minds than when __________________________________________.
D. Of the three means of persuasion, logos strategies will be used by audience members who ________________________________________________. Ethos and pathos strategies will be used by listeners who _________________________.
III. The Rhetorical Strategy of Logos
A. Two Types of Reasoning: Reasoning is __________________________________ __________________________________________________________________.
1. __________________ is arriving at a general conclusion based on several pieces of specific evidence.
2. __________________ is arriving at a conclusion based on a _____________ and ______________.
B. Forming Arguments: Stephen Toulmin developed a model to explain the form of everyday arguments.
1. The claim is __________________________________________________.
2. The support is ________________________________________________ ___________________________.
3. The warrant is _______________________________________________. Sometimes the warrant is ___________, and sometimes it is ___________.
C. Types and Tests of Arguments
1. You argue from sign when you __________________________________ ___________________________________. You can validate your argument by answering the following questions:
a. _______________________________________________________?
b. _______________________________________________________?
c. _______________________________________________________?
2. You argue from example when you ______________________________ ________________________. You can validate your argument by answering the following questions:
a. ________________________________?
b. ________________________________?
c. ________________________________?
3. You argue from analogy when you _______________________________ __________________________________________. You can validate your argument by answering the following questions:
a. ________________________________________________________?
b. ________________________________________________________?
4. You argue from causation when you ______________________________ ______________________________. One or more events always brings about, leads to, or creates or prevents _______________________________. You can validate your argument by answering the following questions:
a. ________________________________________________________?
b. ________________________________________________________?
c. ________________________________________________________?
5. Combining arguments in a speech – an effective speech usually contains __________________________________________________________.
D. Reasoning Fallacies – check to make sure that ____________________________ to avoid fallacies.
1. A _____________________ is a fallacy that presents a generalization that is either not supported with evidence or is supported with only one weak example.
2. A ___________ is a fallacy that occurs when the alleged cause fails to be related to, or to produce, the effect.
3. An ________ fallacy argues that there are only two alternatives when, in fact, others exist.
4. A _________ fallacy occurs when a speaker weakens the opposing position by misrepresenting it in some way and then attacks the weaker position.
5. An ___________ fallacy occurs when a speaker attacks or praises a person making an argument rather than addressing the argument itself.
E. Evaluating Evidence to Support Reasons. ______________ statements are a strong type of supporting material. Statements from people who are ________ on a subject can also be used as supporting evidence. Your answers to the following questions can help you select evidence that is likely to persuade your audience.
1. _____________________________________________________________?
2. _____________________________________________________________?
3. _____________________________________________________________?
4. _____________________________________________________________?
IV. The Rhetorical Strategy of Ethos
A. Conveying Good Character – credibility is dependent on the audience’s perception of the speaker’s __________, a perception the audience forms of a speaker who they believe understands them, empathizes with them, and is responsive to them.
1. The better you know audience members’ ___________, ___________, and ___________, the better you will formulate proposals that they will see as in their best interests.
2. Speakers who show goodwill also empathize with their audience. Empathy is _____________________________________________. It does not mean that you ________________________, just that you _______________________.
3. Responsive speakers _____________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________.
B. Conveying Competence and Credibility. The following strategies can help ensure that your terminal credibility, ________________________________________ ________________________, is greater than your initial credibility, _________ _________________________________________________________________.
1. Explain your competence. Tell your audience about your expertise to achieve a level of ______________________.
2. Establish _________________.
3. Use evidence from ___________________.
4. Use nonverbal elements of delivery to _____________________.
5. Use vocal expression to _____________________.
V. The Rhetorical Strategy of Pathos - Emotions are ______________________________.
A. Evoking Negative Emotions - Negative emotions are _______________________ ________________________________.
1. Fear – _______________________________________. Create fear in your audience and they will __________________________________________ __________________________________ or ________________________.
2. Guilt – ______________________________________________________ ________________________. Evoke guilt in your audience so that _______ ________________________. Your proposal must provide a way for the audience to ________ or ________ the damage.
3. Shame – _____________________________________________________ ______________. Evoke shame and then demonstrate how your proposal can either _____________________________________________ or _________ ______________________________________________________________.
4. Anger – _______________________________________________________ __________________. Choose anger carefully so that you don’t incite so much anger that _______________________________.
5. Sadness – _____________________________________________________ ____________________________. Use your speech to help your audience ______________ and to ________________________.
B. Evoking Positive Emotions - positive emotions ___________________________ ____________________.
1. Happiness or joy – _____________________________________________ _____________________________________. Show how your proposal will __________________________________________________, then they are likely to _________ and to _________ about your proposal.
2. Pride – _______________________________________________________ ________________________________. Demonstrate how your proposal will ________________________________________, then they will be _______ _____________________________.
3. Relief – _______________________________________________________. Use in combination with ________________________________ to motivate the audience to be ___________________________.
4. Hope – _______________________________________________________ _____________________. Get audience members to listen by ___________ _____________________________________________________________.
5. Compassion – _________________________________________________. Evoke feelings of compassion by ___________________________________ _________________.
C. Guidelines for Appealing to Emotions. – Identify the following seven guidelines for appealing to emotions:
1. ______________________________________________________________.
2. ______________________________________________________________.
3. ______________________________________________________________.
4. ______________________________________________________________.
5. ______________________________________________________________.
6. ______________________________________________________________.
7. ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________.
Key Terms
persuasion
persuasive speaking
argument
logos
ethos
pathos
reasoning
inductive reasoning
deductive reasoning
major premise
minor premise
syllogism
claim
support
warrant
argue from sign
argue from example
argue from analogy
argue from causation
hasty generalization
false cause
either-or
straw man
ad hominem
goodwill
empathy
responsive
terminal credibility
initial credibility
derived credibility
emotions
negative emotions
fear
guilt
shame
anger
sadness
positive emotions
happiness or joy
pride
relief
hope
compassion
Activities
Activity 13.1
Brainstorming Persuasive Speeches
Purpose: To help you in generating topics and creative approaches to be used in persuasive speeches.
Instructions: Either on your own or in discussions with group members, complete the following worksheet.
1. Persuasive speeches often ask listeners to contribute money in support of a worthy cause. Take three minutes and brainstorm as many organizations and charitable causes as you can think of that could be promoted in a persuasive speech.
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2. Persuasive speeches often ask listeners to contribute their time to a volunteer effort. Take three minutes and brainstorm as many volunteer efforts as you can think of that could be promoted in a persuasive speech.
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3. Persuasive speeches often ask listeners to change some habit or lifestyle choice. Take three minutes and brainstorm as many “bad habits” or “poor lifestyle choices” as you can think of that could be “targets for change” in a persuasive speech.
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4. Persuasive speeches often ask listeners for their support in changing a policy or law. Take three minutes and brainstorm as many college/university, local, state, or federal laws and policies as you can think of that should be changed.
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5. Persuasive speeches often ask listeners to support the foundation of something new. Take three minutes and brainstorm as many “new-but-badly-needed” ideas as you can which could be advocated in a persuasive speech.
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6. Persuasive speeches often ask listeners to abolish, cancel or get rid of something that is harmful, wasteful, or simply obnoxious. Take three minutes and brainstorm as many suggestions for “abolishing something” as you can.
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7. Persuasive speeches often ask listeners to choose between “X” and “Y,” or they may claim that “Z” is clearly the most superior example currently available. Take three minutes and brainstorm as many “top-of-the-line” products or services which could be advocated in a persuasive speech.
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8. Review the lists you have generated and select the most intriguing ideas you have generated. Share these with a small group of classmates to gain a sense of what ideas your audience is likely to be most receptive to, or to gain a sense of resistance which your speech topic must address.
Ideas likely to be favorably received:
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Ideas likely to be resisted:
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Ideas likely to meet with neutral, uninformed, or apathetic responses:
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Activity 13.2
InfoTrac Activity: Ethos, Pathos and Logos
Purpose: To help you develop effective persuasive speeches through understanding and applying Aristotle’s techniques of persuasion (ethos, pathos, and logos).
Instructions: Locate and read “Effective direct examination” by Nancy J. Turbak. (Hint: Use “ethos” and “pathos” as your search terms.)
1. In your own words, define the term “ethos” and provide an example that illustrates the concept.
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2. For your next speech, describe at least two specific actions you can take to more effectively develop ethos.
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3. In your own words, define the term “pathos” and provide an example that illustrates the concept.
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4. For your next speech, describe at least two specific actions you can take to more effectively develop pathos.
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5. In your own words, define the term “logos” and provide an example that illustrates the concept.
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6. For your next speech, describe at least two specific actions you can take to more effectively develop logos.
a. ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
7. Although the specific examples and discussions of this article are written for an audience of trial lawyers, many of the suggestions are relevant for any persuasive speaking occasion. Identify at least two specific suggestions discussed in this article which you can use to improve your next persuasive presentation.
a. ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Activity 13.3
Analyzing Persuasive Speeches
Purpose: To provide you with experience at analyzing effective models of persuasive speaking.
Instructions: Locate the transcript of an effective persuasive speech. Good sources for this search are InfoTrac College Edition (browse the indexed journal Vital Speeches), and websites which provide the texts of famous speeches (you can visit or search “Google” for example). Once you’ve identified a persuasive speech that you wish to work with, read it through once, then reread it as needed to complete this worksheet.
1. What is the topic of the speech?
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2. What is the speech goal or proposition?
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3. What are the reasons given in support of this goal?
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4. In your opinion, where has the strongest supporting reason been placed?
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5. Identify and list at least three pieces of evidence that you feel are effective in supporting the reasons and the speech goal.
a. ___________________________________________________________________
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b. ___________________________________________________________________
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c. ___________________________________________________________________
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7. Identify and list at least three instances in which the speaker uses emotional appeals or pathos to motivate and persuade the audience.
a. ___________________________________________________________________
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b. ___________________________________________________________________
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c. ___________________________________________________________________
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8. In your opinion, what is the key aspect of this speech that makes it effectively persuasive?
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Activity 13.4
Logical Fallacies
Purpose: To help you identify errors in your own and others’ reasoning.
Instructions: There are a lot of logical fallacies which are not covered explicitly in your text. Collect several copies of newsmagazines, newspapers, and other print sources. Then, complete the following exercises/questions about logical fallacies.
1. Hasty Generalization: When you draw a conclusion based on too few examples or instances. Find an example of a hasty generalization in your literature.
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2. False Cause
a. Single Cause Reasoning: Assuming that an effect is caused by only one factor when many things may be playing into it. Find an example of single cause reasoning in your literature.
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b. Post hoc ergo propter hoc (After the fact, therefore, because of the fact): Thinking that, just because one event happened before another, assuming that it caused the second one. Find an example of the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy in your literature.
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3. An either-or fallacy is the argument that there are only two alternatives when, in fact, others exist. Provide an example of this fallacy of reasoning
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4. A straw man fallacy is when a speaker weakens the opposing position by misrepresenting it in some way and then attacks that weaker (straw man) position.
An example of this fallacy that you found was_______________________________
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5. Ad Hominem (Against the Man): Attacking the person instead of the logical arguments. Find an example of an ad hominem attack in your literature.
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Activity 13.5
The Toulmin Model of Argument
Purpose: To give you practice at identifying the essentials of an argument: the claim, the reason, the evidence, and the warrant.
Instructions: Either on your own or in a discussion group of two to three people, complete the following worksheet.
1. In your own words, what is the claim of an argument?
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2. In your own words, what is the evidence of an argument?
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3. In your own words, what is the warrant of an argument?
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4. Read the following brief argument and identify the essential parts of this argument:
E-mail should be banned from all campus computers because it is simply a channel for time-wasting junk messages. Over 75% of all messages sent on e-mail are nonsensical distractions: poor attempts at humor, chain letter scams to earn money or discounts, and frivolous communications that add nothing to the quality of life or of learning.
The claim is:
The evidence is:
The warrant is:
5. Again, read the following brief argument, then identify the essential parts of this argument.
President Clinton should have been impeached because he lied about having sex with a woman. The testimony in the Starr report, tapes of the grand jury proceedings, and Clinton’s own testimony in the grand jury clearly indicate that a sexual relationship occurred and that Clinton tried to cover it up.
The claim is:
The evidence is:
The warrant is:
Activity 13.6
InfoTrac Activity: Using Your Research Persuasively
Purpose: To learn from research on persuasion what effective speakers can do to make their appeals more effective.
Instructions: Locate and read “The power of persuasion: Emotion, logic and character.” by Dianna Booher. (Hint: Use “emotion” and “persuasion” as your search term.)
1. According to Aristotle, what are the three cornerstones of successful persuasive thought?
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2. How is this information relevant to you as you prepare your next persuasive speech?
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3. Why is it important to use all three elements of persuasion?
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4. Give an example of an argument that relies too heavily on emotion.
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5. Give an example of an argument that relies too heavily on logic.
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6. Give an example of an argument that relies too heavily on the character of the speaker.
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7. How would you add the other two elements to your answer to #4.
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8. How would you add the other two elements to your answer to #5.
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9. How would you add the other two elements to your answer to #6.
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Activity 13.7
Using Emotions in Persuasion
Purpose: To give you practice in choosing ways to motivate your audience.
Instructions: For the following propositions of policy, choose emotions which you could evoke in order to persuade your audience to accept the plan of action and then describe how you could evoke that emotion. Choose at least one positive and one negative emotion for each proposition.
I want the audience to call their mothers.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to wear their seatbelts.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to volunteer their time at a soup kitchen.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to eat more vegetables.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to try rock climbing.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to vote in the next election.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to take a karate class.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to read more.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to recycle.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to attend an artistic event (ballet, symphony, theatre).
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to tip 20 percent.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to walk or ride bikes more.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to read more poetry.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to floss.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to pray or meditate every day.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
I want the audience to save 10 percent of their income.
Positive: _____________________________________________________________________
Negative: _____________________________________________________________________
Activity 13.8
Impromptu Speech Activity
Draw a common household product from a box of products your instructor provides. Some products in the box might be nonperishable foods (soup, cereal, snacks, etc.), cleaning supplies (window wash, hand soap, dishwashing liquid), and paper products (toilet paper, paper towels, napkins). Prepare a two- to three-minute speech identifying how the product you selected appeals to logos, ethos, and pathos.
Activity 13.9
Assessment Activity
Watch a television commercial for a similar product that airs on a cable news network, sports network, and family channel. Identify similar and different rhetorical appeals used in them. Offer possible reasons based on the ELM for using similar and different appeals. Prepare a one- to two-page reflection paper describing what you discovered and the assessment you drew from it.
Activity 13.10
Assessment Activity
Consider an interaction you had in the last week with a friend or family member who convinced you (a) to do something you hadn’t planned on doing (e.g., go to a movie, attend an event) or (b) not to do something you had intended to do (e.g., a household chore, homework). What rhetorical strategies can you identify that influenced your decision? Prepare a one- to two-page paper documenting examples of logos, ethos, and pathos that persuaded you.
Activity 13.11
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
Twitterpated: Lobbying in Cyberspace
In her April 25, 2010, article in the Washington Post, Cecilia Kang reported that “employees of companies with interests in Washington are chattering online to shape opinions in hard-to-detect ways.” For example, P. J. Rodriguez tweets about a variety of topics, including his opinion about Federal Communications Commission (FCC) technology policy issues. Rodriguez’s Twitter profile simply says that he is a “pop culture maven and cable blogger.” What his profile does not say, however, is that he works for the National Cable and Telecommunications Association (NCTA) and is a public relations specialist for Comcast, Cox, and Time Warner Cable. In other words, he’s a lobbyist for the telecommunications industry.
Kang goes on to report that AT&T spent 15 percent more on its lobbying budget in the first quarter of 2010 than it did in all of 2009, and Google’s lobbying budget rose by 57 percent. Lobbyists once visited congressional representatives personally to make their arguments. Now they are trying to influence lawmakers in record numbers as “anyone on the Web,” with no rules or regulations compelling them to disclose who they really are or whose interests they represent.
1. What, if any, ethical communication principles are lobbyists like P. J. Rodriguez violating?
2. What, if any, harm is being done by individuals who attempt to persuade others online without disclosing whose interests they represent?
3. What, if anything, should the FCC do with regard to privacy and disclosure of lobbyist interests on the Internet?
4. Where would you draw the line regarding open or restricted access to Internet users and why?
Source:
Kang, C. (24 April 2010). “Undercover persuasion by tech industry lobbyists.” The Washington Post. Retrieved online from
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. The process of influencing people’s attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviors is
a. persuasion.
b. support.
c. ethos.
d. straw man.
2. A means of persuasion in which you appeal to the emotions of others so they accept your point of view is
a. ethos.
b. logos.
c. pathos.
d. evidence.
3. ELM stands for
a. Electronic Learning Model.
b. Elaborated Lesson Model.
c. Elaboration Likelihood Model.
d. none of the above.
4. Andy was planning to deliver a speech that urged his classmates to sign up to donate their organs upon death. He used several pieces of specific evidence to arrive at a general conclusion in this speech. Andy was using which type of reasoning?
a. Deductive
b. Subductive
c. Reductive
d. Inductive
5. A three-part form of deductive reasoning is called a
a. claim.
b. syllogism.
c. warrant.
d. argument.
6. Arguing that rain and plenty of sunshine lead to better crop growth on Reggie’s farm is arguing from
a. hasty generalization.
b. example.
c. analogy.
d. causation.
7. When you support a claim by providing evidence that the events that signal the claim have occurred, you are arguing from
a. hasty generalization.
b. example.
c. sign.
d. causation.
8. When you support a claim with a single comparable example that is significantly similar to the subject of the claim as to be proof, you are arguing from
a. example.
b. causation.
c. analogy.
d. sign.
9. Failing to support a political policy because it was sponsored by a person you dislike is an example of the
a. ad hominem fallacy.
b. hasty generalization fallacy.
c. false cause fallacy.
d. non sequitor fallacy.
10. When arguing that there are only two alternatives, even when others may exist, you would be using which reasoning fallacy?
a. Hasty generalization
b. False cause
c. Ad hominen
d. Either-or
True/False
11. _____ Speakers who show that they care about the audience by acknowledging feedback are said to be responsive.
12. _____ The audience’s perception of a speaker’s expertise at the end of the speech is derived credibility.
13. _____ Sadness is considered to be a positive emotion because we feel for someone or something.
14. _____ When you experience self-satisfaction and an increase to your self-esteem as a result of something that you have accomplished, you are experiencing relief.
15. _____ Compassion is a selfless concern for the suffering of another person.
Essay
16. Discuss the difference(s) between inductive and deductive reasoning and provide an example of how each might be used.
17. Make the argument that an individual of your choosing should be the next President of the United States. Use at least three of the four types of arguments listed in your text.
CHAPTER 14
PERSUASIVE SPEAKING
Learning Outcomes
1. Why is it important to consider the initial audience attitude when constructing your persuasive speech goal?
2. How do you phrase a persuasive speech goal as a proposition?
3. What are some dispositional persuasive speech frameworks?
4. What are some actuation persuasive speech frameworks?
5. What ethical communication guidelines should you follow as a persuasive speaker?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
I. Audience Attitude Toward Your Persuasive Topic - An attitude is _________________ __________________________________________. Assess where the target audience, _____________________________________________, falls on an attitudes continuum.
A. Opposed – when your target audience is opposed, it is unrealistic to believe that you will change their attitudes from “________” to “________” so seek incremental change by _____________________________________________ ___________________________.
B. No Opinion – when your target audience is neutral, you can ________________ ______________________________.
1. If they are _____________, they don’t know enough about the topic to have formed an opinion. You will need to _______________________________ __________________ that they require to be informed.
2. If they are ____________, they have some information about the topic but do not really understand why one position is preferred and so still has no opinion. You should ____________________________________________________.
3. If they are ____________, they are uninterested in, unconcerned about, or indifferent toward your topic. You will need strong _____________________.
C. In Favor – when your target audience is only mildly in favor of your proposal, your task is to __________________________________. You can consider a speech goal that _____________________________.
II. Identifying Your Proposition - A proposition is _______________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________.
A. A proposition of fact is ____________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________. They can concern the ________, ________, or ________.
B. A proposition of value is ___________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________.
C. A proposition of policy is __________________________________________ ______________________________.
III. Organizational Frameworks for Persuasive Speeches - If your proposition focuses on changing or reinforcing your audience’s belief or attitude toward your topic, you will give a ___________________. If your proposition focuses on encouraging your audience to take action, you will give a _____________________.
A. Common Organizational Frameworks for Speeches to Convince.
1. ________________________ – an organizational framework shows that a proposed change has more value than the status quo.
2. ______________________ - an indirect organization that seeks audience agreement on criteria that should be considered when evaluating a particular proposition and then shows how the proposition satisfies those criteria.
3. _____________ – an organization that persuades by both challenging the opposing position and bolstering your own.
4. _____________________ – the straightforward organization in which you present your best-supported reasons in a meaningful order.
B. Organizational Frameworks for Speeches to Actuate.
1. __________________ – a persuasive organizational pattern that reveals details about a problem and proposes a solution. This is particularly useful when _______________________________.
2. ______________________ – a form of persuasive organization that examines a problem, its cause(s), and solutions designed to eliminate or alleviate the underlying cause(s).
3. ____________________ – a form of persuasive organization that combines a problem-solution pattern with explicit appeals designed to motivate the audience.
a. The ________ step replaces the traditional introduction.
b. The ______ step explores the nature of the problem that gives rise to the need for change.
c. The ____________ step shows, point by point, how what you are proposing will satisfy each of the needs that you articulated.
d. The ____________ step asks the audience to imagine what will happen if your proposal is implemented and is successful.
e. The ____________ step emphasizes the specific action(s) you advocate.
IV. Ethical Guidelines for Persuasive Speeches
A. Ethical persuasive speeches aim to ____________________________________ by ________________________________.
B. Ethical persuasive speeches provide __________.
C. Ethical persuasive speeches use ___________________________________.
D. Ethical persuasive speeches use _________________ to ___________________ __________________________.
E. Ethical persuasive speeches honestly present the speaker’s ______________.
Key Terms
attitude
target audience
incremental change
uninformed
impartial
apathetic
proposition
proposition of fact
proposition of value
proposition of policy
speech to convince
speech to actuate
comparative advantages
criteria satisfaction
refutative
statement of reasons
problem-solution
problem-cause-solution
motivated sequence
Activities
Activity 14.1
Speech to Convince
1. Prepare a four- to seven-minute speech in which you seek agreement about a belief, value, or attitude.
2. Write a persuasive plan for adapting to your specific audience that includes:
a. How your goal stated as a proposition adapts to whether your prevailing audience attitude is in favor, has no opinion, or is opposed.
b. What organizational framework you will use and why it is fitting for your topic and audience.
c. What main points you will use to convince your audience to agree with your position on the topic.
3. Write a complete speech outline.
Activity 14.2
Actuation Persuasive Speech
1. Prepare a four- to seven-minute persuasive speech in which your goal is to persuade the audience to act. To help you prepare your speech and your outline, go to to access Speech Builder Express and complete the Speech Planning Action Step Activities.
2. As an addendum to the outline, write a persuasive speech adaptation plan in which you describe:
a. Target audience initial attitude and background knowledge.
b. Organizational framework you will use and why.
c. Arguments you will make to support your proposition (logos).
d. How you will demonstrate competence, credibility, and good character (ethos).
e. How you will create and maintain interest (pathos).
Activity 14.3
Your Audience and Their Collective Attitude
Using the information in the textbook on audience attitudes toward your persuasive topic, think about the following:
1. If you were a Democrat and you were asked to speak to a group of young Republicans, you might assume that your audience would be opposed to your topic. How might you address this type of audience?
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2. If you were asked to speak to a group of senior citizens about the Apple iPad, you might assume that your audience would be, for the most part, uninformed. How might you help this audience become informed and how might you get them interested in the information you are sharing?
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3. In # 2 above, if those same audience members were deemed to be apathetic, how might you address that issue?
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4. If you were asked to speak to a group of college students about tuition costs, you might assume that the audience would be strongly in favor of your topic. How might you move your audience to take action on this issue?
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Activity 14.4
Info Trac Activity: Persuasion in the Courtroom
Locate and read “Get your way using lawyers’ techniques” by Noelle C. Nelson. (Hint: Use “persuasion techniques” or the author’s name as your search term). The purpose of this exercise is to contrast Monroe’s motivational pattern for organizing persuasive messages with techniques that lawyers use as they shape persuasive appeals.
1. Review the textbook discussion on the motivated sequence pattern for persuasive messages, and in your own words, list and briefly describe the five steps of this pattern:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2. Nelson argues that the prosecutors in the O.J. Simpson case failed “to clearly and explicitly ask for what they wanted.” How does this key element of a persuasive speech fit with Monroe’s motivational pattern?
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3. Draft at least two sentences in which you clearly and explicitly ask the audience for what you want in your next persuasive speech.
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4. Many persuasive speaking situations are quite different from jury trials. Describe a situation in which asking directly for what is wanted might actually hurt the speaker’s persuasive appeal.
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5. Nelson’s article suggests that persuasive speakers are more effective when they “use the rule of threes” and “follow the laws of primacy and regency.” Explain how speakers can integrate this advice into a speech that is organized around Monroe’s motivational pattern.
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6. Nelson also recommends that persuasive communicators “speak everyday language.” Explain how this recommendation is consistent with the intent of several of the steps in the motivational pattern.
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Activity 14.5
Is That a Fact?
Using the textbook and the website provided here, complete the following exercises, which will give you practice in identifying and using propositions of fact, value, and policy.
1. Write a proposition of fact and explain why it IS a proposition of fact.
2. Write a proposition of value and explain why it IS a proposition of fact.
3. Write a proposition of policy and explain why it IS a proposition of fact.
Activity 14.6
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
GM and the Government Bailout: Two Sides of the Same Issue
On April 20, 2010, General Motors (GM) Chairman and CEO Ed Whitacre announced that GM had repaid its government bailout loan in full with interest and five years ahead of schedule. His announcement was distributed publically via a piece published in the Wall Street Journal and a TV advertisement—if you’d like to see the TV ad, you can search for it on YouTube.
The next day, the U.S. Department of the Treasury confirmed the debt as paid in full. But one week later, three congressional representatives wrote a letter to Timothy Geithner, Secretary of the Treasury, claiming the GM story was misleading. They pointed out that, although the debt was repaid, a large portion of the repayment came from the “bailout” money GM had received from the government-owned Troubled Assets Relief Program, or TARP (P. Ryan, J. Hensarling, & S. Garrett , personal communication, April 28, 2010).
Congressman Paul Ryan posted a public response to the GM advertisement, which you can also see on YouTube. GM stopped airing the advertisement on April 27, 2010.
1. What, if any, ethical communication principles did GM violate in airing the advertisement of debt repayment?
2. What, if any, ethical communication principles did Congressman Ryan violate in airing his YouTube response?
3. Should limitations or regulations be placed on what may be posted on video websites such as YouTube? Explain.
Activity 14.7: Assessment Activity
Watch a television commercial and answer the following questions: Who is the target audience for the product, and why do you believe so? What would you believe their initial attitude is for the product and why? Identify how the advertisement addresses each element of the motivated sequence and whether it does so effectively. If it does not address an element effectively, suggest how it could be modified to improve. Write up your assessment in the form of a one- to two-page reflection paper.
Activity 14.8: Sample Speech Analysis
Watch and analyze Molly’s speech “Hooking Up, Friends-with-Benefits Relationships (FWBR), or Dating: Not Really a Tough Choice,” which is available at , and answer the following questions:
1. How does Molly gain her audience's attention at the beginning of the speech? How effective is her attention getter?
2. Identify the types of supporting materials Molly uses to persuade her audience. How do they work together to help her achieve her specific purpose? How convinced are you after reading through her outline and speech?
3. Does this speech address a proposition of fact, value, or policy? How closely does Molly follow the guidelines for the type of persuasive speech she gave?
Speech to Convince Evaluation Checklist
_____ 1. Was the introduction effective in creating interest, involving the audience in the speech, and previewing the main points?
_____ 2. Was the specific goal clear and phrased as a proposition?
_____ 3. Was the speech organized into an appropriate framework?
_____ Comparative advantages _____ Criteria satisfaction _____ Refutative
_____ Statement of reasons
_____ 4. Did the speaker use logos effectively?
_____ Strong evidence? _____ Reasoning linked to claims? _____ Fallacies?
_____ 5. Did the speaker use ethos effectively?
____ Establish expertise? ____ Demonstrate trustworthiness? ____ Convey goodwill?
_____ 6. Did the speaker use pathos effectively?
Appeal to negative emotions? If so, check all that were tapped:
_____ fear _____ guilt _____ anger _____ shame _____ sadness
Appeal to positive emotions? If so, check all that were tapped:
_____ happiness/joy _____ pride _____ relief _____ hope _____ compassion
Were the appeals very effective, somewhat effective, or ineffective?
_____ 7. Was the language appropriate, accurate, clear, and vivid?
_____ 8. Was the use of voice intelligible, conversational, expressive, and convincing?
_____ 9. Was the use of body poised and expressive?
_____ 10. Did the speaker offer a compelling conclusion with thesis restatement and clincher?
Overall evaluation of the speech as (check one):
_____ excellent _____ good _____ average _____ fair _____ poor
Explanation for overall evaluation:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 14.9: Sample Speech Analysis
Watch and analyze Adam’s speech “Together, We Can Stop Cyber-Bullying,” which is available at , and answer the following questions:
1. How does Adam gain his audience’s attention at the beginning of the speech? How effective is his attention getter?
2. Does he present clearly stated main points? Does he use facts and expert opinions to support his points? Provide at least one specific example from his speech.
3. Does he use emotional appeals to motivate the audience? In what way?
4. Was Adam effective in establishing his credibility on this topic? Explain.
Activity 14.10
Impromptu Speech Activity
Select an item from a box provided by your instructor. Items could be anything from a small toy to an eating utensil to a tool to a knick-knack. Prepare a two- to three-minute impromptu speech attempting to “sell” the item to the target audience using the motivated sequence organizational framework. Alternatively, groups of three students might role play an impromptu “television advertisement” selling the product as it fulfills some “unique need” for college students. The “need” might not be what the item is typically intended for.
Speech to Actuate Evaluation Checklist
_____ 1. Was the introduction effective in creating interest, involving the audience in the speech, and previewing the main points?
_____ 2. Was the specific goal clear and phrased as a proposition?
_____ 3. Was the speech organized into an appropriate actuation persuasive speech framework?
_____ Problem-solution _____ Problem-cause-solution _____ Motivated sequence
_____ 4. Did the speaker use logos effectively?
_____ Strong evidence? _____ Reasoning linked to claims? _____ Fallacies?
_____ 5. Did the speaker use ethos effectively?
____ Establish expertise? ____ Demonstrate trustworthiness? ____ Convey goodwill?
_____ 6. Did the speaker use pathos effectively?
Appeal to negative emotions? If so, check all that were tapped:
_____ fear _____ guilt _____ anger _____ shame _____ sadness
Appeal to positive emotions? If so, check all that were tapped:
_____ happiness/joy _____ pride _____ relief _____ hope _____ compassion
Were the appeals very effective, somewhat effective, or ineffective?
_____ 7. Was the language appropriate, accurate, clear, and vivid?
_____ 8. Was the use of voice intelligible, conversational, expressive, and convincing?
_____ 9. Was the use of body poised and expressive?
_____ 10. Did the speaker offer a compelling call to action?
Based on these criteria. evaluate the speech as (check one):
_____ excellent _____ good _____ average _____ fair _____ poor
Explanation for overall evaluation:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Self Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. The available means of persuasion (ethos, logos and pathos) were identified by
a. Socrates.
b. Plato
c. Aristotle
d. Pythagoras
2. Delbert was preparing a speech in which he planned to speak about the need to place a tariff on cars that are imported to the United States. Delbert’s proposition is a proposition of
a. fact.
b. value.
c. policy.
d. urgency.
3. Amber was preparing a speech in which she planned to speak about the Earth being round rather than flat. Amber’s proposition is a proposition of
a. fact.
b. value.
c. policy.
d. urgency.
4. A general or enduring positive or negative feeling about some person, object, or issue is a(n)
a. belief.
b. value.
c. attitude.
d. proposition.
5. When we are faced with an audience that is apathetic, they may be so because which of the following is the case?
a. They are uninterested in our topic.
b. They are unconcerned about our topic.
c. They are indifferent toward our topic.
d. All of the above.
6. When we are faced with an audience that has some information about our topic but does not understand why our position is preferred, thus still having no opinion, which of the following is the case?
a. They are opposed.
b. They are impartial.
c. They are in favor.
d. They are making incremental changes.
7. A common organizational framework for a speech to convince is
a. criteria satisfaction.
b. problem-solution.
c. problem-cause-solution.
d. motivated sequence.
8. In the motivated sequence pattern, the step in which we ask the audience to imagine what will happen if our plan is implemented and is successful (or vice versa) is called
a. action.
b. need.
c. satisfaction.
d. visualization.
9. Ethical persuasive speeches should do which of the following?
a. Provide choice.
b. Use evidence that can be made to support the speaker’s topic.
c. Avoid presenting the speaker’s credibility.
d. Ethical speeches should do all of these.
10. When the audience is opposed to your goal, you should strive for
a. no change.
b. a good deal of change as you convince them.
c. incremental change.
d. immediate, major change.
True/False
11. _____ A proposition is worded as a question.
12. _____ The statement “Marijuana should not be legalized as a medical treatment” is a proposition of fact.
13. _____ The statement “The death penalty is immoral” is a proposition of value.
14. _____ Persuasive speeches include speeches to entertain.
15. _____ A problem-solution framework is used for speeches to actuate.
Essay
16. Imagine that you have been asked to prepare a speech on global warming. Which type of persuasive speech would you be preparing? Which organizational framework would you use for this speech? Why did you make this choice?
17. Discuss how you would use Monroe’s Motivated Sequence to persuade a freshman to join your fraternity, social or civic organization, or other on-campus extra-curricular activity.
CHAPTER 15
CEREMONIAL SPEAKING: SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS
Learning Outcomes
1. What should you include in a speech of welcome?
2. Why should a speech of introduction be brief?
3. What is your goal in a speech of nomination?
4. When might you be expected to give a speech of recognition?
5. What are some common types of speeches of tribute?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
I. Speeches of Welcome
A. A Speech of welcome is _____________________________________________ _______________________________________________. You will frequently give a welcoming speech as the representative of a group or be asked to serve as ______________________________, an individual designated to welcome guests, set the mood of the program, introduce participants, and keep the program moving.
B. Expectations - You must be familiar with the ___________________________ and the ____________________________.
1. At the beginning, you may want to __________________________________ ______________________________________.
2. Provide a __________________ of the group and setting to which he or she is being welcomed.
3. The conclusion should ___________________________________________ _____________________________________.
II. Speeches of Introduction
A. Speech of introduction: _____________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________.
1. The beginning should __________________________________________.
2. The body should focus on _____ or _____ things about the person being introduced that are ________________________________.
3. The conclusion should ______________________________________ and ________________________________________.
III. Speeches of Nomination
A. Speech of nomination: _____________________________________________ _________________________________.
B. Expectations – You must highlight the qualities that make this person the most ____________ candidate.
1. First clarify the ____________ of the nomination, honor, position, or award.
2. List the candidate’s personal and professional ____________ that _________ __________.
3. Formally place the candidate’s name in nomination, creating a _____________________________________.
IV. Speeches of Recognition
A. Speech of recognition: _______________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________.
B. Expectations – You need to discuss _____________________________, including ______________________________ and ________________________________. Refrain from _____-_______. In the U.S., it is traditional to ______________ with recipients as awards are received.
1. Begin by __________________________________________.
2. Then state the ______________________________________.
3. Describe how the person being recognized __________________________.
V. Speeches of Acceptance
A. Speech of acceptance: ______________________________________________ _______________________.
B. Expectations – The goal is to ____________________________________. This is a brief speech.
1. _______________ the person or group bestowing the honor
2. _______________ the competition
3. __________ feelings about receiving the award
4. __________ those who contributed to achieving the honor or award
VI. Speeches of Tribute
A. Speech of tribute: __________________________________________________ __________________.
1. A ______ is a ceremonial speech offered at the start of a reception or meal that pays tribute to the occasion or to a person. It should be sincere and express a sentiment that is likely to be widely shared by those in attendance.
2. A ______ is an event where guests provide short speeches of tribute about the featured guests that are developed with humorous stories and anecdotes.
3. A ______ is a ceremonial speech of tribute during a funeral or memorial service that praises someone’s life and accomplishments.
VII. Other Ceremonial Speeches
A. ________________________: a speech of tribute praising graduating students and inspiring them to reach for their goals.
B. ________________________: a ceremonial speech of tribute that celebrates national holidays or anniversaries of important events.
C. ________________________: a ceremonial speech that both sets the tone and generates enthusiasm for the topic of a conference or convention.
D. ________________________: a speech of tribute that honors a worthy person or group by naming a structure, monument, or park after the honoree.
E. ________________________: a ceremonial speech of tribute honoring someone who is leaving an organization
F. ________________________: a humorous speech that makes a serious point
Key Terms
speech of welcome
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master of ceremonies
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speech of introduction
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speech of nomination
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speech of recognition
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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speech of acceptance
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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speech of tribute
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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toast
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roast
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eulogy
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commencement address
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commemorative address
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keynote address
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dedication
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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farewell
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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speech to entertain
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Activities
Activity 15.1
Speeches of Commencement
Purpose: To examine a graduation speech.
Instructions: Locate, read, and listen to “Commencement Address at Wellesley College” by Barbara Bush at
.
(Hint: Search the speech bank under A-F.)
1. Who is the target audience for this speech?
________________________________________________________________________
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2. What specific strategies does the speaker use to connect with the audience?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the overall message of the speech? Do you feel the speech was successful? Why or why not?
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4. After having reading and/or listening to this speech, suggest a message that you would like to deliver for a graduation speech that would be appropriate for this ceremonial occasion.
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5. In your own words, explain why it might be more difficult to speak with sincerity or originality on a ceremonial occasion.
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Activity 15.2
InfoTrac Activity: Speeches of Acceptance
Purpose: To give you experience with understanding and evaluating an acceptance speech.
Instructions: Locate and read “John Henry” by Julius Lester. (Hint: Use as your search term either “acceptance speech” or the author’s name.)
1. What is the typical way in which recipients begin an acceptance speech?
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2. Julius Lester begins his acceptance speech with a story. What is the effect of this beginning?
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3. Lester contrasts his response at being told he had won a Newberry Award with his response at being informed that he had won the Boston Globe-Horn Book Award. What is the effect of contrasting these two stories?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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4. Lester thanks a number of people who contributed to his achievement. Identify a specific instance of this acknowledgment that you feel is particularly well worded or communicated with particular impact (and explain your choice).
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5. List and briefly describe at least one way in which Lester gives his audience something new or unexpected, something that makes this acceptance speech memorable.
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Activity 15.3
InfoTrac Activity: Speeches of Acceptance
Purpose: To give the opportunity to study and address political address in the guise of acceptance speeches.
Instructions: Go to InfoTrac and use “Acceptance Speech” as your key words. Locate and read at least 2 articles on John Kerry’s acceptance of the Democratic nomination and George W. Bush’s of the Republican. (Hint: Use as your search term either “acceptance speech” or the author’s name.)
1. What is the difference between this style of address and that advised by your text (p. 252)?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the purposes of speeches of this nature?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. What were the positive rhetorical, logical factors from Kerry’s address? Negative?
Positive: ________________________________________________________________
Negative: _______________________________________________________________
4. What were the positive rhetorical, logical factors from Bush’s address? Negative?
Positive:________________________________________________________________
Negative: _______________________________________________________________
5. In your opinion, did each man’s address have an effect on the ultimate outcome of the election?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity 15.4
InfoTrac Activity: Speeches of Tribute
Purpose: To give you experience with understanding and evaluating a tribute speech.
Instructions: Locate and read “Remarks at the congressional tribute honoring Officer Jacob J. Chestnut and detective John M. Gibson.” (Hint: This article is a transcript of a speech given by President Clinton on July 27, 1998. It may be useful to locate and read newspaper articles covering Chestnut and Gibson’s deaths before reading the transcript of Clinton’s tribute.)
1. A conventional tribute speech praises the accomplishments of an individual. What does Clinton praise these two men for?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Locate an example from this tribute speech that demonstrates how Clinton uses either a specific illustration, vivid language, or another figurative language device to increase the impact of his message.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Clinton’s tribute speech to the two men praises the accomplishments and character of others. List at least two other people or groups of people who are praised in this speech, and briefly describe the possible reasons for acknowledging them in this tribute.
a. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Activity 15.5
Speech of Introduction
Purpose: To give you experience constructing a speech of introduction.
Instructions: Prepare a two- to three-minute speech of introduction. Assume that you are introducing the featured speaker for a specific occasion. Criteria for evaluation include creativity in establishing speaker credibility and presenting the name of the speaker and the speech title. (You can also use Speech Builder Express for this one!)
Activity 15.6
Speech of Recognition
Purpose: To give you experience constructing a speech of recognition.
Instructions: Prepare a three- to five-minute speech in which you present a gift, a plaque, or an award to a member of your class. Criteria for evaluation include showing what the award is for, the criteria for winning, and how the person met the criteria.
Activity 15.7
Speech of Acceptance
Purpose: To give you experience constructing a speech of acceptance.
Instructions: This assignment can go together with the speech-of-presentation assignment. Prepare a one- to two-minute speech of acceptance in response to another speaker’s speech of presentation. The criterion for evaluation is how imaginatively you can respond in a brief speech.
Activity 15.8
Speech of Welcoming
Purpose: To give you experience constructing a speech of welcoming.
Instructions: Prepare a speech welcoming a specific person to your city, university, or social organization. Criteria for evaluation include how well you explain the nature of the institution and how well you introduce the person being welcomed.
Activity 15.9
Toast
Purpose: To give you experience constructing a toast.
Instructions: Prepare a one-minute toast to a specific person or persons on a specific occasion. Criteria for evaluation include how well you illustrate a quality or behavior of the person you are celebrating.
Activity 15.10
Eulogy
Purpose: To give you experience constructing a eulogy.
Instructions: Write your own eulogy. Prepare a four- to six-minute speech honoring yourself at your passing. Criteria for evaluation include how well you develop your own laudable characteristics and accomplishments without over-praising. You should also offer comfort to the mourners and display an intimate connection with the deceased (yourself!). You may choose to write this speech as if it happened now or at any time in the future with accomplishments and a legacy that are still in the future as of now. Also, you may choose any person you wish as the imagined orator.
Activity 15.11
Roast
Purpose: To give you insights into the roast.
Instructions: Watch the brief clip for the Dean Martin Celebrity Roast at which Bob Newhart roasts Don Rickles
1. How does this segment compare with the information contained in Chapter 15 of the textbook?
2. Do you think that this sort of activity is performed frequently or only on very special occasions? Why?
Activity 15.12
Impromptu Speech Activity
Consider what you would like people to remember or know about you if you were to die tomorrow. Prepare a two- to three-minute impromptu speech eulogy based on the expectations detailed in this chapter.
Activity 15.13
Assessment Activity
Watch the opening segment to a popular late-night television program such as Saturday Night Live, The Tonight Show, Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, or Conan. Consider the guidelines for a speech of welcome as described in this chapter. In what ways does the speaker follow or not follow the guidelines suggested in this chapter? How effective do you believe the speaker to be and why? Write up your assessment in the form of a one- to two-page reflection paper.
Activity 15.14
Sample Speech Analysis
Watch and analyze Oprah Winfrey’s eulogy of Rosa Parks, which is available at , and answer the following questions.
1. In what ways did Oprah Winfrey use stories to praise Rosa Parks’s life and accomplishments?
2. How did Winfrey make her speech relevant to her listeners?
Activity 15.15
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
Language Okay for the Occasion?
On January 6, 2010, actor and comedian Steve Carell won the People’s Choice Award for favourite TV comedy actor. His acceptance speech was filled with sexual innuendos. For example, he said, “Wow! I can’t believe it. This is much bigger than I thought it would be,” and “I’m going to go home, and I’m going to find a special place to put this,” and “I’m glad I came.” You can search for and watch Carell’s speech on YouTube.
1. What, if any, expectations for an acceptance speech did Steve Carell violate?
2. What, if any, ethical communication principles did Carell violate?
3. Do you think his speech offended any members in the live or TV audience? Explain.
4. Based on your answers to questions 1, 2, and 3, do you think his speech was appropriate? Effective? Why or why not?
Source:
Sandoval, G. (20 April 2010). “How Gizmodo got its iPhone scoop. (Q&A).” CNET News. Retrieved online from
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. You are assigned the task of meeting a visiting executive at the airport, escorting her to your office, and introducing her to the Board of Directors. What type of speech is appropriate here?
a. Welcoming
b. Introduction
c. Tribute
d. Recognition
2. How long should you plan to speak for a typical speech of introduction?
a. 1 to 2 minutes
b. 3 to 5 minutes
c. 5 to 8 minutes
d. 10 to 15 minutes
3. What type of speech do the winners at the Annual Academy Awards Ceremony typically give?
a. Introductory speech
b. Tribute speech
c. Welcoming speech
d. Acceptance speech
4. Which of the following is the most typical goal for a keynote address at a conference or convention?
a. To generate enthusiasm
b. To provide historical background relevant to the occasion
c. To provide biographical information relevant to the occasion
d. To establish credibility
5. What type of speech needs to be careful so as to limit the time of the speech?
a. Acceptance speeches
b. Speeches of introduction
c. Speeches of welcome
d. All of the above
6. A speech of welcome should do all of the following except
a. express appreciation for the presence of the person.
b. provide biographical information about the person.
c. express your hope for the outcome of the meeting.
d. provide a brief description of the group.
7. An introduction speech should do all of the following except
a. identify the speaker’s topic.
b. establish the credibility of the speaker.
c. express your hope for the outcome of the meeting.
d. establish the nature of the occasion.
8. An event at where guests provide short speeches of tribute about the featured guests that are developed with humorous stories and anecdotes is a
a. toast.
b. eulogy.
c. roast.
d. speech to entertain.
9. A humorous speech that makes a serious point is a
a. toast.
b. eulogy.
c. roast.
d. speech to entertain.
10. One characteristic of a toast is that it
a. lasts at least 5 minutes.
b. attempts to embarrass the honoree.
c. focuses on a single characteristic of the honoree.
d. is usually delivered while inebriated.
True/False
11. _____ A eulogy is a formal speech given in memory of someone who has died.
12. _____ A speech given when someone is leaving an organization is a farewell.
13. _____ A commencement speech is addressed to the graduating class.
14. _____ Commemorative addresses celebrate national holidays or anniversaries of important events.
15. _____ A speech of introduction should be shorter for individuals who are well known, and longer for individuals who are less familiar to the audience.
Essay
16. Many speeches fill a variety of roles. Develop a scenario where at least three of the special occasion speeches addressed in this chapter are necessary. Then, construct a speech to fulfill its requirements.
17. Imagine that you have been asked to be the keynote speaker at a conference on “Curing Cancer in the Next Decade.” Knowing what you now know about speeches of tribute and, specifically, keynote addresses, discuss your approach to preparing for this speech.
CHAPTER 16
DEVELOPING AND DELIVERING GROUP PRESENTATIONS
Learning Outcomes
1. Why is teamwork becoming so popular as a means for solving problems?
2. What does it mean to be a responsible group member?
3. How can you solve problems effectively in groups?
4. How do you prepare a group presentation?
5. How can you evaluate group work?
Interactive Chapter Outline
To help you review the chapter, complete the following outline with concepts and terms from the textbook and provide your own examples as requested.
Problem-solving groups are _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________.
I. Responsibilities of Group Members
A. Synergy occurs when _______________________________________________ _______________________________.
B. Responsibilities of Group Members – Identify the five responsibilities that group members have in the group decision making process.
1. ____________________________________.
2. ____________________________________.
3. ____________________________________.
4. ____________________________________.
5. ____________________________________.
__________ - disagreement or clash among ideas, principles, or people.
II. Conflict Resolution in Group Settings
A. Groups that don’t experience some conflict risk the problem of groupthink – _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________. Behaviors that signal group think include:
1. ______________________________________________________________.
2. ______________________________________________________________.
3. ______________________________________________________________.
4. ______________________________________________________________.
5. ______________________________________________________________.
B. Conflict Over Issues - Research has revealed five conflict management styles:
1. _______________ involves physically or psychologically removing yourself from the conflict.
2. _______________ is a passive conflict management style of accepting others’ ideas while neglecting your own, even when you disagree with their views.
3. _______________ means satisfying your own needs with no concern for the needs of others and no concern for the harm it does to the group dynamics or problem-solution process.
4. _______________ occurs when individuals give up part of what they want in order to provide at least some satisfaction to other opinions.
5. _______________ happens when you discuss the issues, describe feelings, and identify the characteristics of an effective solution before deciding what the ultimate solution will be.
C. Personality Conflicts – to help put aside personal feelings and manage conflicts effectively, use your language to ______________________________________ _______________________________.
1. Perception checking is __________________________________________ ____________________________.
2. Paraphrasing is ________________________________________________ ____________________________.
III. Systematic Group Problem-Solving Method - A systematic problem-solving method is an efficient six-step method for _____________________________________________.
A. _____________________________—identify any problems and define them in a way all members can understand and agree on.
1. Begin identifying several problems then ____________________________.
2. Pose questions to _______________________________________________.
3. Don’t ________________.
B. ___________________________—discovering as much as possible about the problem, through multiple research methods, and then sharing information amongst group members.
C. ______________________________—_______ are standards used for judging the merits of proposed solutions. Once you’ve established criteria, prioritize the list.
D. _____________________________—_____________ is an uncritical, non-evaluative process of generating alternatives by being creative, suspending judgment, and combining or adapting the ideas of others.
E. ______________________________________________________—comparing alternative solutions to the established test criteria, eliminate solutions that don’t meet the criteria, then select the best one(s).
F. _________________________________—determining how the agreed upon solution should be implemented. The group must fill in the details, such as what tasks are required and who will carry them out.
IV. Preparing Group Presentations – Preparing group presentations involves a five-step process.
A. ______________________________________ – determine the macrostructure then assign responsibilities.
B. _________________________________ – each member should construct an outline for his or her main point.
C. _________________________________________ – transitions between main points should be developed by the group as a whole. If not yet complete, the introduction and conclusions should be finished here as well.
D. _____________________________ – Which presentation format? Who will speak when? How will presentation aids be used? Etc.
E. _____________________________ – practice is especially important for group presentations, due to their greater complexity.
V. Public Group Presentation Formats
A. ________________: a discussion in which a limited number of participants present individual speeches of approximately the same length dealing with the same subject and then discuss their reactions to what others have said and answer questions from the audience.
B. _________________: A problem-solving discussion in front of an audience.
C. _________________: an event in which a large number of people who are interested in a topic convene to discuss, and at times to decide, one or more issues.
D. ______________________: a widespread method for individuals to engage in live exchange in real time without being in the same room. The most common forms are _________________, where individuals share information aurally over the telephone, and __________________, where individuals share information aurally and visually over the Internet. Some guidelines:
1. Begin with _____________________
2. Reduce __________________
3. Be ______________
4. Keep an eye on ________
E. Streaming video: ___________________________________________________.
Streaming slide show: ______________________________________________ ___________________________________.
VI. Evaluating Group Effectiveness
A. Evaluating Group Dynamics during the Preparation Process - group dynamics are _______________________________________________________.
B. Evaluating Effectiveness of the Group Presentation – effective group presentations depend on _____________________________________ as well as ____________ ___________________.
C. Evaluating Your Effectiveness – it’s also good to conduct a _________________.
Key Terms
problem-solving group
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
synergy
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
conflict
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
groupthink
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
withdrawing
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
accommodating
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
forcing
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
compromising
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
collaborating
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
perception checking
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
paraphrasing
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
systematic problem-solving method
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
criteria
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
brainstorming
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
symposium
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
panel discussion
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
town hall meeting
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
electronic conferencing
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
teleconferencing
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
videoconferencing
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
streaming video
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
streaming slide show
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
group dynamics
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Activities
Activity 16.1
InfoTrac Activity: Leading Problem-Solving Discussions
Purpose: To provide you with practical suggestions for leading a problem-solving group discussion.
Instructions: Locate and read “How to run a problem-solving meeting” by Mark J. Friedman. (Hint: Use “problem-solving” and “meeting” as your search terms.)
1. Friedman argues that a facilitator is needed to ensure the most positive outcomes for problem-solving groups. Why do you think that this person is referred to as a facilitator and not as a leader?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. According to this article, the facilitator need not be a technical expert. What other qualifications are more important, as Friedman sees it, and do you agree?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. According to Friedman, it is difficult for managers to perform the role of facilitators. Why is this, and do you agree with Friedman’s assessment of this difficulty?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. What does Friedman suggest for the optimal group size, and how does this compare to the size of the group that you feel most comfortable working in?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What specifics does Friedman recommend for the initial introduction phase of the meeting, and why are these introductions important to the group’s functioning?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Friedman suggests that before starting work, the group, working as a team, should establish ground rules. Give an example of what these rules should include and discuss why they are important.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. What is to be gained by soliciting feedback on the group’s processes after the group has completed its work?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. List and briefly describe another suggestion or discussion from this article that you found helpful.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity 16.2
InfoTrac Activity: Asking Effective Questions
Purpose: To help you to become a more effective questioner and a more effective participant in group problem solving.
Instructions: Locate and read “The power of asking the right questions” by Sam Deep and Lyle Sussman. (Hint: Use the authors’ names or the title of the article as your search term.)
1. The article offers several metaphors to illustrate the power of questions. List one of these metaphors, then provide an original metaphor of your own which illustrates why questioning is a valuable skill to attain.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. The article suggests that asking questions can help to develop consensus and rapport. What style of leadership is best suited to questioning, and what style of leadership does not readily ask questions?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Provide a specific illustration and a description of a way in which a task-oriented leader can effectively use questions.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Provide a specific illustration and a description of a way in which a people-oriented leader can effectively use questions.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What are the potential risks associated with asking questions?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. How can a team leader minimize these risks while using questioning as a valuable part of his or her leadership skills and abilities?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity 16.3
InfoTrac Activity: Gender and Leadership
Purpose: To provide you with real-world evaluations of the differences that gender can sometimes make in leadership styles.
Instructions: Locate and read “Women as leaders: Vive la difference” by Rich Jones and Gary Boulard. (Hint: Use “women” and “leadership” as your search terms.)
1. According to this article, what are significant differences between the ways in which men and women approach leadership roles?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. From your experience and knowledge, how would you assess the accuracy of these claimed differences? (Support your response with specifics and examples.)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. List and briefly describe at least one characteristic of leadership that this article claims is more “female” but which you feel is not gender specific.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. According to this article, what are some of the problems that women in leadership positions may experience?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. As you see it, are these problems real and significant for women leaders?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Imagine yourself in conversation with the authors of this article: what would you add to the discussion?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity 16.4
InfoTrac Activity: Using Technology in Business Meetings
Purpose: To help you see how technology is changing the face of modern business meetings.
Instructions: Locate and read “Group work and electronic meeting systems: From boardroom to classroom” by William L. Tullar, Paula R. Kaiser, and Pierre A. Balthazard. (Hint: Use “problem-solving” and “meeting” as your search terms.)
1. According to the article, how much has technology increased productivity in business meetings? To what do you believe this is attributable?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What tasks do you believe are easier for electronic groups? Actual groups? Are there any that are only possible for one type of group?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3 This article equates business groups with the classroom setting. What are some of the similarities and differences?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4 What are some of the technological advancements that have made electronic meetings possible?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5 What are some of the similarities and differences between physical and electronic meetings? Advantages and disadvantages of each?
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6 How does the role of group leader change if the group meets electronically? (Be sure to reference the leader’s roles on p. 258-259 of your text.)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity 16.5
Public Group Presentation:
Purpose: To provide you with practical experience of presenting in a group.
Instructions: Divide the class into groups of four to six. Each group will prepare to conduct either a symposium or a panel based on their findings from engaging in the problem-solving process. Present the symposium or the panel in the form of a twenty-five to thirty-minute presentation followed by five to ten minutes of audience question and answers. Each group must help identify an appropriate issue, participate in the problem-solving process, and take part in the presentation.
Public Group Presentation
Purpose: To familiarize you with panel discussions.
Instructions: With other members of your class, prepare a panel discussion on which you will sit and that will presented in front of the reminder of the class. Be sure to select a topic that will generate interest from your classmates who will be in the audience.
1. How did you and your group prepare for the panel discussion?
2. How did the audience react to your panel discussion?
3. What do you think your group did particularly well in the panel discussion?
4. What might you be able to improve on if you were to do this panel discussion again?
Preparation for a Problem Solving Group Discussion
I. What is the size and scope of the problem?
A. Consider number of people or things involved.
B. Consider relevant ratios and other numbers that compare this problem to other situations.
C. Consider current actions being taken to address the problem.
II. What are the causes of the problem?
A. How do those involved perceive the problem?
B. How do relevant groups and informal organizations perceive the problem?
C. How do relevant institutions perceive the problem?
D. How are societal norms and expectations related to the problem?
III. What criteria should be used to test solutions?
A. Who are the individuals involved who must favor this solution and what are their needs?
B. Who are relevant groups involved who must favor this solution and what are their needs?
C. How much time will this solution need before it produces positive effects?
D. How much money will this solution require?
E. Is this solution practically feasible?
F. Does this solution comply with existing rules, laws, and regulations?
Group Leadership Checklist
Task 1 2 3 4 5
Has an agenda ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Promotes systematic problem solving ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Asks good questions ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Keeps the group on the topic ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Summarizes decisions ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Maintenance
Creates a good working atmosphere ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Rewards members for their contributions ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Encourages balanced participation ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Deals with cultural diversity ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Activity 16.6
Reflect on Ethics: What Would You Do?
Modeling Group Dynamics on TV Talk Shows
TV talk shows are very popular, and ABC’s The View is one of the most popular today. The program has garnered twenty-four daytime Emmy Awards and is currently in its twelfth season. It features a team of five female cohosts of different ages and backgrounds, who discuss and debate current news events and issues.
What do The View and similar programs convey to viewers about engaging in group discussion? We can begin to answer this question by observing comments bloggers post to the show’s website:
• KellyKKelly wrote: “I realized that every time I catch excerpts from the thing, I wind up with a headache. They talk over each other, Whoopi yells (especially at Sherri who she thinks is a ditz but then overcompensates by...giving her time to finish her sentence).”
• Similarly, Bibliotech wrote: “I check out The View once a week or so, and yesterday I noticed something that’s been annoying me...every time Elisabeth tried to ask a question or interject a comment, she was cut off, the subject was changed, and Behar had this weird, rude body language, practically turning her back to Elisabeth...it made me so uncomfortable I turned the channel.”
• And Sanbur posted this comment: “I am all for free speech,...I want to hear all opinions, but I expect them to be informed, to be respectful, and to be open to the FACT that there are always two sides to a story.”
If you haven’t seen The View, watch an episode of it, and then answer the following questions:
1. In what ways, if any, does The View violate the guidelines for effective group dynamics discussed in this chapter?
2. What, if any, ethical communication principles do the cohosts of this program violate?
3. What are the possible implications of this sort of modelling on viewers with regard to communicating with others in groups?
4. What would you do if you found yourself interacting in a group functioning as these cohosts do?
Source: “The View,” . Retrieved online from
Activity 16.16
Impromptu Speech Activity
Each group should brainstorm a list of at least ten topic ideas for their group presentation. Then, each member of the group should select one of the topics (no duplicates allowed) and quickly prepare a two- to three-minute impromptu speech whose goal is to convince the other group members that his or her topic should be the one the group selects for the group’s panel or symposium. After members have presented their speeches to the other group members, each member should rank order his or her preferences for each topic. Groups should compile these results and use them as they decide on a topic.
Self-Test
To review the chapter and assess your comprehension and learning, take the following self-test.
Multiple Choice
1. Which is NOT a responsibility associated with group members?
a. Keep discussions on track
b. Manage conflict
c. Work toward an individual goal
d. Complete individual assignments on time
2. The first step in preparing a group presentation is to
a. finalize the delivery details.
b. combine member outlines.
c. practice the presentation.
d. divide topic into areas of responsibility.
3. Which is NOT a symptom of groupthink?
a. Encouraging diverse opinions
b. Avoiding conflict to save someone’s feelings
c. Reaching “consensus” without the support of all members
d. Ignoring disagreements
4. Ron and his group worked in a group and their success was far better than they might have achieved if they had worked as individuals. This is an example of
a. brainstorming.
b. groupthink.
c. synergy.
d. none of the above.
5. The process of generating associated ideas in an uncritical, nonevaluative manner is known as
a. task responsibilities.
b. maintenance responsibilities.
c. brainstorming.
d. problem-solving.
6. One disadvantage of a symposium is
a. participants have the same amount of time to speak.
b. the audience participates in a question and answer session.
c. the individual speeches work to present a bigger picture.
d. the ability to have significant interaction for a good discussion.
7. A conflict management style that is considered to be a win-win situation is to
a. accommodate.
b. collaborate.
c. withdraw.
d. compromise.
8. The first step in the problem-solving discussion process is
a. determining solution criteria.
b. defining the problem.
c. brainstorming.
d. analyzing the problem.
9. To keep discussions on track, group members should
a. offer only relevant comments.
b. gently remind others to stay on track.
c. refrain from discussing personal issues.
d. all of the above.
10. Which is NOT a strategy for analyzing the problem during systematic problem-solving?
a. Keeping information to yourself
b. Examine published materials
c. Consult experts
d. Use questions to help guide the type of information gathered
True/False
11. _____ Groupthink is a positive outcome of avoiding group conflict.
12. _____ Group dynamics is how individuals work together as a team toward a common goal.
13. _____ Perception checking and paraphrasing are ways to address conflict about issues.
14. _____ Self evaluation is an important part of the group process.
15. _____ Possible group solutions should be evaluated using the criteria previously established by the group.
Essay
16. Imagine that your class is establishing a problem-solving discussion group to suggest ways in which the teaching and learning of public speaking skills could be improved at your college. All students interested in serving as the leader of this group are asked to submit to the class an open letter in which they state their skills and abilities relevant to the job, their goals for the group, and the processes they will use to reach those goals. Write such a letter.
17. Discuss the benefits of using perception checking and paraphrasing when dealing with fellow students in a class group project. What outcomes might you expect?
Appendix: Self-Test Answers
Chapter 1
1. d (p. 4)
2. a (p. 4)
3. d (p. 5)
4. a (p. 7)
5. a (p. 10)
6. a (p. 10)
7. b (p. 7)
8. b (p. 7)
9. d (p. 7)
10. b (p. 9)
11. T (p. 6)
12. T (p. 10)
13. F (p. 10-11)
14. F (p. 7)
15. F (p. 11)
Chapter 2
1. a (p. 25)
2. a (p. 18)
3. b (p. 20)
4. d (p. 19)
5. c (p. 20)
6. b (p. 18)
7. c (p. 23)
8. d (p. 25-26)
9. d (p. 27)
10. d (p. 23-24)
11. F (p. 23)
12. F (p. 27)
13. F (p. 22)
14. F (p. 27)
15. T (p. 18)
Chapter 3
1. c (p. 31)
2. a (p. 34)
3. a (p. 33)
4. b (p. 32)
5. c (p. 31)
6. d (p. 36)
7. d (p. 36)
8. a (p. 35)
9. d (p. 35)
10. d (p. 36)
11. F (p. 34)
12. F (p. 34)
13. F (p. 35)
14. F (p. 33)
15. T (p. 36)
Chapter 4
1. d (p. 46)
2. b (p. 47)
3. b (p. 45)
4. d (p. 48)
5. d (p. 41)
6. c (p. 54)
7. c (p. 46-47)
8. a (p. 43)
9. a (p. 46)
10. d (p. 47)
11. T (p. 54)
12. F (p. 46)
13. F (p. 51)
14. F (p. 42-43)
15. T (p. 53)
Chapter 5
1. c (p. 59)
2. d (p. 59-60)
3. d (p. 59-60)
4. b (p. 58)
5. d (p. 59)
6. c (p. 59)
7. a (p. 65)
8. a (p. 60-62)
9. c (p. 58)
10. a (p. 63)
11. T (p. 60)
12. F (p. 65)
13. F (p. 61)
14. T (p. 62)
15. F (p. 66)
Chapter 6
1. a (p. 69)
2. c (p. 71)
3. b (p. 71)
4. b (p. 72)
5. b (p. 77)
6. b (p. 70)
7. a (p. 71)
8. d (p. 71)
9. d (p. 75)
10. a (p. 72)
11. T (p. 83)
12. F (p. 78)
13. T (p. 70)
14. F (p. 74)
15. F (p. 76)
Chapter 7
1. d (p. 88)
2. b (p. 95)
3. a (p. 91)
4. b (p. 92)
5. c (p. 88)
6. d (p. 90)
7. a (p. 90)
8. c (p. 95)
9. d (p. 88)
10. c (p. 92)
11. F (p. 92)
12. F (p. 88)
13. F (p. 91)
14. F (p. 90)
15. F (p. 90)
Chapter 8
1. c (p. 102)
2. d (p. 102)
3. b (p. 105)
4. b (p. 106)
5. a (p. 102-103)
6. a (p. 106)
7. c (p. 102)
8. b (p. 102)
9. a (p. 106-107)
10. a (p. 106)
11. T (p. 108)
12. F (p. 108-111)
13. T (p.101)
14. F (p. 106-107)
15. T (p. 103)
Chapter 9
1. d (p. 119)
2. b (p. 119)
3. a (p. 120)
4. c (p. 119-120)
5. a (p. 123-125)
6. c (p. 119)
7. b (p. 120)
8. d (p. 124)
9. a (p. 128)
10. d (p. 124)
11. F (p. 127)
12. F (p. 120)
13. F (p. 121)
14. T (p. 128)
15. T (p. 127)
Chapter 10
1. c (p. 140)
2. a (p. 132)
3. d (p. 132)
4. d (p. 141)
5. b (p. 132-133)
6. c (p. 136)
7. a (p. 136)
8. d (p. 133)
9. b (p. 136)
10. d (p. 139-141)
11. F (p. 138)
12. F (p. 136)
13. F (p. 132)
14. T (p. 140)
15. F (p. 137)
Chapter 11
1. b (p. 151)
2. c (p. 145)
3. d (p. 145)
4. b (p. 146)
5. d (p. 146)
6. c (p. 145)
7. a (p. 145)
8. d (p. 145)
9. d (p. 146)
10. a (p. 146)
11. T (p. 146)
12. F (p. 146)
13. F (p. 154)
14. F (p. 150)
15. F (p. 156)
Chapter 12
1. c (p. 172)
2. d (p. 170)
3. a (p. 181)
4. d (p. 181)
5. d (p. 170)
6. d (p. 168)
7. c (p. 173)
8. a (p. 181)
9. b (p. 171)
10. d (p. 167)
11. T (p. 167)
12. F (p. 167-168)
13. F (p. 172)
14. T (p. 181-183)
15. F (p. 173)
Chapter 13
1. a (p. 193)
2. c (p. 194)
3. c (p. 194)
4. a (p. 195-196)
5. b (p. 196)
6. d (p. 199)
7. c (p. 197)
8. c (p. 198)
9. a (p. 201)
10. d (p. 200)
11. T (p. 203)
12. F (p. 203)
13. F (p. 206)
14. F (p. 206)
15. T (p. 207)
Chapter 14
1. c (p. 211)
2. c (p. 214)
3. a (p. 213)
4. c (p. 212)
5. d (p. 213)
6. b (p. 213)
7. a (p. 216)
8. d (p. 234)
9. a (p. 246)
10. c (p. 212)
11. F (p. 213)
12. F (p. 213)
13. T (p. 214)
14. F (p. 215 | 232)
15. T (p. 232)
Chapter 15
1. a (p. 249)
2. b (p. 250)
3. d (p. 252)
4. a (p. 255)
5. d (p. 249-250 | 252)
6. b (p. 249-250)
7. c (p. 250-251)
8. c (p. 254)
9. d (p. 254)
10. c (p. 254)
11. T (p. 254)
12. T (p. 255)
13. T (p. 254-255)
14. T (p. 255)
15. T (p. 250)
Chapter 16
1. c (p. 258-259)
2. d (p. 263)
3. a (p. 260)
4. c (p. 258)
5. c (p. 262)
6. d (p. 264)
7. b (p. 260)
8. b (p. 261)
9. d (p. 258-259)
10. a (p. 262)
11. F (p. 260)
12. T (p. 267)
13. F (p. 261)
14. T (p. 267)
15. T (p. 263)
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