Amazon Web Services



3072809106326INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION AND OPEN LEARNINGHIMACHAL PRADESH UNIVERSITYSUMMER HILL: 171 005TRANSLATION STUDIES AND PRINCIPLES OF TRANSLATIONUNIT 1 TO VI Dr Sandeep SharmaGovt College, Rampur Bushahr Himachal Pradesh profsandeepsharma@ForewordGood Morning Students!This lesson has covered your syllabus and is written in communicative English. After reading this lesson you will feel confident enough to face your End-Term Semester Exams. Is clearing your End-Term Semester Exam and scoring good marks your main aim as a student? No. It shouldn’t be. As a student, you have a larger responsibility. You are responsible for the nation. You’ve to acquire knowledge so that in coming times you become a responsible citizen of the nation and the world too. After all we are global citizens. If in any case you think that your level of knowledge is not up to the mark then you have to alleviate your level. This is your responsibility as a citizen of this nation. For that matter there is no escape from hard work. Learning environment of a distant student is a bit different from the one who is a regular student attending classes, interacting with teachers and mentors in college every day. In order to fulfill his duty as a teacher, the present author too has tried his level best in writing lesson for you. In this lesson, we have placed grey boxes in which the translation scenario of different countries is given. Otherwise, these text-boxes have no relevance if seen from examination point of view. This is add-on information which will open your eyes to the countries other than European (and India). You’ll have an insight into authors and scholars who have written creative works as also used their native languages. These authors may not have secured an important place in the ‘World Literature’ or academia of India and Europe but they have definitely made significant impressions in their respective countries.When talking of ‘Translation’ and ‘World Literature’ we have to think beyond Europe and India. There is an alphabetical list of these authors and different works in translation. These lists have not been written in a stylistic manner. This list is just to help you revise and check what you have learnt so far. Treat it as a mnemonic, an aid to memory.I acknowledge my debt to Prof V P Sharma, Prof Rekha Sharma, Prof Jaiwanti Dimri, Prof Usha Bande and Prof Sapna Sanjay Pandit for their support and intellectual suggestions. Thanks and good luck!(Dr Sandeep Sharma)Asst Prof of English Govt College, Rampur Bushahr SECTION IUnit I Introduction to Translationa) Translating from Source Language (SL) to Target Language (TL) b) Purpose of Translation c)Translation as a Literary, Cultural and Knowledge Bridged) Self-Other Interaction in TranslationSECTION IIUnit II Approaches to Translationa) Domestication: Readability in the Target Textb) Foreignization: Faithfulness to the Source Language/TextSECTION IIIUnit III Methods of Translationa) Meta-phrase: Sense Translation based on difference b) Paraphrase: Word-to-Word Translation based on Equivalence c)Imitation: Regulated Transformationd)Interpretation and Adaptation SECTION IVUnit IV Problems of Translationa) Cultural Gap b) Untranslatability c)Translation as Appropriation of Indigenous Languages by EnglishSECTION VUnit V Translation in Indiaa) Definitions: Anuvaad, Bhashantar, Roopantar b) Key Terms: Rasa, Dhvani, Auchitya c)Reading Translation/Cultural Difference, Contexts and Language d)Shubhangi Bhadbhade’s “Garden of Spice.”c)Jaiwanti Dimri’s “The Inner Eye.” SECTION VIUnit VI Translation a) Translating from Hindi to English b) Translating from English to HindiA BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE STATUS OF TRANSLATION IN SOME COUNTIRES OF THE WORLDName of the CountryText-Box NoAfghanistan 1Albania 2Algeria3Andorra 4Antigua and Barbuda 5Armenia 6Azerbaijan 7Bahamas 8Bahrain 9Bangladesh10Barbados 11Austria12Belarus 13Belgium14Belize15Benin16Bermuda 17Bhutan 18Bosnia and Herzegovina 19Botswana 20Brazil21Brunei Darussalam 22Bulgaria 23Burkina Faso24Burma25Burundi 26Cambodia 27Cameroon 28Canada29Cape Verde 30Central African Republic31Chad 32Chile33China 34Colombia 35Comoros36Congo 37Costa Rica 38Croatia 39Cuba 40Cyprus41Czech Republic 42Republic of the Congo43Denmark 44Djibouti 45Dominican Republic 46Dominica 47Ecuador 48Egypt 49El Salvador 50France 51Germany 52The Great Britain 53Greece54Hungary 55Iceland 56Indonesia 57Iran 58Iraq59Israel 60Italy 61Jamaica 62COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS IN TRANSLATION STUDIESACPIAssociation of Court and Police Interpreters (UK)AIICInternational Association of Conference InterpretersAITCInternational Association of Conference TranslatorsAITIAssociate of the Institute of Translation and InterpretingATAAmerican Translators Association AUSITAustralian Institute of Interpreters and TranslatorsBD?Bundesverband der Dolmetscher und ?bersetzer (German Interpreters and Translators Association)CATComputer-aided Translation CDICertified Deaf Interpreter CIoLChartered Institute of Linguists (UK)CLIP-RConditional Legal Interpreting Permit-RelayDIDialogue Interpreting DTPDesktop PublishingDTSDescriptive Translation StudiesFITInternational Federation of TranslatorsFIT International Federation of TranslatorsFLAFirst Language Acquisition GIM Global Information ManagementHTHuman Translation IAFLThe International Association of Forensic ITA Irish Translators’ AssociationITIInstitute of Translation and Interpretingl10nLocalisationLISALocalization Industry Standards Association LSPLanguage Service ProviderMATMachine-aided Translation MIL Member of the Institute of LinguistsMITIMember of the Institute of Translation and InterpretingMTMachine TranslationNAATINational Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters (in Australia).NWTN North West Translators Network (UK)PDFPortable Document FormatRIDRegistry of Interpreters for the Deaf, USASATISouth African Translators Institute SCISimultaneous Conference Interpreting SCSource Culture SLSource Language SLA Second Language Acquisition SMTStatistical Machine TranslationSTSource text TATranslators Association (a division of the Society of Authors)TAUSAutomation User Society TCTarget Culture TETerminology ExtractionTETranslation EnvironmentTEnTTranslation Environment ToolTETTerminology Extraction ToolTLTarget Language TMTranslation MemoryTMXTranslation Memory Exchange FormatTrans Translated by TSTranslation Studies TTTarget textTUsTranslation Units TWBTranslator’s WorkbenchWIPOWorld Intellectual Property Organization 1TRANSLATION IN AFGHANISTANOfficial Languages: Pashto, Dari James Atkinson was an extraordinary combination of scientific temperament and literary creation. He, while working with the military medical service of the East India Company, was the first to translate Ferdowsi’s indispensible poem Shahnama (around 977), now the national epic of Afghanistan, into English (1832). He published it for the Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland (1905-1925). Presently, the biggest challenge for the translators, who have set themselves to the task of translating Afghani texts, is that a digital inquiry is yet to unravel the beauty of these texts. Most of these texts are not digitalized and not easily available at the simple click of a mouse. Most of the inhabitants of Afghanistan can speak Dari and Pashto languages. In a Land far From Home – A Bengali in Afghanistan, an English translation of the book by former BBC journalist Nazes Afroz was published by Speaking Tiger Books in April, 2015. Afroz’s work is the first authoritative translation of Mujtaba Ali’s (d. 1974) Deshe Bideshe. A prior translation was done by Sasahbindu Chakraborty in 2005, but this translation was self-published and remains largely unknown. UK based The Guardian criticizes Americans in their documentary for their inability to deal with the Afghan issue in “Afghanistan: Lost in Translation.” Many people lost their lives in Afghanisthan due to wrong interpretations by army interpreters/translators. The translator has to have a great grip on Persian, Dari and Pashto languages before converting this wealth of literature into Target Text. In Afghanistan, there are about 23 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO). Translation Studies and Principles of TranslationUnit I Introduction to TranslationStructure 1. 1 Objectives 1.2 Definition(s) of Translation1.3 Translating from Source Language (SL) to Target Language (TL) 1. 4 Purpose of Translation 1.5 Translation as a Literary, Cultural and Knowledge Bridge1.6 Self-Other Interaction in Translation1.7 Let us Sum up1.8 Important Questions ________________________________________________________________________ 1.1 Objectives________________________________________________________________________早上好 Students! Well, what’s this first letter we’ve written? It’s not a mistype or some software error. It is simplified Chinese. You’ll be curious to know its meaning, aren’t you? We’ll translate it for you. Actually, 早上好 in Chinese means ‘Good Morning’ in English and Shubh Prabhat in Hindi. So in this introductory part you’ve learnt how to write good morning in Chinese. Hey that’s why we do translation! When we learn the art of translation then we in the real sense become citizen of the world. Translation as it seems is not an easy task to do. We’ve to learn a lot before translating. So in this lesson we’ll unravel some important aspects of translation as an activity. You’ll understand what is the Source Language and Target Language in translation. We’ll read and try to understand different definitions of translation given by scholars. By the end of this lesson, you’ll be able to answer all the questions that have been given in the last section of this lesson.________________________________________________________________________1.2 Definition(s) of Translation________________________________________________________________________The word translation has been derived from the Latin words trans and ferre. Trans as a Latin prefix appears in many English words such as transfer, transform, transit and so on. But the real meaning of this Latin root is “to carry across.” The word translation might have emerged from the Latin translatio which means “transportation/transference; transfer to another; change of venue.” Then ‘what’ is to be ‘carried across’ or ‘transported/transferred’ in translation? Defining this ‘what’ is a difficult task. Is the word ‘translation’ itself adequate to explain the entire intellectual process involved? If the word ‘translation’ is sufficient then why did Bakhtin in his works prefer to use the word vyskazyvanie (utterance) to translation (Krebs)? That is why Newmark said once, "A good translation is easy to identify but equally problematic to define." These are some problematic questions which trouble us. But firstly, we’ll go through different definitions of translation given by scholars:2TRANSLATION IN ALBANIAOfficial Language: Albanian Fig 1. The Albanian script.The script of Albanian is a variant of Latin alphabet. Albanian literature should have formed an integral part of European literature. But this is not so. It has seen a long phase of neglect, which perhaps is still on. The 208 page manuscript of Theodor of Shkodra (1210), which came to the knowledge of the world in 1998, unravels some great learning of theology, philosophy and history. Other than this, Pjeter Budi (1618-1621); Pjeter Bogdani; literature of Bejtexhinj; Girdlamo De Rada; Francesco Santori; Gabriele Dara; Giuseppe Serembe; Rilindja literature (which brought national awakening in the 19th Cent); the Frasheri brothers; A Z Cajup(poet); Asdreni(poet); Ndre Mjeda (poet); Migjeni; Lasgush Poradeci; Ernest Koliqi; Mitrush Kuteli are some events and names worth mentioning here. Bogdani ( commonly known as the father of Albanian), Hivzi Sulejmani (1912-1975), Adem Demaci ( political prisoner and writer) who wrote the most controversial novel Gjarpijit e gjakut in 1958 (The Snakes of Blood). Other names worth mentioning are: Rexhep Qosja and his most translated novel Vdekja me vjen prej syve te tille::trembedhjete tregime qe mund te benin nje roman , 1974 (Death Comes from Such Eyes: :Thirteen Tales Which Could Make up a Novel), Ramiz Kelmendi ( he founded the “Faik Koica” School of Journalism) and his work Ahmet Koshutani (1973), Jusuf Buxhovi and his novel Prape vdekja (1991) (Death Again) and Eqrem Basha and his collection of short stories titled Marsh i kermillit (1994) (The Snail's March) and Dyert e heshtjes (2001) (The Gates of Silence). In Albania there are about 04 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary- [Translation is] “to change sth. spoken or esp. written into another language."Eugene A. Nida- “Translation consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and secondly in style."House- “Translation is the replacement of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in the target language.”Dr. Johnson - "To translate is to change into another language, retaining the sense."Mednikova- "Translation is a way of commenting."J.C.Catford- "[Translation is] the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)."Toury- "[Translation has no] fixed identity because they are always subjected to different socio-literary contextual factors, so they have to be seen as having multiple identities, dependent upon the forces of history and semiotic we called ‘culture."Susan Bassnett- “The translator is relegated to the position of a technician, neither poet nor commentator, with a clearly defined but severely limited task.”Benjamin- "A real translation is transparent; it doesn’t cover the original, doesn’t block its light, but allows pure language, as though reinforced by its own medium, to shine upon the original all the more fully."3TRANSLATION IN ALGERIAOfficial Language: Arabic and BerberThe script of Berber is Abjad in which each symbol stands for a consonant. Tifinagh, which is also Abjad script, is used to write Berber languages (its script is substantive variant of Latin alphabet)Fig 2 : The above script in Tifinagh means: “Province of Tiznit” (Wikipedia).In wake of classical zeal, this script is/was usually used for decoration, artistic or for private affairs. But presently a lot of efforts are made to make this text alive. Translation scholars have almost failed to translate the Bible into Tifinag. As most of the population is Muslim in Algeria there still is a space for researchers to find the cause and effect of reasons for not up taking this endeavor. In Algeria, are about 13 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO). Zohn-“[T]ranslation, ironically, transplants the original into a more definitive linguistic realm… In translation the original rises into a higher and purer linguistic air.”Nair-"The activity of translation between two languages is essential transferring one culture into another through verbal means."Catford-"[Translation is] an operation performed on languages, a process of substituting text in one language for text in another language."Harivansh Rai Bachhan: ‘A successful translation is the mirror of translator’s personality.’Nadstoga- [Translation is] "a process which is completed when the translator feels she/he has accounted for lexical, idiomatic, and syntactic means of expressions in the target [receptor] language (TL).”Maithili Sharan Gupt – ‘As far as possible we should try to protect the Source Language.’ Hilaire Belloc-“The art of translation is a subsidiary art and derivative. On this account it has never been granted the dignity of original work and has suffered too much in the general judgment of letters.”Ramanujan- "A translator is ‘an artist on oath’. He has a double allegiance, indeed, several double allegiances."J. Hillis Miller-“Translation is the wandering existence of a text in perpetual exile.”Lefevere- “[Translation is] the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting and it is potentially the most influential because it is able to project the image of an author and /or those works beyond the boundaries of their culture of origin.”We have given definitions of some great scholars above. But these definitions will never end just like the task of translation. Nida in her “Principles of Correspondence” says, “definitions of proper translating [in the West] are almost as numerous and varied as the persons who have undertaken to discuss the subject” (131). Then what do we actually learn out of these definitions of translations? We can form a broader frame out of these definitions. 4TRANSLATION IN ANDORRA Official Language: Catalan The script of Catalan is Latin. Anyway, much translation from Spanish to Catalan has already been done. The possible and perhaps inevitable reason behind the transformation is that most of the Catalan-speaking people are bilingual. This fundamentally adds a Spanish vision to Catalan. Translation of Quizot or Don Quixote was done by Eduard Tamaro in a leaflet form (1992). We can simply say that translation is an interpretative art, a scientific process, a skill of rewriting in which the contents of Source Language (SL) are reproduced into Target Language (TL). This reproduction should be very close to the meaning of SL where sense is usually maintained. The identities of culture, thematic, metaphoric, pragmatic and linguistic elements of Source Language should preferably be given due importance while recreating it into Target Language (TL).5TRANSLATION IN ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA National language: Spanish Latin is the script of Spanish language. English language, as its historical inclination suggests, enters the translation area of the Source Text with the Bible- a prototype entery of English language. The first translation of The Bible, from Greek into Spanish, was done by Junemann (b 1855). However, this edition was not widely circulated and read. It is more important for a translator to be able to do the cultural interpretations of the values of this country before initiating the process of translation. No matter these cultural areas be devoid of any glory; no matter the powerful class reads it with a sense of disappointment. These are indeed no insurmountable challenges after all. For that matter, one work of the twentieth century A Small Place (2000) by Jamaica Kincaid is worth mentioning here. This novel is banned in Antigua to "avoid distress to the venal politicians and patronizing tourists who draw equal fire from pen” (from the back cover of the novel A Small Place). ________________________________________________________________________ 1.3 Translating from Source Language (SL) to Target Language (TL) ________________________________________________________________________ Thinking and speaking (verbally and non-verbally) is what we’ve been doing all our lives. When we were young we used to do babbling, kicking our legs and punching at the sky. At that stage there was ‘no need and competence’ of taking decisions before communicating. Then we grew up and started interpreting situations. We started speaking and communicating according to the context. In India and many other countries, most of us are lucky enough to be multilingual. We speak in our native language with our elderly ones in villages (if you don’t then you must). We speak in Hindi as a formal and informal language with our friends, teachers and the society around us. And then from the very Nursery we learn English alphabets as also Hindi alphabets. Almost every one of us knows the English alphabets (A, B, C, D and so on). (See how you are reading this text, the text of current lesson, which is in English!) We read nursery rhymes in English. We sing together with our teachers and classmates: Jack and JillWent up to hillTo fetch a pail of waterMost of us still remember this nursery rhyme, don’t we? We can, to some extent, understand English too. We said ‘to some extent’ as we know that English is a foreign language and it is difficult (but not impossible) to have a firm grip on it. Let us go back to the above nursery rhyme. Do you know the meanings of “fetch” and “pail”? If you already know then we are proceeding further. If you don’t know then you have an option to check its meaning in an authentic dictionary and then we’ll proceed further. Anyway, we have to go on whatsoever you do out of the given two options. So it is quite clear that most of us are multilingual and we should not take this fact as granted. It’s a great achievement indeed and we must everyday hone our skills in languages. If we are, in any case, not multilingual or bilingual and want to learn a foreign language then also it is not too late. We can learn languages at any age, at any stage. That’s the beauty of learning. Just give it a try. There are a lot of educational videos on YouTube which help us learn any foreign language with ease. Why we’ve taken this topic of multilingualism or being bilingual is because for the first thing in translation we need to have some authentic holding on two languages. As we said earlier, we think, interpret and speak all the time. In other way, we are always communicating. But what happens when we translate and write it down? When we read a text in Hindi and reproduce it into English we take care of tenses, sense, grammatical pattern and so on. Take for example this text in English:a) Its raining dogs and cats.c) Kutte aur billi barish mai gir rahe hai. ( word-for-word translation, and its wrong way to interpret/translate these lines)6TRANSLATION IN ARMENIAOfficial language: Armenian.Fig 3. The Armenian Script.The script of Armenian is Pahlavi and Syriac. Mesrop Mashtots, a linguist and also a missionary, worked with the Armenians. He developed Caucasian Albanian and Georgian alphabets. He also created an alphabet (in 405 AD?) so that Armenian language could be written down effectively. For the literature lovers, naturally many promising avenues made their way after this endeavor. Translation of The Bible was done in Armenian. Akabi Hikayesi (1851) by Vartan Pasha was the first novel which was written in Turkish (of Ottoman Empire). This novel was written in distinct Armenian script. In Armenia there are about 2 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).Translation in Hindi:b) musladhar barish ho rahi hai.(correct)So out of the above given texts, the Source Language (SL) is English. On the other hand, the Target Language (TL) is Hindi. In the preceding paragraphs we will define Source Language and Target Language.Source Language (SL): Dear Students, Source language is that language in which its contents are taken, read and understood and thereafter translated into some other language (Target Language). This language (SL) serves as a source or basis of the original translation. That is why we call it Source Language. We abbreviate it as SL (especially in case of interpreting). Sometimes it is also known as Source Text and is abbreviated as ST or commonly called A Language Source language contains all the codes of culture and thematic background of a given text. That is why it is very important for a translator to have proficiency in SL. Before commencing on the process of translation we must fully understand and interpret the ST of SL. (Hereafter, we’ll use the abbreviations SL/ST and TL/TT).7TRANSLATION IN AZERBAIJANOfficial Language: Azerbaijani The script of Azerbaijani , which is a Turkish language, is Persian. Azerbaijani is primarily a bilingual language having striking similarity with the tones of Persian and Turkish languages. Azeri literature is rich in folk poetry and folklore. Poetry is full of symbolism. Safavid Divan poetry is one of such form of poetry in Azerbaijani literature. Here we have similitude (?????? ???? mura'?t-i naz?r / ????? ten?süb) and opposition (???? tez?d). The Azerbaijani literature encountered a lot of changes during the communist times. We can often see the impact of Russian thought and language in it as Azerbaijanis were struggling to establish power relations with Russians. This tendency of Azerbaijani poses the biggest challenge to the translator of Azerbaijani literature. Seyyed Mohammad Hossein Behjat Tabrizi (1906- 1987) was a famous Azeri poet. In his "Heydar Babaya Salam" (“Greetings to Heydar Baba”) he makes the world aware of the cultural isolation of villages as also narrates his days of childhood in a village Heydar Baba, Iran:”(Azerbaijan International)Heydar Baba, when the thunder resounds across the skies,When floods roar down the mountainsides,And the girls line up to watch it rushing by,Send my greetings to the tribesmen and the village folkAnd remember me and my name once more. (Azerbaijan International)Subtle thoughts contained in “Greetings to Haydar Baba” by Shahriyar still stimulate imaginative fantasy of readers. Translation of this poem into English has been done by Dr. Hasan Javadi. In Azerbaijan, there are about 11 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).Target Language (TL): So after understanding the meaning of SL let us read, dear Students about Target Language. Target language is that language in which the final work of translation appears. The target of translator is to derive meanings out of the SL and convert it into another language (TL). That is why we call it a Target Language (especially in case of interpreting). However, for some critics this word “Target” is derogatory. We abbreviate it as TL or commonly we call it B Language. Sometimes it is also known as Target Text and is abbreviated as TT . The task before a translator is a difficult one as the translator has to truly capture all the codes of culture and thematic background of a Source Text into TL. The flavor, the essence, the meaning should be captured. And that’s important! Commonly, TL is the first language of a translator. In simple words translation is a process of converting SL into TL. We will discuss as to how this can be achieved.Translation is an art, a creative skill but it is also Science. So it is better if we move on with a scientific approach. That is why before translating from SL to TL some points should be kept in mind. We must firstly decide the direction or directionality of languages as also understand translatability (see Glossary) of given text. This directionality is sometimes shown with the greater than sign (>): English>Hindi or Hindi> English. Sometimes A (SL) to B (TL) or B (TL) to A(SL) also shows directionality of translation. The second step is about deciding the language pairs we will further work on, like:Source Language (A) Target Language (B)English HindiHindiEnglish 8TRANSLATION IN BAHAMASOfficial Language: EnglishIn addition to the official language English, Bahamian Creole is frequently used in Bahamas. Bahamian Creole, which is more or less a variety of English, is also a recognized regional language of Bahamas. It won’t be an illogical exaggeration if one suggests that Bahamas carries more essence of the culture and ethnicity of Bahamas. The contemporary Bahamian English has all the traits of British English, English of American settlers, the old varieties of 18th century Bahamian, Creole, Gullah and African American English (Montgomery 47). A linguistic feature of Bahamian dialect is that usually ‘h’ and ‘g’ in Bahamian is dropped than made silent. What da wybe is (What's up?) is a common phrase for addressing in contemporary Bahamian English and the answer will be een nothin (nothing). A mere glance at this and innumerably other phrases in English may startle us but they open our eyes into the other world of variant dialects of ‘English languages.’Sentences should possibly be short. Longer sentences and frequent use of conjunctions and prepositions lessen the quality of any work. We always write for readers and if for readers your translation is a mind-boggling task then the entire purpose of translation fails its mission. Then a translator has to keep in mind these points: locate the ST, understand the natural essence of that text, its cultural hues, understand the author who has produced SL and so on. You must be familiar with TL as well. You must know how to address cultural essences of SL into TL. You have to write Translator’s introduction, plan for the design of cover page, make glossaries of difficult words and so on. And in the process of converting from SL to TL avoid jargons, translationese (see Glossary) or technological terminology. That doesn’t mean that you should not have firm grip on the translation terminology. Without the knowledge of the technical terms used in translation you will be unaware of many tools which may help you in the process of translation from SL to TL. That is why we’ve given some important translation terms at the end of this lesson, please do read it thoroughly. We are have given a list of some approaches which helps a translator in the process of translation (from SL to TL). These are some of many approaches with help of which you can translate from SL. Please read the relevant entry in the “Glossary” given at the end of this lesson:1. Theory of Dynamic Equivalence.2. Deconstruction.3. Chomskyan Nativism.4. Homogenizing convention5. Skopos Theory6. Functionalism7. Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of 'translatorial action'8. Localization or L10N9. Pseudotranslation10. Transliteration11. Domestication12. Foreignization13. Semiotics ________________________________________________________________________ 1. 4 Purpose of Translation ________________________________________________________________________ Before knowing about proposes of translation it is important to know types of translation. Why? Obviously because the purpose varies according to the type of translation. For understanding ‘what’ you have to know ‘which.’ Jakobson has written about three kinds of translation methodologies: a) intralingual (rewording); b) interlingual (translation proper) and c) intersemiotic (transmutation) (please see Glossary for a detailed study of these divisions). Various scholars have divided translation mainly into these three types:a) Human Translation (written, oral) b) Mechanical Translationc) Computer Aided TranslationHere we are giving a table which depicts types of translation and its purposes (this table is not exhaustive as you should yourself think and make as many points as possible after reading entries of these types of translation/interpreting in the “Glossary” given at the end of this lesson):Type of Translation / Interpreting Purpose Scientific and Technical TranslationTo educate professionals in scientific and technical fields.Interpretative TranslationExplanatory.Back TranslationAccuracy. Sight TranslationCommunication with the differently abled.Institutional TranslationSpecific to the institutional norms.Relay Translation When there are more than two languages involved and it is difficult to produce a TT without involvement of another translator.Linguistic Translation Broader than textual facts (when there is a necessity of involvement of semiotic reading).(please read entires on Saussure in this lesson)RetranslationThe retranslated text may be purposeful for a “common culture” (from SL to SL or TL to TL).Promotional TranslationMarket strategy, consumer behavior and financial benefits.Literary Translation To establish cannons of literature.Cultural TranslationTo relocate cultural and traditional parameters.Inter-Disciplinary TranslationTo integrate various streams of mitted TranslationCommitment to a specific purpose. Descriptive TranslationSelf introspection. Self-TranslationAuthenticity and high-fidelity.Remote Translation or Interpreting To shorten the distance of communication with use of technology like phones, web-conferencing in order to shorten the distance.Conference Interpreting To facilitate the Target Audience.Videophone Interpreting To shorten the distance or space between the interpreter and Target Audience (as also to facilitate differently abled in some cases).Broadcast Interpreting To facilitate the Target Audience and communicate the broadcast.Dialogue Interpreting To communicate emotions and thoughts of SL munity Interpreting Cross-cultural communication.Transliteration To help reader to speak and read in any language which is not known to him/her.9TRANSLATION IN BAHRAINOfficial language: Arabic Most of the works of Arabic language of Bahrain can be easily translated into Urdu. Gocul Prasad translated the notable Arabic work Majma-ul-Bahrain and made it a consequential part of Urdu language in the year 1872. The title of this translated work is Nur-i-Ain. This work was lithographed in Lucknow. A lot of work has already been translated from Arabic into English but the major challenge faced by translators is that it is difficult to find lists of Baharain equivalent vocabulary in English or for that matter in any language. The challenge becomes tougher with elements of culture, linguistics and Arabic words (which often have multiple meanings). ________________________________________________________________________1.5 Translation as a Literary, Cultural and Knowledge Bridge________________________________________________________________________How the World Came CloserIslands and countries were discovered by the great explorers like Vasco de Gama, Marco Polo, Magellan, Captain Cook, Ibn Battuta and so on. They took the very first imitative in making the world one big and multi-cultural global village. Businesses were established, colonies were made. People of different countries and cultures started communicating. For this they had to share their ideas through languages. Sometimes theses languages were forced on the colonies. Sometimes, it was a mutual give and take like sharing. 10TRANSLATION IN BANGLADESHOfficial language: Bengali Bangla is a widely spoken language and holds a commanding position in Bangladesh. Bangla ranks at the sixth position amongst the most spoken languages of the world. Dhaka Lit Festival is organized in Bangladesh to uplift the contemporary writers through translations. The author Mohammad Maruof believes, “However, it is true that except Rabindranath, works of other writers have not been adequately translated" [in Bangla] (The Dhaka Tribune). Children literature of Bangladesh is widely known through translation such as : Bijananer Rajya, Abak Prithibi by Abdullah Aalmuti; Sanjher Belar Rupkatha by Ataur Rahman and Bijan Baner Rajyakanya by Habibur Rahman. There is a long list of partition literature, folk poetry, works having Sufi inclinations and so forth which have since time immortal been rendering its great philosophical guidelines to the world. Outstanding and widely read (obviously through translated versions) amongst the contemporary novelists of Bangladesh is Taslima Nasrin. Her splendid book (L?jja, Lajja also Shame, 1993) was initially published in Bengali. She wrote in her "Preface": "I wrote Lajja when I saw Muslim fundamentalists in Bangladesh attack Hindus. It all happened during December 1992." The book was banned in Bangladesh and still no one in Bangladesh is protesting against this ban till date. Later, it became immediately a world-splendid-bestseller because of its English translation in the year 1997. Almost 50,000 copies after six months of its publication were sold out. This book has now been translated into almost every language of the world including Arabic, Assamese, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, Gujarati, German, Hindi, Icelandic, Italian, Malayalam, Nepali, Sinhalese, Spanish, Swedish, Norwegian, Persian, Kannada, Marathi, Punjabi, Oriya, Urdu, Telugu, Tamil and so on. It’s still running editions over editions. In Bangladesh, there are about 05 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO)._______________________________________________________________________The Bridge of Religions_______________________________________________________________________When two or more than two cultures meet then obviously there will be a great impact on their religions and ideologies as well. This really brings a quick change in thinking patterns of people. That is why religions and sacred texts quickly spread across nations. They managed to spread across multi-lingual regions through translation. The Bible was the fastest to travel in its translated versions. As of now, The Bible is the most translated book of the world. In China, the beginning of the process of translation started with the Buddhist scriptures. The Buddhist scripture Liu Du Ji Jing (Shaiparamita-sannipata Sutra), Xiao Pin Bo Re (Pragnaparamita-sutra of a Small Class) and Juan were translated. Then the Buddhist monks like Dao An (314-385) strongly preferred translation to transliteration. Yoga, t'ai chi, Karma, the Oriental concept of soul, Sufism, mysticism, Yin/Yan and other belief systems quickly merged into the Western world and no matter was duly accepted with enthusiasm there. As Christianity spread in the English colonies in the same way as of now Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam are an integral part of European countries. In every country of the world you will find major population following different religions. Somewhere even after reading teachings of these religions and the sacred text through translated versions, different groups modified these religious concepts and made their own scriptures. Like in Vietnam they made ‘Engaged Buddhism,’ in Sri Lanka they created ‘Protestant Buddhism.’ Neo-Hindu movement, Self-Religion movement, Rastafarian movement and so on have recently emerged and have attracted huge number of followers. Nowadays, in many parts of the world all these emerging religions are followed collectively under one umbrella term. These are ‘New Religions’ like we have the religious cult named ‘Happy Science’ (founded in 1986, also known as The Institute for Research in Human Happiness) in Japan. This cult follows “spiritual messages” of the God (be it of any religion or cult). This is one example; you can find as many examples, as you like. This is how translation makes bridges across multi-cultural spaces. ________________________________________________________________________Scientific Movements ___________________________________________________________________We just talked of the bridge formed by religions and its understanding spread by translations. In scientific fields, the knowledge of psychology also was an instant hit. The works of Sigmund Freud (the father of psychology) was positively received by translators. His approaches reached the world. Now Psycho-therapeutic spiritual movements like Scientology and Gurjieffian groups have entered the world religious scenario grounded in scientific approaches. Otherwise also science and technology has always played a vital role everywhere. No doubt, technical and scientific advancements travel faster. When the first observation of falling apple was made by Newton it was rapidly communicated through translation. Now everyone has tasted Newton’s apple in their matriculation (or even before that) and knows about the gravitation theory. Innovations of the fire (around 400,000 BCE), language, ship, wheel, currency, iron and so on were gradually learnt by our ancestors. No one knows how knowledge of these skills travelled across humanity. But what we know is about the latest updates in the fields of internet, computer science, biocybernetics, aeronautics, nano-technology, neurobiology, nuclear science, neurophysiology, robotics etc but on the other hand we also know about the invention of light by Thomas Edison, artificial heart and dialysis machine by Willem Kolff, audio tape recording by Dr Andy Hildebrand, Braille by Louis Braille, Compact Discs by James Russell, concrete and cement by Joseph Monier, photocopier by Chester Carlson, thermometer by Gabriel Fahrenheit and so on and on. All these inventions done at a specific space and time became universal, beyond spaces and time. Now these inventions are useful for every one of us. This could happen because these discoveries were communicated through translation to the other worlds. We can read and use Facebook and Whatsapp because we know English. Science could have not been as useful as it is with translation. 11TRANSLATION IN BARBADOSOfficial language : EnglishNevertheless the official language of Barbados is English but Bajan Creole is a recognized regional language. In a broader sense, Bajan Creole is a form of spoken English and has influenced American English a lot. Bruce St John introduced the writing of poetry in Barbadian Creole as he gave the aesthetics of Creole a political edge. Here is an excerpt from his Creole poem which has phonetic similarities with that of African languages: "De 'Holy Ghost' stretch down the wicket/An' 'e jook an' 'e poke like t'ings tight/All of a sudden 'e step back/An' 'e stretch up in de air an' 'e smack!/A fielder pun de boundary pounce/Like a cat! Down han' 'pon de ball/An' de ball twis' out 'e han' an' de man/ eatin' grass an' de ball hit de board/An' bounce back!" (Allsopp 316). Due to profound impact of the culture of Barbados and tonality of African language in Bajan Creole, it is essential for the translator to be familiar with various epochs of Barbados which gradually made an indispensable space in its literature and language. In the same way, many political, philosophical, linguistic, theoretical and social movements and ideas and many other major path breaking events got communicated in the entire world through translation. In this inter-cultural world translation, opens our intellectual eyes, we understand alien cultures and foreign countries. Translation is a comparative art. When we go back to the 20th Century we recollect with reverence name of the great scholar Buddhadeva Bose who brought the stream of Comparative Literature in India. As of now, Indian scholars are meticulously bridging gaps of cultures with comparative literature. Translation also forms a bridge between the world teachers and the learners. It is making us understand ethnic, ideological, racial, and religious diversity. Even in classroom, a teacher has to translate the text in order to make it easier for students. So, in all, translation is inevitable. In the Eight Schedule of Indian Constitution there are 22 Scheduled Languages. But when we visit the Census of India website (2016 data) we read that Hindi is the most spoken Mother Tongue of 422,048,642 people. However, Sanskrit is the least spoken Mother Tongue of around 14,135 people in India. This diversity of India is a challenge for translators and the non-translators as well. We may not be conversant with all the languages and dialects spoken in India. But then how will we understand the beauty and cultural essence of the other parts of India? Obviously, through translation! Translation is a great bridge within and outside India, that’s done, but for translators the task of producing an ‘effective translation’ is a challenging task in itself. There is a high sense of responsibility attached to the creative science called translation. Maybe that’s why Hung says:Translators know they cross over but do not know by what sort of bridge. They often re-cross by a different bridge to check up again. ________________________________________________________________________ 1.6 Self-Other Interaction in Translation________________________________________________________________________ Translation is a speech, it’s an act. A translator or an interpreter forms networks of interaction. As we told you earlier, for a translator a lot of responsibility is attached. A translator needs to have a high sense of credibility. For example, if an interpreter does not communicate the real meaning then the whole process of communication becomes futile. That is why a translator with a high sense of responsibility needs to understand his/her role, the expectations of others and proceed with a holistic and systematic approach. The translator or interpreter should be mentally and emotionally sound. Translator has to demarcate his role as I, the self. For example, in consecutive translation if something untoward is communicated in SL then without any reservations the translator has to communicate the content in TL. If the translator feels that what is communicated is offending and hides the content of SL then it could be problematic (especially in case of medical or court interpreting). The non-systematic approach could lead to loss of credibility, financial loss or even the loss of life and liberty (as in the Court Interpretation). That is why the inner thoughts or opinions of a translator or an interpreter should not mingle with the outer world while he is in this profession. The translator has to pose these basic questions to himself/herself: Who interacts in translation and what and how is it interacted?Keeping in view these basic assumptions, Lasswell (1902-1978) American theorist and scholar proposed a model for the communication process. It is also known as The Lasswell’s Model of Communication. Here it is (Wordpress) :Fig 4: The Lasswell’s Model of Communication________________________________________________________________________ 1.7 Let us Sum up________________________________________________________________________ How was your reading students? So in this lesson we have understood these things:We have gone through various definitions of translation given by great scholars of translation. After reading these definitions we can make a clear cut picture of translation as an art, a creative skill followed by scientific approach. We have understood as to how we can translate from SL to TL and how to tackle the complications involved in it.We have also understood various theories and tools which could help us in the process of translation. But for understanding them in the real sense of the word you’ve to read the “Glossary” given at the end of this lesson.We knew about the purposes of translation which vary according to its types.We came to know that translation brings the world together as also we specifically visited scientific and religious scenarios which were bridged together by the solid concrete of translation. In every section we’ve given you some snippets of “Translation” in text boxes. This will enrich you knowledge.12TRANSLATION IN AUSTRIAOfficial language: German Fig 5: An example of Austrian German indicating the word “Pedestrian.” Always known for creativity, Austria has produced the most perfect masters of their fields such as Arthur Schnitzler (1862-1931), a short story writer, a novelist and also known as a dramatist of acclaim. Movies had been made on his novel Fr?ulein Else (1924) (although he was known as a pornographer due to outward nature of his works); Stefan Zweig(1881-1941) an author, a biographer and a journalist, close friend of Sigmund Freud (the father of Psychology), wrote best novellas of his times such as Der Amokl?ufer or Amok (a psychological story); Eva Maria Charlotte Michelle Ibbotson; née Wiesner (1925-2010) a famous creator of Children's books; Georg Trakl (1887-1914) a precursor or master of the literature of Expressionism in Austria; Thomas Bernhard (1931-1989) wrote novels and novellas (New York Times book review appreciates him by calling, "the most significant literary achievement since World War II"; Karl Kraus (1874-1936) was also nominated three times for the Nobel prize of literature and the list will never end.Elfriede Jelinek (b. 1946) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature (2004). She writes in German. Her works such as Die Klavierspielerin (The Piano Teacher) (1983), novel on self-mutilation, perversion and about teacher-student, mother-daughter relationship; Die Kinder der Toten (The Children of the Dead) (1995), a postmodern horror novel of the “gothic style” comprising zombies and many more works attracted critical acclaim. Peter Handke (b. 1942) is a novelist, translator and a playwright. The most influencing Austrian-British philosopher who frequently used Austrian German in his work was Ludwig Wittgenstein. His book Tractatus Logico-Philsophicus and Philosophical Investigations was widely distributed and translated into many languages around the world. In Austria, there are about 05 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).________________________________________________________________________1.8 Important Questions ________________________________________________________________________Ques. 1. Define translation. Support your answer with definitions of translation given by different scholars.Ques 2. What processes are involved in translation of a text from Source Language (SL) to Target Language (TL)?Ques 3. What is translation? Define its purpose.Ques 4. How translation forms a bridge across nations? Explain.Ques 5. What is role of the self and the other in translation? 13TRANSLATION IN BELARUSOfficial Languages: Belarusian and RussianaBelarusian language is also spoken in Russia and Ukraine. That’s why it shares intelligibility with Ukraine and Russian. According to Nigel Roberts," Belarusian deserves to be better known and the kitabs in particular are a remarkable part of the country's cultural heritage" (31). Fleischer discovered a Tatar chamail ("prayer book") written in Belarusian whose initial lines were:"Codex arabicus, tataricus, polonicus." Later, he ascribed these lines to Ukrainian influence (Akiner 03). Zajaczkowski did justice to Belarusian when he took initiative to publish his research paper titled, "Resztki jezykowe Tatarow litewskich" (1948). Rocznik (1932), a journal was started which focused on Tatar affairs. Nasha Niva (Our Field), also called “people’s newspaper,” was a journal-cum-newspaper published between 1906 and 1915. This Belarusian journal helped a lot for the revival of Belarusian.Fig 6: The first statute of Lithuania (1529), written in Belarusian (Wikipedia). In Belarus there are about 03 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).14TRANSLATION IN BELGIUMOfficial Languages: Durch, French and German.Belgium is a multilingual country with shades of many languages spoken and understood there. Belgian literature is “the body of written works produced by Belgians and written in Flemish, which is equivalent to the Standard Dutch (Netherlandic) language of the Netherlands, and in Standard French, which are the two main divisions of literature by language of Belgium” (Britannica). We have more Francophone Belgium writers in Belgium. That’s why it was a common belief that most of the Belarus literature is written in French. Willem Verhoeven and Jan Baptist Verlooy made an effort to revive Belarus literature and fought for upholding the pure Belgian voice in literature and language. They raised their voices against the French influence. Joseph Addison created his first Flemish prose story, Jellen en Mietje (Jellen and Mietje, 1811). Jean Pierre Bertrand edited Historie de la Litterature Belge Francophone (1800-2000); August Vermeylen's De wandelende Jood (1906; The Wandering Jew); Emmanuel de Bom's Wrakken (Wrecks) (the first modern Flemish psychological novel) are some remarkable beginners of Belgian literature. It is believed that from 1830-50 almost 50% of French translations from the Dutch language were done by Francophone Belgians (Delabastita 94). In Belgium there are about 08 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).Translation Studies and Principles of TranslationUnit II Approaches to TranslationStructure 2. 1 Objectives 2.2 Domestication: Readability in the Target Text2.3 Foreignization: Faithfulness to the Source Language/Text 2. 4 Let us Sum up2.5 Important Questions ________________________________________________________________________ 2.1 Objectives________________________________________________________________________ Welcome back Students! Hope you’re enjoying lessons. In the second unit we’ll be reading about some concepts of translation like Domestication and Foreignization. After reading this lesson you’ll be able to understand these translation strategies as also will you surely give a thought over scholars’ point of view to reconsider them as a solution to translation problem(s). So let us proceed…15TRANSLATION IN BELIZEOfficial language: EnglishAlthough the official language of Belize is English but Spanish, Belizean Creole, Garifuna and Mayan languages are also recognized here. Commonly spoken language or the lingua franca here is Belize Kriol (a language similar to American Miskito) which is mainly derived from English. It is believed that this language was introduced in Belize by slaves. The National Kriol Council through its website gives a lot of information about Belizean Creole. Decker is the grammar of Belizean Kriol written in the year 2006 (Velupillai 230).Fig7 : Sign board in Belize Kriol.A framework for standard orthography for Belizean titled How fi Rite Bileez Kriol was written under Belize Creole Orthography Project in 1994 (Ammon, 2092). In Belize, there are about 23 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO). _____________________________________________________________________________________ 2.2 Domestication: Readability in the Target Text_____________________________________________________________________________________ Some definitions on domestication:Ritva Hartama :“Domestication refers to the ‘fluent translation.”Lawrence Venuti : Domestication is : “an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bring the author back home.” Lawrence Venuti:"Domestication and Foreignization deal with 'the question of how much a translation assimilates a foreign text to the translating language and culture, and how much it rather signals the differences of that text'".Voltaire :“I am convinced that we have two or three poets in France who would be able to translate Homer very well; but I am equally convinced that nobody will read them unless they soften and embellish almost everything because, Madame, you have to write for your time, not for the past.”Voltaire-“...can culture A ever really understand culture B on that culture's (i.e. B's) own terms?”New coinages emerged in the twentieth century. It won’t be a hyperbole if we call this century the century of coinages. There were concepts like Sanskritization given by Indian scholar M. N. Srinivas which were became very popular in academia. This concept truly captured the cultural and religious essence of the century. In the same century the concept of domestication emerged. This coinage in translation seemed at first a great relief to the translators. It was thought of as solution to many problems of translation. Domestication also known as kotoutta (to bring home) is a method or a strategy in translation in which the cultural value(s) of SL are translated flexibly in order to make Target Audience familiar SL through TL and put their reading at ease. Domestication helps minimizing strangeness to the foreign Source Text. After reading Schleiermacher’s (a German scholar, 1768-1834) lecture series on Methods of Translation, Lawrence Venuti (1953), an American scholar, a translation theorist, introduced both these terms in his monograph The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). In Domestication, the unfamiliar aspects of Source Language are made familiar in the Target Language. For this the translator has to be aware that there will be an intercultural communication in translation. This inter-cultural communication should not in any way hinder familiarization and cultural values of the Source Text. 16TRANSLATION IN BENINOfficial Language: FrenchThe literature written by authors belonging to Benin is known as Beninese literature. Most of the Beninese writers use French as a language of their expressions. Some of them are: Stanislas Adotevi, Barbara Akplogan, Gisèle Hountondji, Hortense Mayaba, Alidjanatou Saliou-Arekpa, Arnold Sènou and so on. In Benin the language Tchumbuli is critically engendered (UNESCO).Here we will give you some examples of Domestication to make the above points clear:a) Source Text Target Text Hindi EnglishUsne Sidku khaya.He ate bun.Here Sidku (a traditional dish of Himachal Pradesh) is an unfamiliar word in English. That is why for the English readers the translator used domesticated word ---‘bun.’ This will help the native speaker of English to read the text without any hindrance and will also preserve cultural identity of the English as well that of Hindi.b) Source Text Target Text English HindiHe had gone for snorkeling. Vo pani may khlene ja chuka tha. Again in the above given example a word from sports terminology, “snorkeling,” is used. This term may be familiar to the Europeans. But in Hindi we perhaps don’t have an equivalent of this term. That is why the translator again domesticated the word “snorkeling” with “pani may khelne.”SLHINDITLENGLISHSidku STBun TTTRANSLATOR READER Fig. 8 The process of domestication explainedThe above figure shows as to how the entire process of Domestication actually is takes place ( from the translator to the reader). Free translation done under the aegis of Domestication strategy makes it readable for the readers of TL. One has to keep in mind that the reader has no excess to or knowledge of SL (but this statement is not absolute). No matter domestication is a great tool in the hands of a translator but too much of Domestication will wither away the real meaning and essence of Source Text. ________________________________________________________________________ 2.3 Foreignization: Faithfulness to the Source Language/Text ________________________________________________________________________ Lawrence Venuti- Domestication “bring(s) the author back home” whereas Foreignization “send[s] the reader abroad.”Lawrence Venuti- Foreignization resists, “ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism.”Lawrence Venuti- “The foreign in foreignizing translation is not a transparent representation of an essence that resides in the foreign text, and is valuable in itself, but a strategic construction whose value is contingent on the current situation in the receiving culture. Foreignizing translation signifies the differences of the foreign text, yet only by disrupting the codes that prevail in the translating language.”17TRANSLATION IN BERMUDAOfficial language: EnglishThe most commonly used language in Bermuda is Bermudian English which has its own distinct accent pattern exclusively of Bermuda. It has shades of American, British and West Indian English languages. Bermudian English is perhaps the most untouched and less researched upon language of the world. The Department of Community & Cultural Affairs, Bermuda offers various literary awards in order to promote and preserve Bermudian literature. In 1774, Nathaniel Tucker wrote a poem titled "The Bermudian" (Allibone 2465). Here is an excerpt from the same: BERMUDA, parent of my early days, To thee belong my tributary lays; In thy blest clime, secur'd from instant harms, A tender mother press'd me in her arms.Presently there are well known writers from Bermuda such as Angela Barry, Rawle Frederick, Rosemary Jones, Janet Wingate and Brian Burland all decorated with awards given by the department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Bermuda. Kjetil Myskja –“In a foreignising translation the translator intentionally disrupts the linguistic and genre expectations of the target language in order to mark the otherness of the translated texts.”Feng – “Foreignization is a source-culture-oriented translation which strives to translate the source language and culture into the target one in order to keep a kind of exotic flavor.”Shi Dao'an- "[T]ranslators should 'adhere to the original text but not ruin the meaning."After reading all the above definitions of Foreignization by scholars we can conclude that Foreignization is a method, an ethical necessity or a strategy in translation in which the elements of Source Text are intentionally retained in the Target Text as-it-is because they have no equivalent elements in the Target Text (like personal names, cultural dresses, cuisine, historical figures and so on) or they are preserved in order to retain faith in cultural values of SL. In other words, Foreignization is bringing home the cultural values of SL into TL without bringing any changes in cultural identity and cultural differences of SL. Here we will give you some examples of Foreignization to make the definitions clear:a) Source Text Target Text Hindi EnglishUsne langoti pehne hue thi.He was wearing a langoti.In the example given above, we have not translated langoti (which is in italics) from Hindi (ST) but taken this word as-it-is into English (TT). SLHINDITLENGLISHLangotiSTLangotiTTTRANSLATOR READERFig. 9 The process of foreignization explained.18TRANSLATION IN BHUTANOfficial language: DzongkhaMost of the people of Bhutan speak and write in Nepalese. Bhutan is rich in oral literature which transforms and transmits through memory. The literature produced in Nepalese in Bhutan is known as Bhutanese Nepali literature. India-Bhutan Foundation organizes Mountain Echoes literary festival in Bhutan in order to promote it. Dzongkha, a Sino-Tibetan language, is a tonic language and for representing these tones Chinese alphabet is used. George (Sjors) van Driem (born 1957) was given the task of codifying the grammar of Dzongkha. Even before and after him, a lot of efforts were made to transliterate Dzongkha through Romanization. A book titled Introduction to Dzongkha and Dzongkha Hand Book was published to help the beginners (Ramakant 64). But a special Romanization system known as Roman Dzongkha was devised by Driem which is now considered an authoritative way to understand Dzongkha. Kunzang Choden translated the folklore of Bhutan. By writing The Circle of Karma (2015), which relates to the story of Tsomo, a teenage girl and her tribulations, Kunzang Choden became the first Bhutanese woman to write a novel in English. In Bhutan, there are about 19 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).So after reading all this about Foreignization, what is left with us is the question of faithfulness or fidelity which this section is all about. Can we say that Foreignization is all about showing fidelity to the cultural and ethical values of SL? Perhaps yes. As we know that the process of translation is very slippery. There are many gaps which can never be filled up. In Foreignization, faithfulness to content and form gives the trust, the absolute trust in TL. The translation in Foreignization justifies the SL by including the active words of SL into TL. Somehow, it gives a sense of faith to the Target Reader as well. Is Foreignization and being faithful to the SL an absolute solution to the problem of translation then? Think about it. What many believe is that it cannot be termed as an absolute strategy in translation. The reason for this is that too much of Foreignization will surely confuse the Target Reader. The Target Reader has to time and again consult glossary to know the meanings. This will hamper reading and fail the real purpose of translation.19TRANSLATION IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINANational language: Bosnian Croatian SerbianIvo Andri? (9 October 1892 – 13 March 1975) from Bosnia and Herzegovina got Nobel prize of literature in 1961. He primarily wrote in Serbo-Croatian. His works translated into other languages of the world are widely received. There are many other renowned authors from this country such as Antun Branko ?imi?, Aleksa ?anti?, Jovan Du?i? and Mak Dizdar, writers such as Zlatko Top?i?, Me?a Selimovi?, Semezdin Mehmedinovi?, Miljenko Jergovi?, Isak Samokovlija, Safvet beg Ba?agi?, Abdulah Sidran, Petar Ko?i?, Aleksandar Hemon, and Ned?ad Ibri?imovi?.______________________________________________________________________________2. 4 Let us Sum up______________________________________________________________________________We have understood as to how the processes of Domestication and Foreignization helps in solving many problems encountered during the process of translation. Hope your reading was happy and knowledgeable.______________________________________________________________________________2.5 Important Questions ______________________________________________________________________________Question 1. What is Domestication? Describe with examples.Question 2. What is Foreignization? How can the process of Foreignization be related to faithfulness to the Source Text? 20TRANSLATION IN BOTSWANAOfficial language: English The official language of Botswana is English but Setswana, a Bantu language, is also spoken across the country. However naturally without a script nothing is written in Setswana, everything that exists is oral and down the memory lane. Nowadays there is a rallying cry to make Setswana the national language of Botswana. In Botswana, there are about 19 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).21TRANSLATION IN BRAZILOfficial language: PortuguesePresently other than English translations of Portuguese literature, the plays written in Czech like Listopad's Svejk, 1995 are also well received in Portugal (Spirk 172). In spite of the fact that Czechoslovak government censored Portuguese authors (from 1948 to 17 Nov 1989), Czech translators have translated many works from Czech to Portuguese, more importantly the authors from Brazil. Associa??o Paulista de Críticos de Arte (the award given for ‘ stage acting, music, literature, film, television, plastic arts and radio’); Cam?es Prize,( the award given for the best work written in Portuguese); Prêmio Jabuti or the "Tortoise Prize;” Prêmio Machado de Assis ( the award given to commemorate Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis [839–1908]); Oceanos-Prêmio de Literatura em Língua Portuguesa, S?o Paulo Prize ( for the novels written in Portuguese but published in Brazil) for Literature and many prizes are given away in Brazil to promote literary works written in Portuguese. Following these extraordinary and coveted prizes we have a long list of authors who write in Portuguese. In Brazil, there are alarming number of 190 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).Translation Studies and Principles of TranslationUnit III Methods of TranslationStructure 3. 1 Objectives 3.2 Meta-phrase: Sense Translation based on difference 3.3 Paraphrase- Word-to-Word Translation based on Equivalence 3.4Imitation: Regulated Transformation3.5Interpretation and Adaptation 3.6 Let us Sum up3.7 Important Questions ________________________________________________________________________1.1 Objectives________________________________________________________________________Hello Students! In this lesson you’ll be learning about some important terminologies and concept used in Translation Studies. After reading this lesson you’ll be able to define metaphrase, paraphrase, equivalence, imitation, interpretation and adaptation. Hope this endeavor will help you make a better “Translator” and “Interpreter.”22TRANSLATION IN BRUNEI DARUSSALAMOfficial language: Malay Malay is the official language of Brunei but Brunei Malay, Jawi Malay, Tutong dialect, Kedayan dialect, Belait dialect, Chinese (Hokkien, Hakka, Mandarin and Cantonese), Murut, Dusun, Brunei and Bisaya are frequently spoken here. Other than Malay, Jawi alphabet (which is Arabic based script) is also official script of Brunei. "A recently discovered old Malay manuscript, dated as early as 998 AH/1590 AD., entitled Kitab al-Nasafi which is a bilingual book with Arabic text and its interlinear Malay translation (in Jawi script) by an anonymous translator" (Fazi 408). More recently translators have shown much interest in the oldest Malay manuscript, Aqa'id of al-Nasafai (16th Cent ), which truly captures the religious and intellectual essence of the Malay world. Fig. 10 'Prioritize the Malay Language.' The message in this sign board in Brunei promotes Jawi script using Roman script with it (" Language in Brunei")_____________________________________________________________________________________1.2 Meta-phrase: Sense Translation based on difference ________________________________________________________________________John Dryden (1631-1700), first poet laureate of England (1668), translator, playwright and literary critic from London in his preface to his translated work Ovid's Epistles (1680) used the word ‘metaphrase’. But it was not the first occurrence of this word. Actually, the term for the first time was used by Philo Judaeus in De vita Mosis (20 BC) while discussing the works of Denham and Cowley. According to John Dryden metaphrase is" turning an author word by word, and line by line, from one language into another.” He marked three categories of translation: 1. Metaphrase or interlinear translation (word for word, sentence-for-sentence formal equivalence in translation); 2. Paraphrase (elaborating or magnifying contents of TT) and 3. Imitation (writing very close to author’s intention and emotions expressed in ST). But for Dryden the use of metaphrase was to be avoided in translation. While talking about ‘poetical translations’ he openly spoke of his disagreements.But why should the translator bluntly disagree with the use of metaphrase in translation? What’s wrong in word-for-word translation? Dear Students, the reason for this is that conceptually there is a lot of difference between “word-meaning” and “sense;” “form” and “content.” Sometimes we understand the form and meaning of a word but it is difficult to understand the real sense or content which that word contains. We’ve to understand many parameters before getting hold of the ‘sense’ in translation. But what are those parameters? Are you getting our point? Are we making a sense here? Here we’ll firstly dwell into an approach to translation based on sense. Actually, sense-for-sense translation also known as free translation is an approach in translation studies which allows the translator to translate TL freely without linguistic and grammatical constraints. However, the cultural and thematic equivalences and sense is preserved in sense-for-sense translation. It is believed that Cicero (in the 1st Cent BCE), Horace (20 BC), Chinese and Indian scholars propagated the sense for sense approach to translation. Coiner of the term "sense-for-sense" was Jerome who in his "Letter to Pammachius", said, "except of course in the case of Holy Scripture, where even the syntax contains a mystery---I render, not word for word, but sense for sense." 23TRANSLATION IN BULGARIAOfficial Language: Bulgarian Bulgarian (български bǎlgarski) is the official language and Cyrillic is the official script of Bulgaria. It was the year 1991 that Cyrillic text was published without any translation and transliteration in Bulgarian. When the nation celebrated its national day Vazov's poem “Де е България” ("Where is Bulgaria") was published without any help of translation and transliteration (Guentcheva 55). It seemed like a great effort in establishing national identity through language. Saul Bello, the Nobel prize winner of literature once said,” "France gave us one Proust and only one. There is no Bulgarian Proust. Have I offended the Bulgarians too?” (The New York Times). Zlatko Anguelo (1946), Christopher Buxtonis, Francine Giguere (a Balkan folk dancer), Angela Rodel, Peter Skipp and Lubomir Terziev (b 1962) are some of the many translators who have been working on translating Bulgarian texts. Equally long is the list of authors from Bulgaria writing fiction, drama and other forms of literature. In Bulgaria there are about 06 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).Idioms, poetry and the texts containing generalizations are commonly translated sense-for-sense. Here are some examples:Source TextTarget TextEnglish HindiEgg head Samajhdaar insaanMight is right Jiski lathi uski bhainsNewmark said:Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.That is why in court interpretations, in medical interpretations, conference interpretations and so on the Translator has to keep in mind the sense-for-sense interpretation and translate according to the Target Audience. Keeping in view the Target Audience, sense-for-sense translation is based on difference. This difference is not primarily and finally grounded on escaping grammatical or lexical functions of the SL but on the clarity of ideas to be communicated in TL.24TRANSLATION IN BURKINA FASOOfficial Language: FrenchBurkina Faso is a multilingual county with almost sixty nine languages spoken there. However, Mòoré, Fulani and Dioula are its recognized national languages. Moussa Konaté (1951-2013), a Malian writer and his novel Goorgi (1998) written in the darkest phase of his life, truly captures his childhood memories with Mossi or Gur language of Burkina Faso.In sense-for-sense translation these differences matter a lot. If we incorporate these differences without a change then it will be very difficult to communicate the real sense contained in TL. These examples will help you understand: Source TextTarget Text English HindiA black sheep Kali bhed (Wrong)Ghar ka bhedi Lanka dhaye (Right)A fog cannot be dispelled by a fanPankhe se kohra nahi hataya ja sakta hai. (wrong)Aous chatne se pyas nahi bujhti. (right) After death the doctorMarne ke baad chikatsak. (wrong)Ab pachtaye hot kya jab chidya chug gayi khet (right)_____________________________________________________________________________________________3.3 Paraphrase- Word-to-Word Translation based on Equivalence ______________________________________________________________________________Paraphrase or "in your own words" is a process of translating the SL into TL or by ‘magnifying’/elaborating the contents of SL by using own words or synonyms in TL. Again this kind of rendering is centered on translational equivalence which is meaning-based. 25TRANSLATION IN MYANMAR/BURMA Fig 11 : Burmese script. Two monks, Sayadaw Shin Kaweinda and U Awbatha in the mid-eighteenth century produced the first literary translations of the canonical Jatakas into Burmese (Baker 529). Sarpay Beikman ( a “Palace of Literature”) or the Burmese Translation Society, which is a government owned organization, was formed on 26 Aug 1947. They give away Myanmar National Literature Awards to Burmese authors. National sentiments are attached with the Burmese language as we have in the popular song Do Bama Asiayone ("We Burmans"): bama pyi thi do pyi “Burma (country) is our country” Bama sa thi do sa "Burmese literature is our literature" Bama saga: thi do saga: "Burmese is our language" Do pyi ko chita pa "Love our country" Do saga: ko lei sa: pa "Respect your language" (Sercombe 154)Burmese fiction was initiated in early 1990s. John Okell believes, “Contemporary Burmese publishing covers much the same range as any modern culture: newspapers and magazines, novels and short stories (historical, thriller, detective, courtroom, propagandist, allegorical, romantic, comical, social, psychological, etc), comic strips, plays, poems, memoirs, travelogues, biographies, autobiographies, essays, educative writing and manuals and studies of literature, history, economics, technology, religion, medicine, business, etc. There is also an active film and video industry. All publications in whatever medium are subject to strict state censorship.”That is why paraphrasing is also translating the ideas. Paraphrasing is different from quoting in many ways. While quoting we use double quotation marks (“ “) but in paraphrasing we have to put the name of the author or work from which TT is derived. For example:Subhash Chander Bose- “Men, money and materials cannot by themselves bring victory of freedom. We must have the motive-power that will inspire us to brave deeds and heroic exploits."Paraphrasing: Materialistic things can never fetch us victory. All we have to do is to motivate ourselves and instigate our heroic skills (Subhash Chander Bose). Here is another example of paraphrasing, taken from WH Longfellow’s poem “A Psalm of Life”:“Tell me not in mournful numbers/Life is but an empty dream.”Paraphrase 1: No one should dictate the poet and stop him from living life to the fullest.Paraphrase 2: The poet doesn’t welcome any dictates which drift him away from the real definition of wonderful life.Paraphrase 3: Mourning is not for life and thinking it to be so is being pessimistic.26TRANSLATION IN BURBUNDIOfficial language: French and Kirundi in Burundi French language is used more frequently in the advanced grades, intermediate grades in technical and formal school education. Much translation was needed in the field of French-Kirundi juridical lexicon. For many years Burundi faced problems with orthography. The government of Burundi requested UNESCO to appoint Professor Moni, an Italian expert, from the University of Padua to help the country in translation process (McCormack 512). People of Burundi like watching theatrical plays. As of now, puppet-mask theatre and various other theatres are active in Burundi. But most of them follow the western tradition. In 1993, four troupes were highly active in Burundi: 'Laugh' troupe, the ‘Pili-Pili,’ the ‘Luxa’ and the ‘Ada’ "National Department of Culture-which keeps a catalogue of all publications- had listed 141 Burundian plays written in Kirundi and 127 in French. Of these, 34 (18 in Kirundi and 16 in French) were written by Marie-Louise Sibazuri" (Diakhate 73). Let us now examine the above versions of paraphrases. Although, the above sentences differ according to their basic grammatical structure but they contain the approximate meaning of poetic lines (under quotation marks). We have done intralingual paraphrasing in which the SL and TL are the same. But this paraphrasing can also be done interlingually in which SL and TL remain different. (for understanding interlingual and intralingual interpretations please see the Glossary).These points must be taken into the mind before paraphrasing: a) What you write out of the original must be unique and created by your own self without spoiling the sense of ST. b) If you are quoting someone as it is in the TT, you are supposed to write its source. Quoting is not paraphrasing. c) You can write down the main ideas of the ST and then incorporate them into TT. But above all while paraphrasing, a lot of care must be given to equivalence of ST and TT. Without equivalence the meaning and soul of ST as also TT will wither away.27TRANSLATION IN CAMBODIAOfficial Language: KhmerThere are a lot of cultural differences between the French and Kramer (Cohen 99). This is the biggest challenge for the translators of Khmer. Hélène Cixous, a French feminist and deconstructive scholar, wrote an influential work titled The Terrible but Unfinished Story of Norodom Sihanouk, King of Cambodia (1996). This article is densely written, well researched as it throws philosophical and scholarly light on the Khmer Rouge tragedy (a horrible phase of genocide in Cambodia). This work has been translated into many languages. In order to promote and revive Khamer language, the Nou Hach Literary Association gives away literary prizes as also publishes works in Khmer. Khmer language, according to John Weeks, is, “battling against indifference much more than censorship. At our Indonesia exchange, a comic artist tried to talk about the idea of a cultural movement and he just got blank looks. Movement equals politics and here people after many years are quite cautious" (The Guardian). In Cambodia, there are about 19 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).________________________________________________________________________ 3.4Imitation: Regulated Transformation________________________________________________________________________ I take imitation of an author, in their sense, to be an Endeavour of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country. (Dryden)Dictionary meaning of imitation is an: “action of using someone or something as a model” (Cambridge Dictionary). There is also an entry in this dictionary indicating its synonyms: “emulation, copying, following, echoing, parroting.” Actually, the word imitation, or its Greek equivalent mimesis, as a concept is not new for students of literature. We have already read about the theories of imitation given by Plato in his The Republic and Aristotle in his Poetics. But in the literary history of imitative translation Hu Shi’s Life’s Greatest Event, was an imitation of Ibsen’s A Doll’s House; Leonard Forster did imitation of Pierre de Ronsard as he produced Olympia in 1579; Ludvig Holberg’s Peder Paars (1719–20) was an imitative version (especially some quotes) of Boileau’s Le Lutrin and so on. We also have encountered Alexander Pope’s Imitations of Horace (1734–7). We have already discussed above that it was Dryden who divided translation-types into three categories. One of these categories is imitation. But again Dryden warns its use: “Imitation and verbal version are, in my opinion, the two extremes, which ought to be avoided.” What is imitation in translation and what made Dryden to suggest this avoidance? Imitation in translation is actually not what its dictionary or thesaurus synonyms say. Imitation, as a free approach, in translation is about rewriting, manipulating and producing an entirely new and unique version in TT. But there is a danger of imitation. That is it may entirely ignore the ST. We’ll show it with an example:Source Text(English): “The moment you recognize what is beautiful in this world, you stop being a slave” ( White Tiger by Arvind Adiga).Target Text (Intralingual paraphrase, imitation): We are slaves until we look at the worldly beauty. Target Text(Intralingual paraphrase, imitation): We remain struck in painful fetters unless we open our eyes to our loved ones and our own selves. Target Text(Intralingual paraphrase, imitation): There is no hope for us if we don’t take care of our pockets and the money we spend. (this is a more materialistically oriented, distorted version of the TT above).Here in the above imitative translation, we can see that there is a transformation but it completely mars thematic sense of ST. That is why imitation in translation should be regulated in a way not to mar the essence of ST. 28TRANSLATION IN CAMEROONOfficial languages: French, English“Cameroon is the only African country with official bilingualism in European languages" (Baker 301). Bilingualism flourished in Cameroon after 1961. Initially, the government of Cameroon had to send their translators for training to Europe and North America. But for now Cameroon has its own scholars and translators. Perspectives on Translation and Interpretation in Cameroon by Emmanuel N Chia is a book series written under the Advanced School of Translators and Interpreters (ASTI) of the University of Buea. The book truly captures the ambience of translation practices in Cameroon. It is believed by some scholars that still much work has yet to be done on translation of theatre in Cameroon which is now gaining popularity there. In Cameroon, there are about 36 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).________________________________________________________________________1.5Interpretation and Adaptation________________________________________________________________________‘Interpreting’ and ‘translation’ are two different terms, yet used interchangeably. In 1968, Otto Kade (1927-1980), a translation scientist, used German term Sprachmittlung ('language mediation') in order to segregate translation and interpreting. Thus interpreting is a kind of mediation which can even be done through machines. Interpretation usually is indispensable where there is an immediate need to communicate. Interpretation is urgently required in courts, police settings, healthcare services, social services, classrooms, workplaces, sign-languages and so on. The ones who interpret are known as Interpreters or Interlocutors. Almost everytime an interpreter has to face challenges in interpretation. Sometimes the Interpreter has to face worst situations while communicating offensive or derogatory messages. But in many cases the interpreter has to communicate the correct codes of TL without any inhibition (like in health services or court interpretation). That is why the interpreter has to be well aware of her/his responsibilities. Lawrence Venuti (born 1953) in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995) proposed a concept "invisibility of translator" against the presupposed 'fluency of translator.' Where there is too much adherence to traditional values of interpreting (which he calls "domesticating practices"), this invisibility is rampant. It is expected the interpreter to strictly follow ethical standards. Some of these standards are: protection of confidentiality, avoidance of conflict of interest, professionalism, respecting cultural contexts, impartiality, fidelity, accuracy, understanding role-boundaries and so on. Interpreting as it seems is not an easy task. NAATI has published a guide titled The Ethics of Translating and Interpreting: A Guide to Obtaining NAATI Credentials (2016). Not only NAATI but most of the organizations involved in interpreting have their own code of conduct for interpreters. 29TRANSLATION IN CANADAOfficial languages: French, EnglishIn 1534, translation emerged as a profession in Canada. The process of translation helped Canada establish contact with North America as also mentioned by Richard Haklyut in Principall Navigations (Classe 477). After the formation of Canada Council in 1957, many grants were given for initiating translation process. Governor General's awards for translation, the John Glassco prize of the ATL/LTA (1982-) and many more prizes are given away for motivating translation studies in Canada. Alice Ann Munro (born 1931), a Canadian author, received the Nobel Prize of Literature in 2013. She also received Man Booker International Prize in 2009. Philippe Aubert de Gaspe's Les Anciens Canadiens (1863), which is a historical novel, is the most translated work of Canada till date. In Canada there are about 36 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).The trainers of T & I schools, the ESIT, in Paris, for the first time pondered on the concept of Conference Interpreting. The movement was launched with the phrase ‘ Théorie du sens’ ( Interpretative Theory). Their interest was on understanding the message, the code contained in it, ignoring vocabulary of the Source Text and focusing on individual elements like grammatical or linguistic ones. An ancillary to any conference, court proceedings, business negotiations, diplomatic meetings or political meetings, Conference Interpreter is a language expert who works in multilingual environment. While maintaining professional ethics and managing own immediate memory skills, the Conference Interpreter has to covey and convert orally, concepts and ideas, interpret consecutively or simultaneously to the listener or audience, in Target Language. That is why to be an expert in voice modulation, note taking and team-work is the prerequisite of a Conference Interpreter. A Conference Interpreter can convey through the modes of chuchotage (whispering), simultaneous interpreting (interpreters works as a team, sometimes in a sound-proof booth or box) and consecutive interpreting (conveying ideas directly into Target Language). That is why Conference Interpreter is supposed to be an expert in A-language (native language), B-language (active foreign language) and C-language (passive foreign language). In conference interpreting the terms SL (Source Language) and TL ( Target Language) are used. But in translation we use ST ( Source Text) and TT ( Target Text). 30TRANSLATION IN CAPE VERDEOfficial language: PortuguesePortuguese is the official language of Carpe Verdi but Cape Verdean Creole (the oldest spoken Creole) is a recognized national language there. Cape Verdean Creole is spoken by almost every native. It comprises of more words from Portuguese and African than any other language. This language has frequently been used by its Diaspora, the Diaspora of Cape Verdean. A fascinating history of languages and attempts to tarnish its culture by colonizers and much more is latent in the literature of Cape Verdean Creole. Cape Verdean Creole is rich in folklore and oral literature. It is believed that the first work in Cape Verde was by André ?lvares de Almada in 16th Century. Some scholars upheld their biased view as they believed that because Cape Verdean Creole was a simple language that is why the black slave used it. They also believed that they were "uncivilized" and "uncultured" that is why they could not speak the elite Portuguese (Bataha 01). But as of now, many scholars are fighting for a cause to make Cape Verdean Creole the national language of Carpe Verdi. Manuel Lopes, Tavares, Eugénio de Paulo, Romano, António Aurélio Gon?alves, Fausto Duarte, José Lopes, Pedro Cardoso, Eugenio Tavares, Antonio Januario Leite, Corsino Pedro de Azevedo are some famous writers writing in Cape Verde.In Remote Interpreting the interpreter uses technological tools such as telephone to convert Source language into the Target Language. In Videophone Interpreting the interpreter uses video conferencing as a tool to convey message to deaf and dumb audience. In this process, sometimes it is expected from the interpreter to be an expert in sign language. Broadcast Interpreting requires one to read the matter, make notes and broadcast online from the Source Language to the Target Language. Sometimes, the terms broadcasting translator and broadcasting interpreter are used synonymously. Although a laborious activity, interpreting requires one to proceed without shouldering immediate responsibility (although the far reaching aftereffects of irresponsible behavior is threatening to the Target Reader in many ways) to convey the message. That’s why this lacl of immediate responsibility cannot be taken casually. Translation requires a lot of written work, editing and proof-reading before the final draft is materialized. But interpreting is an exercise which requires immediate verbal action. Interpreter has to be an active participant in the process. 31TRANSLATION IN CENTRAL AFRICA REPUBLICSango is an indigenous language and also official language of the Central African Republic. All Africa: All its Political Entities of Independent or other Status (1970) by Elisa Daggs is a very controversial book which records biased information about the language Sango and African pride itself. Daggs not only uses objectionable words like “black racism” but also believes that there is lack of "abstract words" or "thought" in Sango language (318). This is how the language has undergone a biased approach through centuries, during colonial period. As of now, almost an estimated 400,000 people speak Sango. Many attempts have been made to translate Sango into English but to find equivalents of Sango is a challenging task in the real sense. The basic grammar of Sango is similar to English but on the other hand Sango is a tonal language and therefore quite different from English. William J Samarin’s A Grammar of Sango (1967) beautifully narrates sociolinguistic and linguistic aspects of Sango. . There are interpreters who communicate in a community setting. That is why in interpreting there is requirement to communicate within a community in a cross-cultural setting (say within some minority, health care, elderly care, social or educational services) is known as Community Interpreting. Community Interpreters have to interpret within multi-cultural and multi-lingual ambiance. They have to interpret from bi-directional discourses to one directional language. Keeping in mind the cultural and ethical values of an interpreter, for a Community Interpreter, it is essential to make up the linguistic and cultural gaps, which originate due to linguistic and cultural differences. Community Interpreters are catalyst to organizations as they help communicate their stories to the receivers as we have in the case of health services and so on. There are lot of jokes on communication gap in interpretation based on embarrassing situation faced by doctor and patient in the process of communication. Here is an example where intervention of community interpreter is essential: When a doctor throws a parting-shot to a patient, “You will have to go.” A scary or hypochondriac patient may interpret “have to go” as an indication of serious illness. There is another type of interpreting also known as Dialogue Interpreting. Dialogue Interpreting is the most commonly used interpreting in visuals texts such as movies, theatre, story-telling or where dialogues are to be interpreted. Cecilia Wadensj?, a semantic and interpreting scholar, proposed the term Dialogue Interpreting in 1992. In her "Dialogue Interpreting and the Distribution of Responsibility" (1992) she proposed two models of dialogue interpreting: a) Transfer Model or Conduit Model and b) Interactionistic Model. Keeping in mind the unidirectional structure of dialogue, in Transfer Model, the interpreter is supposed to understand the codes of language, including sign language, before interpreting. In Conduit Model, which was actually proposed by Reddy, any dialogue is “monological” in which the strategies and intention of speaker has more importance (Reddy). That is why the interpreter will be able to communicate the emotions as also remain accurate while deciding to avoid or include double meaning and symbols of dialogue. For example, if this dialogue from a movie is given to a dialogue interpret,” I hate you.” Then it is up to the dialogue interpreter to instill the feelings of love, hate or anger in this dialogue. “I hate you” as a dialogue can be delievered with a tone indicating love, anger, compassion and so on. On the other hand, in Interactionistic Model, there are dialogical factors such as historical, literal, genres and son on are to be kept in mind. That is why the intention of speaker does not carry much weight age in Interactionistic Model .32TRANSLATION IN CHADOfficial languages: Arabic and FrenchAlmost one hundred indigenous languages are spoken in Chad. A variety of Chad also known as Chadian Arabic is spoken here. This language has variety of rich oral and spoken literature (Walske 52). Although Chad is a primarily a Muslim country still many missionary activities were active in Chad. Due to which we can see two missionary autobiographies which tell a lot about their musical aspects of missions in Chad. March had translated missionary works into Chadian Arabic (Reily). There is also a Chadian Arabic Christian radio which broadcasts chronological Bible in Arabic Chad (Mandryk 206). In contemporary times, we have Chadian authors who prefer to write both in Arabic Chad and French some of them are : Joseph Brahim and his famous novels like Au Tchad sous les etoiles (in Chad under the Stars) and Un enfant du Tchad ( A Child of Chad); Mahamet Baba Mustapha, a playwright, who wrote Le Commandant Chaka (Commander Chaka); Antonie Bangui-Rombaye who wrote Prisonnier de Tombalbaye (Prisoner of Tombalbaye) and Koulsy Lamko who wrote La phalene des collines (1994) (The Butterfly of the Hills). As we have already discussed above that interpreting requires commitment from interpreters. An error in interpreting can even lead to the loss of life and liberty as in Court Interpreting and Helath Services Interpreting. Court interpreting is a process of interpreting the legal language in a court. The court, of any country, usually, maintains its record in one language. This language is also known as Court language or the Target Language of the Court. The interpreter has to interpret the Source language of the plaintiff/respondent/witness/client and so on into the Target Language of the court in order to facilitate the judge, jury and participants in a court. This does not in any way mean that the task of Court Interpreter is limited to the court room. The Court Interpreter is an integral part of the entire case. That’s why Court Interpreter has to show her/his presence in Police Station and post and pre court odd hours. Interpretation may be done simultaneously (also shadowing or repeating the words of Source Language into the same Source Language. This is an intralingual translation), with sight or consecutive methods of interpreting. It also upholds human rights in which the linguistic presence or the legal presence of an interpreter is fundamentally claimed. 33TRANSLATION IN CHILENational language: SpanishAfter the invasion of Spain and the struggle with Araucanian or Mapuche ( the original inhabitants of Chile) and its aftereffects, in Chile other indigenous languages have almost reached a point of extinction. Huilliche language is still spoken in some islands of Chile (Moseley 93). Kawesqar (or Alacalul) and Yahgan are endangered as of now. Although Qawasqar, Huilliche and Atacameno are completely extinct languages. Isabel Allende, Raul Ruiz, Isable Allende, Roberto Balano, Gabriela Mistral, Jose Donoso, Augusto Pinochet, Nicanor Parra, Vicente Huidobro, Alberto Fuguet, Ariel Dorfman, Diamela Eltit, Pedro Lemebel are some famous writers of Chile. Pablo Neruda of Chile got the Nobel Prize of literature in 1971 and his works are translated in almost every language of the world. AdaptationAdaptation, appropriation or rewriting is a strategy in translation in which the translator has to decide and write according to the Target Audience before creating the final TT. Then the ST is adapted or reproduced with elimination, expansion, exoticism and recreation of the context. The final version of TT, in adaptation, can transform the entire genre. For example if the Target Reader of ST are children then the translator through adaptation may recreate, modify or change the text so that it is for the adult readers of TT. There are many authors and scholars who call this process censorship and even intervention to some extent. In this list Nord, Delisle, Gambier, Bastin, Sperber, Wilson and many others are the ones who disapprove of adaptation. Tradaptation or transcreation is another variant of adaptation. Both these concepts can be used interchangeably. Translators when use these processes of adaptation or trapadation, usually create sequels, prequels and even entirely reestablish the identity and cultural parameters of the ST. Trapadation is done for the contemporary audience. That is why the Target Audience is always kept in mind before creating the TT. The word tradaptation was coined by Michel Garneau (b. 1939), French-Canadian poet, theatre director and translator. He defined the term while translating Shakespeare's plays The Tempest/La tempete (1973); Macbeth (1978) and Coriloanus/Coriolan (1989). These translations are commonly known as his three ‘Shakespeare tradaptations.’ So much was the influence of his Québécois version that now Shakespeare is regarded by many as "Québécois nationalist poet" (Brisset 109). 34TRANSLATION IN CHINAOfficial language: Standard Chinese (also known as Modern Standard Mandarin)In China the important process of translation begins with the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, a pictorial and sound based language. Buddhist scriptures were introduced in China by Zhang Qian who was also a minister of the Emperor Wudi. An Qing (pen name Shigao) and others in 147 had put in a lot of efforts in translating the Buddhist scriptures into Chinese language. Buddhist scriptures such as Liu Du Ji Jing (Shaiparamita-sannipata Sutra) Xiao Pin Bo Re (Pragnaparamita-sutra of a Small Class) and Juan were translated. Out of these translators the most famous is the name of Dao An (314-385), who was a Buddhist monk. Dao suggested list of five kinds of errors while translating from Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. Here he gave a logical theory of translation indeed. But in his many works he suggested us to avoid transliteration. Jue Xian, a translator and author, went to India and stayed there for fourteen years. He brought with him a large number of Buddhist scriptures (Chan 38). In modern times, the scenario of translation completely changed with the onset of postcolonial era. 红高粱家族 Hong Gao Liang Jia Zu (Red Sorghum: A Novel of China or Red Sorghum Clan) (1986) by the Nobel laureate from China, Mo Yan, received a lot of acclaim as this book has been translated into many languages. As of now, Chinese remains the toughest language to translate. But there are scholars who still believe that "Chinese translation...is a unique system which must be protected from outside influences" (Tan 295). Contrary to this belief there is a boom in the translation industry of China: "It should be noted that in China, 96% of its annual translation output is in the area of practical translation, while only 4% is in the field of literature (09 Chan). In China there are about 144 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO). ________________________________________________________________________1.6 Let us Sum up________________________________________________________________________So how was your reading? In this lesson we understood some major concepts which have been used by John Dryden and other scholars. We understood as to how interpretation and translation are seemingly one concept but their execution is entirely different. We got to know about various terminologies involved in translation process. Now let us see how much you’ve understood these lessons. Try to solve these exercises to check your progress:35TRANSLATION IN COLOMBIAOfficial Language: SpanishThere are almost 68 ethnic languages and dialects in Colombia. The nineteenth century Colombia witnessed Christianizing of foreign texts, which was brushed up with orthodoxy (García xxiii). José María Vergara y Vergara (1831-1872) a journalist, diplomat, historian, the founding member of Colombian Academy, wrote the literary history of Colombia. Caro was also another text-editor from Colombia who supplemented 1886 Constitution. Vásquez Perdomo had put her remarkable observations on the 19th April Colombia guerilla movement (mid 1990s) in colloquial Spanish. She painted walls during this movement as she would write ideological "slogans such as 'ELN EPL FARC=VICTORY" (Perdomo xxv). The author also puts forwards her theoretical approach to translation in her autobiography My Life as a Colombian Revolutionary: Reflections of a Former Guerillera (2005). This book has shades of colloquial Spanish. Gabriel García Márquez (1927-2014), a Colombian author who composed his works in Spanish, received the Nobel Prize in Literature in the year 1982. As of now, in Colombia there are about 68 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).______________________________________________________________________________1.7 Important Questions ______________________________________________________________________________Ques 1. What is meta-phrase? How is sense translation based on difference?Ques 2. What is paraphrasing? How the problem of equivalence is resolved in paraphrase?Ques 3. What is imitation in translation?Ques4. What is difference between interpretation and adaptation?36TRANSLATION IN COMOROSOfficial language: Comorian, Arabic and FrenchComorian language is a variety of Sabaki Languages spoken in Comoros having four distant dialects. Guthrie (1967-71) classified Bantu languages as "he placed Comorian into the class G-40 'Swahili' group” (Alnet 06). There were numerous scholars of Comoros linguistics and grammar who had put forward their observations on the cultural treasures of this language such as Saleh (1971), Ottenheimer (1976), Sibertin Blanc (1980), Mohlig (1980), Rombi and Alexandre (1982) and so on. Mohamed Toihiri, Said Mohamed Djohar, Ahmed Abdallah and Mohamed Ahmed-Chamanga are some of the prominent writers from Comoro. Mohamed Toihiri (1955) is also acclaimed as the first published author of Comoros. In 1985, he wrote his Comorian fiction in French titled Republique des Imberbes Roman Comorien. Translation Studies and Principles of TranslationUnit IV Problems of TranslationStructure 4. 1 Objectives 4.2 Cultural Gap 4.3 Untranslatability 4.4Translation as Appropriation of Indigenous Languages by English 4.5 Let us Sum up4.6 Important Questions ___________________________________________________________________________ 1.1 Objectives__________________________________________________________________________Hello Students! We’re back again with our objectives of learning the very important concept of Cultural Gap. untranslatability and translation as appropriation of indigenous languages by English. It will be a great and fascinating journey…37TRANSLATION IN CONGOOfficial language: FrenchKikongo, Swahili and Tshiluba are recognized languages of Congo. Jean Malonga (b. 1907) is known to be the first and the senior most writer of modern Congolese literature. In 1954, he wrote a novel titled Coeur d'Aryenne (Heart of Aryenne). This novel has been widely translated into English and other languages with many editions. It gives an insight into the cultural aspects of Congo. The journal Liaison (1950-1960) also gave acceleration to Congolese literature. For their contribution to the Congolese literature many creative writers and scholars from Congo must be remembered here, such as: Guy Menga, Emmanuel Dongala, Makouta-Mboukou, Henri Lopès, Alain Mabanckou, Paule Etoumba, Cécile-Ivelyse Diamoneka, No?lle Bizi Bazouma, Aleth Felix-Tchicaya, Marie-Louise Abia, Flore and Flore Hazoumé. Women Congo writers who are still active in their creative pursuits are Sylvie Bokoko, Binéka Danièle Lissouba, Marie-Louise ABIA, Adèle Caby-Livannah, Mambou Aimée Gnali and so on. From 1990 onwards Prix International Kadima (International Kadima Prize), named after Kadima, a linguist from Congo, is given away to authors who promote "multilingual creative writing and cultural diversity" through language, literature and translation.______________________________________________________________________________1.2 Cultural Gap ______________________________________________________________________________When a baby is born in India, it becomes the cultural being of India. It learns the ways of culture within no time. How? Let us see with an example. Let us assume that if an owl enters an Indian home people will perhaps definitely relate negative associations of death and bad omen with it (except for the white owl which is considered to be a vehicle of the goddess Laxmi, the goddess of prosperity). But a child who is born in European countries will be taught that owl is the symbol of knowledge and wisdom. In this scenario, when these two children are exposed to the opposite cultures it will give them a ‘cultural shock.’ They will look for cultural references within their own cultures because they are already ingrained in their sub consciousness with the notion of this word ‘owl.’ This is what we call ‘institutive competence.’ When the word ‘owl’ is translated from Hindi (SL) into English (TL) it will be very difficult to communicate the idea of good and bad related to it if the translator does not know these differences. In India, a person may say,” I love cats” because that person likes cat as domesticated animal. But in some other part of the world (say in China) a person may say “I love cats” for its meat. This is actually the cultural gap. It does not mean that every culture has altogether major differences alone. There are similarities too.38TRANSLATION IN COSTA RICAOfficial language: SpanishMekatelyu, Bribri and Patois are recognized regional languages of Costa Rica. Bribri is an engendered language. As of now almost six thousand people speak Bribri in Costa Rica. Bribri sign language is also used by the natives. It is also a very important ritual language. A scholarly journal titled Ka?ina ("the arrival of the dawn by the side of the sea") is published in Bribri language. It covers all aspects of Bribri community such as anthropological, linguistic and social. Now it is run by the University of Costa Rica. One can never forget to mention the efforts of Prof Ginette Sánchez Gutiérrez of University of Costa Rica in rejuvenating Bribri. There are authors whose works have been received with acclaim, some of them are: Carlos Luis Fallas (1909-1966), Fabian Dobles (1918-1997), Carmen Naranjo (1928-2012), Joaquin Gutierrez (1918-2000), Carmen Lyra(1888-1949), Joaquin Garcia Monge (1881-1958) and Carlos Gagini (1865-1925). There are authors from Costa Rica whose works have been appreciated and translated widely into other languages. Joaquín Gutiérrez (1918-2000) wrote children's book Cocorí which has now been translated into ten languages; Quince Duncan(b1940), the first Afro-Caribbean writer in Spanish; Fernando Contreras Castro (b 1963), recipient of many national and international awards for his novels; Julieta Dobles Yzaguirre (b 1943), won the National Prize Aquileo J. Echeverría (five times) and the National Prize of Culture Magón 2013 are some contemporary authors out of a long list of talented writers from Costa Rica. As of now, in Costa Rica there are about 08 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO).Now here we are talking of the cultural ‘gap’ which hinders communication with an outsider, with the donor and receiving citizens. This gap is in ideas, community, eating habits, etiquettes, cultural symbols, behavior, education, customs and beliefs, value system, social norms, gender roles, legal culture, unique way of communicating and above all ‘language’ which comprises of all the former elements of a particular culture in one or the other way. I recollect my times as a student. It was very hard for me to grasp the idea contained in these animal idioms “it’s raining cats and dogs” and “it's raining pitchforks. ‘How could cats and dogs be related to rain and tools?’ I used to think. It’s silly. But I had to read and cram it for the sake of examination. Later, I read somewhere that the origins of these idioms are grounded in medieval superstitions of Norse mythology. We’ll give another example to clarify the idea of cultural gap. In India, most of us prefer to eat rice with hands. But in formal setting and following etiquettes of the West, we eat with spoons. Imagine that in a restaurant you are eating rice with hands and others are using spoons. Nothing is bad in it. Nothing at all! But the only thing which will make the people around you wonder will be the aftereffect of cultural differences or cultural shock per se. You might have heard this: Do as the Romans do in Rome.39TRANSLATION IN CROATIAOfficial Language: Croatian The major problem with the translation from Croatian to English is that the grammatical gender of English does not match Croatian. Perloff cites an example as he quotes," the word ‘death’ (smrt) is a feminine noun in Croatian, so a translation could not preserve the masculine gender of Death” (79). Even the verb itself is the marker of noun in Croatian. These are some of many challenges faced by a translator, if her/her Target Language is English. Marko Maruli? (1450–1524); Marin Dr?i? (1508–67), a skilled playwright; Ivan Gunduli? (1589–1638); Antun Gustav Mato? (1873–1914), a great poet and travel writer; Vojnovi? (1857–1929), writer of The Dubrovnik Trilogy; Janko Poli? Kamov (1886–1910), an avant-garde novelist were some of many genius authors from Croatia who attracted readers, scholars and translators from around the world. After 1990s, the exiled authors of Croatia such as Dubravka Ugre?i?, a prose writer; Slavenka Drakuli?, a feminist novelist; Slobodan ?najder, a playwright, have not only become world famous authors but also attracted translators across languages. Recently in 2016, Miro Gavran (1962), Croatian writer of children literature, short stories and dramas was nominated for the world's most prestigious award, the Hans Christian Andersen Award, for children literature. His books have already been translated into 28 languages. As of now, in Croatia there are about 08 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO), As a teacher, I always was interrupted by the late coming students who would enter the class in the mid of lecture and say, “May I come in Sir.” “Sorry Sir, I was late because of so and so.” They would continue with a polite tone till I ask them to take seat. Whole of the class would start talking before the late comer gets settled in the classroom. Then I requested everyone, “Whenever you are late. Just get in. There is no need to ask for permissions…no excuses ‘please’…And if someone wants to go out they can leave when they feel like without uttering a word. Again there is no need for permissions.” It took quite a long time to settle this idea in our classroom and establish this “new custom.” Somehow they got rid of “cultural sophistication.”That is why we have given a glimpse of different countries inside text-boxes so that you get unawareness of different languages of the world and its literature too. This will for sure widen you horizon, your perception. It is very important for a translator to understand these cultural gaps and translate them accordingly. All said and told about cultural gap, it is important to note that these cultural gaps sometimes give rise to untranslatability . But what is untranslatability? This we’ll explain in the next section.40TRANSLATION IN CUBAOfficial languages: Spanish or Cuban Spanish There are a lot of authors from Cuba who have not yet been translated. Still we have a number of authors whose works have reached the global citizens through translation. Many authors from Cuba got acclaim when they got translated abroad. Of these authors there are writers in exile too. Writers from Cuba in exile have often been using Spanish as their language of expression. These works have been translated into English and other languages. The writers of exile have attracted translators, scholars and readers across the world. They have written highly creative works such as Lino Novas Calvos' Maneras de contar (1970); Guillermo Cabrera’s Infante's View of Dawn in the Tropics (1974); Reinaldo Arenas' The Doorman (1989); Palbi Medina's Exiled Memories (1990); Gustav Perez Firmat's Next Year in Cuba (1995); Virgil Suarez's Spared Angola (1997); J.Joaquin Fraxedas' The Lonely Crossing of Juan Cabrera (1993); Cristina Garcia's The Aguero Sisters (1997) and so on. Most of the exiled authors from Cuba are Cuban-American writers.__________________________________________________________________________________________1.3 Untranslatability ___________________________________________________________________________According to Sapir/Whorf Hypothesis language is the result of perception of culture or the world around us. Thus as per this theory, the world is formed by the language. But this is not always the case. Many times, the culture determines our language. Every language has a feature called non-lexicalization ( inability of language to be translated into another language). That is why it won’t be wrong to say that language is the result of our society (we can read it both ways). Culture, thought and language are inseparable. Culture forms the thematic and grammatical patterns of language. To resolve this issue sometimes loanwords are taken from other languages. Like we have computer, hard-disk, bus which have become an integral part of Hindi language but are actually loanwords from English. In the same way, in English language loanwords like pajama, chapatti and many other words have been taken. Not only that in English and Hindi many loanwords from other languages like Spanish (Kamra, ????, in Hindi), French (Café in English) are derived. That is why when we read an entry in a dictionary a good student always looks for the origin of words. Still there are words or grammatical and linguistic patterns in every language which are always and already inseparable from it. They are, as of now, untranslatable, see for example like in English language we don’t treat time as a commodity so often we say in Hindi:Samay kat raha houn….Time pass kar raha hun..But in English we say: I’m killing time. Let us take some other words in Hindi to understand their untranslatability:Shubharambh : Shubh is the word we use to indicate auspiciousness. In English we use beginning as a synonym of this word. But beginning can never be an equivalent of shubharambh.Karma and Moksha: Karma and Moksha are loaded with cultural and religious significance. In English, we can use the word action or ultimate freedom for it. But again they will be inappropriate. Because of its untranslatable nature the word Karma and Moksha are now loanwords in English.41TRANSLATION IN CYPRUSOfficial languages: Greek and Turkish Armenian and Cypriot Arabic are minority languages here. However, Cypriot Greek and Cypriot Turkish are vernaculars in Cyprus. The history of Cyprus has witnessed isolation from the rest of the world due to constant attacks from colonizers. From the 7th to the 10th Century AD Arab attacked Cyprus. In 1911, The Kings' Crusade again took over Cyprus. Due to this, Cyprus has a distinct dialect rather amalgam of dialects. As of now Cypriot is being given preference as it was ignored in the past. The government has introduced this dialect in schools. There is an unlimited list of contemporary brilliant authors from Cyprus: Antonis Georgiou; Emilios Solomou; Myrto Azina Chronides and so on. On 20 July 1974, the Turkish military invaded Cyprus. Due to this invasion the inhabitants of Cyprus got displaced. Not alone this but inhabitants of Cyprus in search of jobs and better education left Cyprus. This led to a large number of diaspora from Cyprus which is also known as the Greek-Cypriot diasporas. It is estimated that around 200,000 Greek Cypriots live in London (Tamis, 2006b; Gal 155). The contemporary novels like Andreas Koumi's The Cyproit (2006) and Andriana Ieridiakonou's Margarita's Husband (2007) have their plots set in Cyprus. The book Eat, Drink and be Married (2011), a black comic story, by Eve Makis, on Cyprus diaspora, got Young Booksellers International Book of the Year Award. This book has now been published and translated into five languages. For the reasons unknown, this work unfortunately has not been appreciated in the academia. As per UNESCO’s Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger Cypriot Arabic is severely endangered language of Congo. Rakhi, Mangalsutra of Hindi and innumerable other words are still untranslatable in any language because of their cultural connotations. Sometimes untranslatability is seen from a different dimension too. This dimension lets us think beyond the meanings of words in cross-cultural contexts. We can ask a question before understanding this aspect of untranslatability: whether we can translate ideologies, cultures and emotions. This is the question which still needs a relevant answer, hence is debatable. If we simplify this question further we can say which texts should be translated or what should not be. Do we have an open choice to translate? Is there some translation vigilance going on? In one sense, the sacred texts like The Bible, The Quran, were not allowed to be translated. During Fascism many translated books, like George Bernanos' Les grands cimetieres sous la lune, were banned in its French version. Some divide this translatability debate into two directions: universal approach (which holds that the linguistic elements are sufficient for translation) and the monadist approach (according to this approach the linguistic ability of a culture hinders the process of translation). Saussure and Pierce proposed a triangular structure of thought patterns which could be understood through semiotic analysis. Noam Chomsky proposed Transformative Generative Grammar which sought to find out the deeper layers of human languages. Sigmund Freud gave different dimensions of the patterns of dreams in his The Interpretation of Dreams. Was he translating dreams then? Walter Benjamin in his essay ‘The Task of the Translator’ (1923) “posits translatability as that which resides in the original as mere potential and which translation will adumbrate more fully.” A. N. Kolmogorov in 1925 proposed that there is always a possibility to derive the classical logic out of the ‘intuitionistic’. Aleksandr Smirnov (1934), the Russian author, maintained that after capturing the адекватность (adequacy) as also adekvatnyni perevod (adequate translation) through “ideological, emotional and aesthetic effect” translation is possible. Then in order to surmount this major query of untranslatability we have to understand psychology, sociology, anthropology and other aspects of human sciences. 42TRANSLATION IN CZECH REPUBLICOfficial language: Czech The Prague University was founded in the year 1348; with this the Bible was translated from Latin to Czech. Written in Czech, the novel The Good Soldier Svejk (also spelled Schweik ) (1921) by Jaroslav Ha?ek, is marked as the first anti-war novel of Czech. This novel was translated into many languages including Portuguese and French (with censorship). The significance of this novel could be understood from the fact that the name of protagonist has been taken as it is in the Czech dictionary to refer to a subverted human being. The word Schweik has also been recorded in the dictionary of English language as a loanword. There are well known authors from Czech about whom we know through translation such as Franz Kafka; Max Brod, Franz Werfel, Rainer Maria Rilke, Karl Kraus, Egon Erwin Kisch and so on. Jaroslav Seifert was the only recipient of Nobel Prize of Literature (1984) from Czech. As per UNESCO’s Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger there are 04 languages which have almost reached the point of extinction. _____________________________________________________________________________________________1.4Translation as Appropriation of Indigenous Languages by English _____________________________________________________________________________Indigenous peoples have the right to revitalize, use, develop and transmit to future generations their histories, languages, oral traditions, philosophies, writing systems and literatures, and to designate and retain their own names for communities, places and persons. (The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, UNDRIP , Article 13) Indigenous peoples have the right to establish and control their educational systems and institutions providing education in their own languages, in a manner appropriate to their cultural methods of teaching and learning. (UNDRIP , Article 14).43TRANSLATION IN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO Official Language: French Recognized languages in Congo are Lingala, Kikongo, Swahili and Tshiluba. After years of exploitation, psychological and economic destruction by the colonizers, the writers of Republic of the Congo, have marked themselves in the list of literary canons. Mukala Kadima-Nzuji and Georges Ngal, literary critics and Désiré-Joseph Basembe, Albert Mongita and Kashi M'Bika Katende the playwrights are some important authors of Congo. It is pertinent to note here that literature and culture of Congo mirrors the real state of sociological and cultural patterns of Congo. That is why the language used by Congo writers truly captures their identity as a citizen of Congo. Congolese writer, Henri Lopes, while translating from European works gives more weight-age to the native language (Vakunta 20). We can easily understand this when we read his novel Le Pleurer-Rite (1982) which gives more importance to his native language than the French language. Through translation we can read and understand the history of Congo. Ntumb Diur, a woman writer from Congo, wrote Za?na qui hurle dans la nuit (Za?na who Screams in the Night) which also got first prize at the 1983 RFI Concours Thé?tral Inter-Africain. Prix International. As per UNESCO’s Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger Bwisi is "definitely endangered" and Bonjo is "severely endangered" language of Congo.I consider English as a language for international trade and commerce and therefore it is necessary that a few people learn it… and I would like to encourage those to be well versed (in English) and expect them to translate the masterpieces of English into the vernaculars. (Mahatma Gandhi)Heritage language, ethnic language, minority language, autochthonous language or indigenous language is the language spoken by the indigenous people of a nation. Indigenous languages are less academic and more realistic that is why most of them don't even have their own orthography. The Constitution of India officially recognizes 17 indigenous languages (Encyclopedia of Literary Translation into English by Classe). These languages are indigenous because there is no writing system, no systematic or grammatical studies and are just used to communicate within a culture and community. If we call India a land of translators it won’t be a hyperbole. Indians are bilingual and even trilingual. We have already told you that English is the lingua franca of India. We need English language not for seeking attention of the English speaking world but for communicating within geographically and culturally vast India. English helps cross-cultural communication within India. But speaking in English is a trend in post colonial countries like India. Even parents prefer their children to speak in English than in native languages. Have you seen this latest movie Hindi Medium? This movie truly captures the current scenario about the craze of English language in India. This craze mingled with other innumerable drawbacks is creating “linguicide” of minority or indigenous languages. There is a need to inculcate indigenous languages in school. That’s why the important role of schools can never be undermined. But there is no need to discard learning of English language. In schools, we have to promote these indigenous languages and bilingualism through translation. The indigenous languages need digital makeover which cannot be done without the use of English language. In language democracy, legal status should be given to these languages. Native languages are to be promoted through media, songs, literature and so on. But above all the denial of native language in education will lead to detachment from own culture in many ways. That is why a systematic and scientific approach is needed for their revival. We must learn to respect our own language. But English will prove to be a catalyst in this case. For that matter, ‘The Indian English’ belongs to us (Indians). Raja Rammohan Roy translated Vedic scriptures into English. Thereafter, many translations of Hindi and Sanskrit texts like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Panchatantra, Ashtangahridaya, Arthshastra, Hitopdesa, Yogsutra, Rig-Veda, Bhagavad-Gita, Kalidasa’s Shakuntalam were done into English language. We cannot forget Tagore's translation of Gitanjali (1913)Now the trend is so that whatsoever is written in English is immediately translated into Indian languages liks Bangla, Urdu, Pubjabi, Drivian and so on. We have Shakespearean tragedies (as one famous translation of ,The Hamlet, by Harivansh Rai Bachhan), poems of the scholars from the West and so on which gradually were transformed from English into regional languages of India and Hindi language. For that matter, we have to visit the History of Indian Translation Literature, especially of the 20th Century. The government-owned publication houses like the Sahitya Academy and the National Book Trust publishes creative works in indeginous languages which are translated into English.44TRANSLATION IN DENMARKOfficial language: DanishFaroese, Greenlandic and German are some recognized regional languages of Denmark. The real spirit of Danish literature is in myths and folklore. Henrik Pontoppidan (1857-1943), a realist author from Denmark got the Nobel Prize of Literature (1917). Later , Johannes Vilhelm Jensen (1873-1950) was also awarded the Nobel Prize of Literature (1944). Gustav Johannes Wied (1858 –1914) and Peter H?eg (1957) are also great Danish authors whose works are known to the world through translation. Thorkild Bj?rnvig got Aristeion Prize (2006) for his Udsat p? hjertets bjerge (Selected Poems). To promote art and drama of Denmark the Danish Arts Foundation gives away award to the translators who publish Danish translation. _____________________________________________________________________________________________1.5 Let us Sum up____________________________________________________________________________So dear Students how was your reading? You must visit Youtube and watch videos and lectures (specifically of Prof Anthony Pym) to enrich your knowledge and have a real time classroom experience. ___________________________________________________________________________1.6 Important Questions ___________________________________________________________________________Q1. What is untranslatability? Explain with examples.Q2. What do you understand by ‘Cultural Gap’? How to fill it up?Q3. How English through translation is transforming Indigenous languages of India? 45TRANSLATION IN DJIBOUTIOfficial languages: Arabic and French Somali and Afar are recognized national languages of Djibouti. In the literary works of Djibouti we can succinctly observe the influence of Somali, Afar, French, Arab, and Ottoman arts and cultures. Djibouti is rich in oral literature and folklore. Many forms of poetry is written in Djibouti. The most famous form is Gabay (an epic poem) which is very complex having alliterative schemes and long narratives. "The status of a good gabay poet is extremely high, but he is expected to produce something worth listening to" (Laurence 62). Abdourahman A. Waberi (b 1965), a writer from Djibouti, writes in Somali language. The French literary magazine Lire included his name in the "50 Writers of Future." His works have been translated into many languages. His novel Transit (2012) was chosen finalist for the Best Translated Book Award (2013). The narratives contained in Transit "reveal parallel stories of war, child soldiers, arms trafficking, drugs, and hunger" (back cover of Transit).Translation Studies and Principles of TranslationUnit V Translation in IndiaStructure 5. 1 Objectives 5.2 Definitions:Anuvaad, Bhashantar, Roopantar 5.3 Key Terms:Rasa, Dhvani, Auchitya 5.4Reading Translation/Cultural Difference, Contexts and Language 5.5Shubhangi Bhadbhade’s “Garden of Spice.”5.5.1 About the Author5.5.2 Complete text of “Garden of Spice”5.5.3 Marathi: The Source Text and Hindi: The Intermediate Text5.5.4 English: The Target Text 5.6Jaywanti Dimri’s “The Inner Eye.”5.6.1 About the Author5.6.2 Complete text of “The Inner Eye”5.6.3 Source Text: Hindi 5.6.4 Target Text: English 5.7Let us Sum up5.8 Important Questions ______________________________________________________________________________5. 1 Objectives _____________________________________________________________________________Here in this lesson we’ll understand the key terms such as Anuvaad, Bhashantar, Roopanta, Rasa, Dhvani and Auchitya. We’ll also read Shubhangi Bhadbhade’s “Garden of Spice and Jaiwanti Dimri’s “The Inner Eye.” There’s a lot to learn dear Students…So let us move on…46TRANSLATION IN DOMINICAN REPUBLICOfficial language: SpanishThe Dominican Republic has seen long years of dictatorship and political disturbances ever since 1492. These disturbances are truly recorded by 19th Cent Dominican priest: "Spanish I was born yesterday/in the afternoon I became French/Ethiopian I was in the night/today English I am, they say/My Lord what in the end will I be?" The first literary creation was perhaps poetry in the Dominican Republic (Smith 263). Leonor de Ovando (died 1610) is "one of the first if not the very first poet of America" (Smith 263). In the present age, the literature here is blossoming with its varied colors and creative scriptors such as Pedro Paix (1952), a novelist; Manuel de Jesus Galvan (1834-1910), a sociological novelist; Aida cartagena Portalatin and Hilma Contreras, women novelists and short story writers; Pedro Mir, a prose writer and March Veloz Maggiolo are some of the large number of brilliant authors and thinkers of the Dominican Republic. Viriato Sencion wrote Los que falsigicaron la firma de Dios (They Forged the Signature of God) in Spanish, about the period of Rafael Trujillo from 1930 to 1961 and church-state oppression. Later it was translated by Asa Zata in 1995. This is as of now the bestselling book in the history of the Dominican Republic. Marisela Rizik who is an author, filmmaker and scrip writer wrote El Tiempo del Olvido (Of Forgotten Times, 1996) in Spanish, a story about Dominican ruler and dictator Rafael Trujillo. This work was translated by Isabel Zakrzewski Brown into English. Manlio Arugueta's Little Red Riding Hood in the Red Light District, written in Spanish, is a love story in the state of political turmoil. This book was translated by Edward Waters Hood into English. ____________________________________________________________________________1.2 Definitions: Anuvaad, Bhashantar, Roopantar____________________________________________________________________________The meaning of anuvaad in Hindi is to repeat what has already been said. Of this compound word the prefix anu means to repeat and the suffix vaad means the sound. According to Ramchandra Shukla, in his Hindi Sahitya ka Itihaaas, around 1343 the first recorded process of anuvaad was in Brajbasha. In 1798 (?), Ram Prasad Niranjana wrote his Bhasha Yogvashisht which was translated by Pt. Daulatram in his Jain Padmpurana. In Hindi translation studies, Source Language is known as Stortr Bhasha), Target language is known as Lakshya Bhasha (?????? ????) whereas Translation Equivalence is known as Anuvad Samaanarthatka (?????? ??????????????). For fulfilling Anuvad Samaanarthatka in Hindi we usually call Aristotle as Arastu (??????), Plato as Platoni (???????? or ??????), French as Fransisi (?????????) and so on. In Hindi translation studies, primarily these kinds of anuvaads are in vogue:1. Shabdash Anuvaad (?????: ??????) : Word for word translation.2. Shabdashrayi Anuvaad (?????????? ??????): Translation of one sentence of Source Text at a time.3. Bhavanuvaad (?????????) :Sense for sense (contextual translation).4.Chaayanuvaad (?????????) :Free translation.5. Saranuvaad (?????????) :Translation of the essence or the gist translation.6.Tikanuvaad/Bhashanuvaad/Vyakhyanuvaad(?????????/ ?????????/?????????????) : Paraphrasing. 7.Rupantar (????????): Adaptation8.Vartanusar/Ashu-Anuvaad (??????????/???-??????): Interpretation.Let us now look at different definitions given by the scholars of Hindi:Mahadevi Verma: ?????? ????: ???????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ??. ????, ??????? ?? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ?????????? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ???, ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ???.Translation: Translation always gives us the feeling of incompleteness. It is not possible to transform languge, thoughts and emotions of a poet or a thinker/author from SL to TL.Dharmvir Bharti: ?? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??? ... ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?? ‘??? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ? ?? ??? ???’ ?? ?? ?????-???? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?? ?????? ?? ? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ????Translation: After reading brilliant and exceptional work a great scholar,/translator cannot stop himself/herself from rewriting it into another language. The scholar feels that what has been written truly represents his/her thoughts. This curiosity leads to translation. But the translator/scholar has to face lot of difficulties and problems before translating from Source Language to Target Language.Bholanath Tiwari : ???? ??????????? ???????? ?? ???????? ?? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ???????????, ?????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ( ????:?? ?????:) ??????? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????, ??????? ?? ??? ???????????? ???Translation: Language is a system of sounds. Translation is transformation of these sounds from SL to TL with equivalent symbols. Translation is the use of equivalent and close to the meaning, words or sense, essence contained in TL. 47TRANSLATION IN DOMINICAOfficial language: English Dominican Creole, Kwéyòl and French are vernacular languages spoken and understood in Dominica. As of now the literature of Dominica is known to the world more for its postcolonial leanings. One such example is the world famous Jean Rhys' Wide Sargasso Sea (1966) which was almost a retort to Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre (1847) and poor representation of colonial women in it. Phyllis Shand Allfrey (1908-1986) is also a distinguished name in the colonial literature of Dominica. In order to protect, Kwéyòl, the Creole language spoken in Dominica, a Creole movement was started in early 1950s. As per UNESCO’s Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger the language Carib is and extinct language of DominicaBhasantar means "another language," the difference between two or more languages, within language. According to Ed. Mohit K. Ray Bhasantar "stresses on change in the language of the text and thus it focuses on external reality" (33). In the process of bhasantar one has to translate SL according to its word formation. This becomes mechanical sometimes. As we have already seen that word-for-word translation or bhasantar can never be called an appropriate translation exercise. For the works of prose, bhasantar can be helpful to some extent but for capturing the real essence of poetry, it can never be sufficient.Rupantar or “change in the form”: The origin of rupantar dates back to the era when Sanskrit texts were translated into other vernacular languages. It is a kind of free translation based on adaption (please see the entry of adaption in Glossary). _____________________________________________________________________________________5.3 Key Terms: Rasa, Dhvani, Auchitya _____________________________________________________________________________________Rasa theory is one of the most prominent theories of literary criticism. As it is based upon the ten human sentiments which are common to every human being. These emotions are love, humour, pity, anger, heroism, fear, disgust, amazement, parental love and peace. (Rama Kant Sharma 34)48TRANSLATION IN ECUADOROffician language: Spanish Most of the writers in Ecuador write in Spanish. The graffiti is the most powerful form of expression. When someone takes a leisurely round of Ecuador one cannot miss to read the history of this glorious country depicted with the street signs. Most of the streets and towns are named after national heroes of the country. It is believed that the literature of Ecuador is less known to the world. Jorge Icaza initiated the process of creating indigenous literature of Ecuador. His novel Huasipungo (1934) projected the brutal realism which the inhabitants of Ecuador had to suffer and the innocent naturalistic life style with which they actually lived. This novel has now been published into may editions (of the original) as also innumerable translations (in almost 40 languages). We can get a copy of this translated novel titled The Villagers online. Here are some lines from translated version of this novel: “by the slowness of the suffering Indians, cried out, raising the whip which hung from his right hand:"You'll have to run until you swear." Ay!" "Run, goddamit! Run..." (115). There are other brilliant authors from Ecuador whose name could be mentioned here. Although there is a long list of great authors from Ecuador, they are: Juan Leon Mera, Luis A. Martinez, Gonzalo Zaldumbide, Juan Montalvo (wrote most of his work in exile), Abdon Ubidia, Juan Andrade Heyman, Francisco Proano Arandi, Raul Perez Torres, Adalberto Ortiz, Benjamin Carrion and Nelson Estupinan Bass. According to the list of endangered languages produced by UNESCO there are 14 languages which are reaching the point of extinction There are many references to the word Rasa in The Vedas and The Upnishads which primarily mean juice (of plant, taste, flavour, bliss and so on). The Rasa Siddhanta (Rasa theory) was given by the great Indian scholar Bharat Muni, a theatrologist and musicologist, in his Natya Shashtra (Chapter 6). For him Rasa was for drama (natya rasa). That is why to be applied to the Indian dramaturgy. These rasas indicate bhaava (the mental state) which are actually of forty-nine types. They activate human vaasna (the inborn cultural instinct). With the passage of time, the concept of rasa was applied to other streams such as anthropology, psychology, dance, poetry, painting, music, dresses and every form of art. A later developer, a Kashmiri Shaivite named Abhinava Gupta (c. 1000 CE), a polymath, developed this Rasa Siddhanta and derived a poetic theory out of it. According to the Rasa Sutras of Bharat Muni rasas are nispati (having no knowledge element but for sure have emotive inclinations). According to Abhinava Gupta, "The realization of rasa depends on the comprehension of vibhaava, anubhaava and vyabhicaari bhaavas. This lasts only so long as cognition of these factors lasts and ceases to exist when these factors vanish." Bharat Muni mentioned eight types of rasas: i) Shringra rasa (related to love); ii) Hasya Rasa (related to humour), iii) Bibhtasa Rasa (related to disgust), iv) Rudra Rasa (related to anger), v) Karun Rasa (related to compassion) vi) Vir Rasa (related to heroic deeds), vii) Bhayanaka Rasa (related to horror) and viii) Adbutha Rasa (related to the amazing). Out of these, an add-on, Staayibhauva (primary emotion) is excluded from rasas as it is no more an emotion which affects the bhava. It is believed by some that Bharat Muni also included one more Rasa known as Santh Rasa (related to peace and detachment, as we can see in a drama representing Lord Buddha after getting enlightenment). ‘This one (shanta) is the most controversial of all rasas. It is believed by many that in fact Bharata Muni has enumerated only eight rasas and shanta (tranquil) is not one of them. However in some editions of the Natyashastra, including the Nirnayasagar edition, the shanta rasa is discussed.’ Later, Vatsalya Rasa (love of parents for their children) was included in the list by Vishvanath.According to Hrsikesa: Rasa is a fusion of word and meaning,that bathes the minds of readers, with savor of bliss. It is the truth of poetry, shining without cessation. Clear to the heart, it is yet beyond the words.49TRANSLATION IN EGYPTEgyptian Arabic is the national language of Egypt. Egypt has always been rich in literature and philosophy. Writings from Egypt have variedly been translated into European and other languages. Discovered in 1880, translated versions of Ancient Pyramid texts of Egypt such as Mouth-Opening Ritual, Book of the Dead and innumerable coded texts which are inscribed on sarcophagi, chests, papyri, tombs and so on have remained an area of interest for anthropologists and linguists. The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in Egyptian vernacular. Egyptian authors usually use vernacular poetry to express themselves. We can have a glance at their creativity by reading poets such as Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi. Naguib Mahfouz (1911-2006) received the Nobel Prize of Literature in the year 1988. His novel Children of Gebelawi was not well received by different religious groups. It was controversial in nature for which Mahfouz was stabbed in 1994. However, he survived the attack. One must read these Egyptian works for gaining more knowledge about its value system and cultural ambience, they are Vertigo by Ahmed Mourad; Woman at Point Zero by Nawal El Saadawi; Maryam's Maze by Mansoura Ez-Eldin; Beirut 39 collectively written by six Egyptian writers; A Daughter of ISIS by Nawal El Saadawi; Black Magic by Hamdy El-Gazzar; Revolution 2.0 by Wael Ghoniem and so on. General Revolution: On the Front Line Between Tradition and Change in the Middle East (2003) by Rachel Aspden is reviewed positively by the academia. According to UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, there are three languages which have reached the level of extinctionDhvani:Anandavardhana is credited for giving the theory of Dhvani. Anandavardhana in Dhvanyaok worked on Rasa-Dhvani which he considered inseparable entities that create visible and audible affects. Later, Abhinava Gupta developed it. In ancient poetics, scholars stressed that Rasa and Dhvani are imperative elements for writing and teaching drama and poetry. That is why Anundavardhann said, "The soul of poetry is dhvani as the wise have said." There are two kinds of meanings in a sentence: one is literal and the other is suggested. We can understand the suggested meaning if we understand Sphota (the burst out of air, the energy, from a word which actually is the result of our conscious and unconscious thoughts). In drama, Dhvani (as resonance) is generated in response to emotions evoked by string instruments such as the Sitar, the Vichtra Vina or the Sarangi. In Dhvanyalokunl, Anundavardhann opines:According to the wise, dhvani is that specific qua1ity of words and meanings which elucidates the explicit meaning overshadowing the implicit meaning. Again in the same book Anandavardhana differentiates three types of Dhvanis: 'vastu dhvani (carries a rare idea), 'alankaara dhvani' (contains a figure of speech), and 'rasa dhvani.'(contains one or many rasas). However, Abhinava Gupta has divided Dhavni into thirty five categories. Dhvani is the prime force in poetic composition. It is not an easy task to make out the meaning of rasa dhvani as it contains the Bhava (the feelings) which is communicated with 'vyanjaka’ which further carries suggestive meaning(s). Broadly there are three aspects of Dhvani: a) Abhida ( it carries the literal meaning); b) Laksana (it carries a deeper meaning); c) Vyanjana (it carries suggestive meaning). Vaiyaakaranaa opines that Sphota is Vyanjana (suggested meaning). In other words, Dhavni is Sphota. That is why the word Dhvani or Sphota usually refers to suggestive meaning which carries a suggestive word. Dhvani communicates conventional meaning and symbol, suggestive word and suggestive meaning. According to Anandavnrdhana the Rasa Dhvani differentiates itself through Asumlakshyn Krama Dhvani ( which resides in syllable), word (shabda) and the phonetic content of a word (shabda), sentence, Bhaava Dhvani, Sabha Dhvani and Bhaavoodaya Dhvani. The krama (order) for gathering or knowing the meaning from a word has a directional force which goes through three processes: from sound to word (Sound>Word), from Word to Sphota (Word>Sphota) and from Sphota to Meaning (Sphota >Meaning). That is why Dhvani and Sphota are two integral elements of poetry. Sphota is the sound and significance of a word, especially of "antima buddhi graahya" (the last word) or "antima varna graahya" ( the last syllable). Fig. Bhavas in Bharatnatyam. The first picture shows Shrigara rasa (Romance), the second represents Hasya rasa (Humour), the third Karuna rasa (Sorrow), the fourth is Adhbuta rasa (Wonder), the fifth is Bibhatsa (Heroic), the sixth is Veera rasa (Heroic), the seventh is again Veera rasa (heroic), the eighth is Adhbuta rasa (Wonder) and the final ninth is Shantha rasa (Calm). (Shwetha Vipin) 50TRANSLATION IN EL SALVADOROfficial language: Spanish Works written by the authors of El Salvador forms important part of the world literature in Spanish. Spanish speaking countries are known as Hispanic countries. Inhabitants of El Salvador have great interest in poetry. El Salvador has suffered a long phase of political disturbances and dictatorship because of which much creative Hispanic literature from this country is produced in other world. There is a long list of Salvadoran poets and authors such as : Juan José Ca?as (1826-1918), who also wrote National Anthem of El Salvador, mostly wrote nostalgic poems about El Salvador; Luis Salvador Efraín Salazar Arrué (1899-1975), a painter and author, is also known as the father of short story in the modern Central America; David Escobar Galindo (1943), a doctor and poet; Jorge Galán who wrote most of his works in exile as he had written against "feudal concentration of wealth in the hands of small circles of Salvadorans" (New York Times); Sandra Benitez (1941), who writes mostly on civil war in El Salvador; Mario Bencastro (1949-), a painter and writer in exile, wrote Disparo en la catedral ( A Shot in the Cathedral, originally in Spanish) was also in the final wait list of the Novedaddes-Diana International Literary Prize; Claribel Alegri, a writer in exile, writes poetry whereas Manlio Argueta, a novelist and poet who wrote his famous One Day Life (originally written in Spanish), disturbing story of a peasant’s family and its confrontation with violence and fear in El Salvador. Lenca is an extinct language of El Salvador. Pipil is critically endangered language (UNSECO).Auchitya :Kshemendra, an 11th Century Sanskrit poet from Kashmir in his Aucityavicaracarca gave his concept of Aucitya (propriety). He took his education under the great scholar Abhinavagupta. He stated: “the propriety (aucitya) is the soul of poetry, and when any description, alamkara, rasa etc. oversteps its proper bounds it hurts the rasa and mars the poetry.” The cardinal element of rasa according to him is auchitya as it is an important ingredient which could derive rasa. The only obstacle to rasa is anauchitya (impropriety). Even Abhinava Gupta frequently and collectively uses Rasa, Dhwani and Auchitya in his works.In poetry, it is very relevant to mark the proper or improper (Rajasekhara in his Kavya-mimamsa). For Anandavardhana Auchitya is also a kind of rasa, which is the most essential one. Auchitya gives harmony to rasas. According to Raghavan: When we see Kuntaka equating pada-aucitya with pada-vakrata, we may well exclaim that his vakroti is only another name for Aucitya…Kuntaka’s vakrokti and Ksemendra’s Aucitya are identical.According to Kshemendra twenty categories represent Auchitya. Some of these categories of language are: Bhasha aucitya, (propriety of language), Saundaryaucitya (propriety of aesthetics), Vyakaranaucitya (propriety of grammar and linguistics), Samskriti aucitya (propriety of culture), Pratibha aucitya (propriety of creativity) and so on.51TRANSLATION IN FRANCEOfficial language: French It won’t be a hyperbole if we say that France has almost dominated the philosophical scene of European countries. France produced brilliant philosopher in all ages such as René Descartes, Blaise Pascal, Nicolas Malebranche, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, Victtor Cousin, Auguste Comte, Jean-Paul Sartre, Fran?ois Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault and so on. The most recipients of the Nobel Prize in Literature are from France. That’s why here is a ‘long list’ of recipients of the Nobel Prize of Literature: Ivan Bunin (born in Russia), 1933; Roger Martin du Gard, 1937; André Gide, 1947; Fran?ois Mauriac, 1952; Albert Camus, 1957;Saint-John Perse, 1960; Sully Prudhomme, 1901; Frédéric Mistral, 1904; Romain Rolland, 1915; Anatole France, 1921;Henri Bergson, 1927; Claude Simon,1985; Claude Cohen-Tannoudji ; J. M. G. Le Clézio, 2008 and Patrick Modiano, 2014. These canonized authors and philosophers are now the part of syllabus in many universities and are understood through translation around the world. Although, translating from French into any other language is a challenging task. The philosopher Jacques Derrida in many works claimed that French works have often been misunderstood by the world because of faulty/slippery process of translation (see Deconstruction). In France, there are about 26 languages, reaching or reached the point of extinction (UNESCO)._____________________________________________________________________________________ 5.4Reading Translation/Cultural Difference, Contexts and Language _____________________________________________________________________________________ There are many problems when we talk of inter-cultural communication and reading cultural differences in translation. As I have earlier pointed out it is important to have knowledge of the cultures of SL and TL. Let us look at the way scholars find solutions to these problems: Newmark: Culture is "the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression." Bassnett: "[T]he translator must tackle the SL text in such a way that the TL version will correspond to the SL version... To attempt to impose the value system of the SL culture onto the TL culture is dangerous ground."Nida: “The Target Reader should be able to: “understand as much as he can of the customs, manner of thought, and means of expression of the SL context.”Venuti: "[T]ranslation is a process that involves looking for similarities between language and culture – particularly similar messages and formal techniques – but it does this because it is constantly confronting dissimilarities. It can never and should never aim to remove these dissimilarities entirely. A translated text should be the site at which a different culture emerges, where a reader gets a glimpse of a cultural other and resistency. A translation strategy based on an aesthetic of discontinuity can best preserve that difference, that otherness, by reminding the reader of the gains and losses in the translation process and the unbridgeable gaps between cultures."52TRANSLATION IN GERMANYOfficial Language: GermanIn Germany, since time immemorial philosophers, writers and geniuses in every field produced insightful, original and brilliant works. One of such geniuses was Johannes Gutenberg. After borrowing money from Fust and his twenty years of hard work, in November 6, 1455, in Mainz, Germany, Gutenberg took the first ever print outs of The Bible (Rees 09). He is also known as the first printer of the world who introduced printing. Germanic works got translated into many languages; although "its reception and translation in Australia and Spain was quite remarkable, and very up to date" (Broome 25). Efforts were made to popularize German poetry by Graham Chesters who wrote the textbook The Appreciation of French Poetry 1850-1950. The ATA Ungar German Translation Award is given biennially for literary translation from German into English. But there are some challenges which a translator has to encounter while translating from German: "German texts, use more rare words, are significantly longer, contain more difficult grammar and more sentences containing subordinate clauses" (Desai 66). The second most recipients of the Nobel Prize in Literature are from Germany, they are: Theodor Mommsen (1902); Rudolf Christoph Eucken (1908); Paul von Heyse (1910); Gerhart Hauptmann (1912); Carl Spitteler (he used German language in his works) (1919); Thomas Mann (1929); Hermann Hesse (Born in Germany) (1946); Nelly Sachs (born in Germany) (1966); Heinrich B?ll (1972); Elias Canetti (born in Ruse, Bulgaria but wrote in German) (1981); Günter Grass (1999); Elfriede Jelinek (2004) and Herta Müller (born in Romania; although her native language was German) (2009). Other than this long list of Nobel Prize winners in Literature, there are Nobel Laureates in other streams too. Many philosophers from Germany are recognized for their meticulous works; some of them are Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900); Karl Marx (1818-1883); Martin Heideffer (1889-1976); Jurgen Habermas (born 18 June 1929); Hans-Georg Gadmer (1900-2002); Albert Einstein (1979-1955) and so on. Adolf Hitler's controversial autobiographical work Mein Kampf (My Struggle) (1925) is known to be one of the bestsellers in Germany. Translation of this book invited controversies in almost every language of the world. We have a long list of holocaust literature which is/was the aftereffect of Hitler’s political regime in Germany. The Diary of a Young Girl (1942-44) (originally Het Achterhuis; English: The Secret Annex) a memoir in the form of diary by Anne Frank (a young victim of holocaust) is widely translated and read.Coulthard :"The translator's first and major difficulty ... is the construction of a new ideal reader who, even if he has the same academic, professional and intellectual level as the original reader, will have significantly different textual expectations and cultural knowledge."Newmark: "Food is for many the most sensitive and important expression of national culture; food terms are subjected to the widest variety of translation procedures."After reading and understanding the view-points of these scholars we will dwell into various aspects of translation problems encountered in the entire creative process. We will explain these problems with examples which will futher clarify your opinions and insights on it:Actually culture of a region comprises of life-style of the people, language they speak, their eating habits, language, dance forms, kind of clothes they wear and so on. Culture is an inseparable identity of human being. We have already given an example as to how the word ‘owl’ and ‘cat’ can be placed with different meaning in a same sentence (due to its shifted cultural location). If you can recollect we have also told you as to how the word ‘Sidku’ contains cultural elements in it and how to translated theses differences. Take for example the Hindi language (SL) and the English language (TL). In Hindi, we use aap to show respect to the elders whereas in English no such word is used. Hindi: App mere adhyapak ho.English: You are my teacher.For the second person singular above there is no equivalent pronoun which actually suggests respect in English language. But if we use Tum mere adyapak ho then it will be considered derogatory. Sometimes to show respect in Hindi people nowadays used the suffix ji after the proper name which is ungrammatical and improper in English language. But still it is used like: Sandeep Sharma ji, Gandhi ji and so on. In the same way, the plural ‘personal pronoun’ is used in Hindi to respect one’s own reference (which is no where in the lexicon of English language):Hindi: Hum ye kitab pad rahe hai.English : We are reading this book (wrong).For all these, we need to have strong holding on the cultural roots, language and context of communication in Hindi and English. That is what all translators do. ________________________________________________________________________5.5Shubhangi Bhadbhade’s “Garden of Spice”________________________________________________________________________Dear Students, for your convenience we have divided the Section 1.5 into three parts. Here they are:________________________________________________________________________1.5.1 About the Author________________________________________________________________________ Fig. Dr Usha BandeDr Shubhangi Bhadbhade’s also commonly called as Dr Usha Bande by her students and collegues is a translator, a polymath, academician, critic and author who lives in Shimla. She is a multilingual author. Her works have been written in English, Marathi and Hindi. Her story was published in Navbharat Times when she was a college student. Her first story in English was "Painter Sahib" (which is now in a collection titled Box of Stolen Moments). She actually started writing short stories in early 1970s. She has written Folk Traditions and Ecology in Himachal Pradesh (2008), The Novels of Anita Desai: A Study in Character and Conflicts (2000), Gita Mehta: Writing Home / Creating Homeland (Writers of the Indian Diaspora) (2009), Forts and Palaces of Himachal Pradesh (2013), Writing Resistance: A Comparative Study Of The Selected Novels by Women Writers (2006), Culture, Nature and Literature (2012) and so on. Other than this she has a long list of research papers published in national and international journals. But for now she believes, “Academic writing satisfies your ego, creativity satisfies your urge to craft something original."_____________________________________________________________________________________ 5.5.1 Complete text of “Garden of Spice” : Target Text, English ________________________________________________________________________ "Sing, Sayali! Come on! One, two three! There you go! Sing, Sayali, start." Jaidev motivated and Sayali sat rearranging herself once more. She had started with the first note when the hall echoed with a resounding applause. And then, there was no stopping her. The smiling eyes, smiling lips and that young countenance.....! The whole song became vibrant. It filled her with the cheer and laughter of her being. Two tightly tied plaits, two large eyes and smiling lips...the little girl enchanted the listeners! When the program was over the audience gave a standing ovation and the auditorium reverberated with the sound of En core! En core! Sayali's song had cast a magic spell, and the evening was a great success.The curtains came down and the connoisseurs moved towards the stage to congratulate the young singer. Sayali got nervous, she became uneasy. Gauging the situation, Jaidev jumped with agility and picked her up to dash back stage but those scrawny and inert legs popped out, dangling visibly as if teasing the audience out of their euphoria. Jaidev stepped down the back steps; the people standing there made way for him almost reverentially, as if to alleviate his pain. Rupa too scurried after him. As they were waiting for the taxi, Rupa mused, looking at her husband, “so impatient to come and equally jittery to leave,"Aloud she said,"Listen, the program organizer, Mr Desai was looking for you.” "Hmm," Jaidev uttered absentmindedly. He stacked Sayali in the taxi and sat beside her. Rupa had no choice but to enter quietly. The taxi whirred. Rupa turned to Jaidev petulantly,"You could have at least thanked Desai. After all, it is he who organized the program. Put in so much effort." Jaidev did not respond."Aai, how was my song?" "Ask your Baba!" she snapped. Turning to Jaidev she murmured, “How very moody of you! One can never be sure what may upset you. At least tell her how her performance was." "It was good, Sayali," Jaidev said looking remote. "Aai, I know they applauded the songs. But Aai, my legs! What would they have thought about them!" "What's there to think about, Sayali, besides pain? Truth can't be ignored, darling," Rupa sighed. "Yes Aai, they must have thought what a girl who cannot even stand." "Oh, shut up, Sayali. Will you." Jaidev snapped. Sayali fell silent. Thereafter no one talked. On reaching home, Sayali went to her corner by the window and sat quietly, as always. "Sayali, it's already late. Come and have your dinner and go to bed." Moving her legs with her hand, she dragged herself on to the stool."Dinner is ready," Rupa called out, Jaidev was starting at his piece of the sky through the window of his room. "Come on. Sayali is already here on her stool," Rupa called out again. Jaidev came and sat down. "Baba, my legs, did they embarrass you today? But Baba, you are fit; Aai is also fit than me..."Rupa was moved. She said tenderly, "because you are beautiful like a star, you are out fairy. You are an artist, aren't you, Sayali. Nothing matters to an artist besides art. How beautifully you sang today! God! It was divine. The audience was so moved. They showed so much respect. They applauded whole-heartedly, didn't they? We are proud of you, dear, very proud."As always in such situations, Jaidev kept quiet. Before going to bed, Sayali broached the subject again, "Aai, Baba is annoyed with my legs, isn't he? Aai, why doesn't God create girls with whole legs?" "Everyone doesn’t get everything, Beta!" “Then God is not good. He doesn't give everything good to good people. Raghu is blind and mini is always ill. Why is it thus, Aai?""Come on, Sayali. Sleep now. We'll talk about it tomorrow." Sayali slept restlessly that night. It was midnight. Gazing at the star-studded sky; Jaidev lay quietly reclining on his arms. "Is Sayali asleep?" “Yes. But she is upset. What had come over you?" "I don't know. I felt humiliated; no I felt infuriated at the pity and sympathy in people's eyes. What was my fault Rupa that this girl was born like this? Why did this have to happen to us? Tell me, why?" Jaidev went on breathlessly.He paused a while and started again, "We rationalize such ill-luck and put the blame on "destiny." We say we are reaping the fruit of our Karma. You know me since the time we have been married. Tell me, have I ever harmed anybody? Ever robbed or cheated anybody? A simple man like me...all dreams are shattered, Rupa, all dreams..."Obviously, Jaidev was upset but what could Rupa do or say?Wherefrom could she bring words to console him. Rupa had always seen him jovial. It was difficult now to imagine a sad man. Her image of him has been of a happy-go-lucky man. He would head straight home after an eight-hour job. The moment he stepped in, he was his cheerful self- laughing, talking, humming. There was a little disappointment in their life as they did not have children but he would cleverly sublimate this gap by immersing himself whole-heartedly in music. Besides there was his friend circle and many other activities to keep him busy. He was so jovial and cheerful that nothing could dampen his spirit. Rupa always thought of his as her lion-hearted Jaidev.Sayali entered their lives a little late but she filled their home with joy. Baby Sayali always had a chuckle for everybody. With the chubby cherubim face and a healthy body she was an attractive child but only as long as her two sticks of legs were not visible. Then there surged a wave of pity at those lifeless pieces of wood. Below the waist Sayali was just lifeless, dead. The parents tried every remedy, doctors consulted, vaids and hakims visited; then there was a series of vows and fasts, charms and quacks and amulets and many other things. Nothing helped. Rupa's eyes, tired of shedding tears, dried ultimately and she decided to face the reality. Jaidev would often get irritated at his hard luck; sometimes he would be emotional and at times just bewildered."Who cursed this little star, Rupa? And why should she become our destiny?' "We have to accept it, Jaidev as it is. No point grieving or cursing. When we accept things with all our heart, the pain becomes lighter, “Rupa would say calmly."I can do without your philosophy, Rupa. Keep it with you," Jaidev said decisively making it clear that he would have no nonsense. "For me, it is just unbearable to see her sitting at the window clapping while children of her age dance and jump and frolic.""It’s ok, Jaidev. She has accepted her lot. She is just a child but she seems wise for her age. I think it is time we take her outdoors in the evenings.""Outdoors! A show-piece like this?" Jaidev scorned.Rupa felt a surge of anger bloating her throat. She swallowed her bitterness but her distorted face mirrored her feelings. There was a kind of revulsion there, revulsion for the heartless man who was the child's father. Jaidev was quick to note her reaction and added compromisingly, "OK, we'll take her outdoors, but...""But...what!""The outside world is cruel, Rupa, heartless! Don't you understand how other children might make fun of her. Can we tolerate that? Besides, if we meet someone from my office or may be some acquaintance...""So what? Shall we confine her to this window for fear of what people might say? Let them say what they wish, Jaidev. I never thought you were so weal." Rupa exclaimed breathlessly. She did not know what she said. But she saw Jaidev's face contorting."I cannot bear this any longer, Rupa. This futile wait! It's been five years now and I am still waiting for our second child to come. You seem to have lost all your emotions, desires, feelings. Your feminity. Where are these? Why, you've even forgotten the need to dress up! You have become lifeless like her legs, frigid. No seed can sprout you. Give her away to an orphanage. I don't want this girl."Rupa swallowed a lump in her throat. Next day, when Jaidev had left for office, she took Sayali with her, leaving a letter for Jaidev. "I have given birth to Sayali. I'm her mother. I will not let her be an orphan. I am not annoyed with you nor do I deny your passion. My Sayali is like a cankerous vine-green at the top but lifeless below. She is just fine as she is. I shall tend her, nurse her myself, if you can't."Four days later Jaidev reached Rupa's parents' home and brought back his wife and daughter.Things changed since then. He was no longer the old vivacious Jaidev, but nor was he the irritable and self-pitying Jaidev. He had got hold on himself and was making efforts to accept the reality of Sayali's existence. Every evening he would take her to the nearby playground. Once a week Rupa took her to school, rest of the days she taught her at home.Rupa's mind was focused on one thing only- to educate Sayali, to make her self-dependent and confident so that the world looked at her with admiration and respect, not with pity.Sayali reached her fourth grade. It was then that Jaidev realized that the child had talent for music which could be channelized."Rupa, I have decided to teach her music. From now on, Sayali will practice music with me every evening."It was a bold decision. The training started in right earnest and Sayali seemed to pick up the tunes and strains fast enough. Jaidev was filled with happiness whenever her melodious voice reverberated in the air.Rupa was content; her anger had vanished. Sayali seemed poised for a bright future with the glow of music around her.One day, Rupa said casually, "Jaidev, my only dream now is to see her shine. Her deformity doesn't hurt as she has the strength of music as a prop.”"That’s right, Rupa. But can't we have a baby boy with strong feet to stand on. Our child fit like other children," Jaidev pleaded.\Rupa shuddered. It had come back again full circle- the craving for a son. She did not wish to annoy Jaidev but she did not want another pregnancy."Let's just forget what is not to be. Let us try to live with the present, Jaidev.""Sayali is quite self-dependent now. Maybe you can arouse your passion." said Jaidev with tenderness."Sayali is in the 10th standard. Would it look good to have a baby at this stage," Rupa pleaded to dodge his demand.Jaidev trained Sayali with care putting his heart in his training sessions and the day came when they decided to organize the concert. That was the day Sayali's art reached its peak with public applause certifying her talent. Jaidev's heart was torn apart. There was success and yet there was defeat. That night he sat in his bed.“Rupa.”“Hmm.”"With this moonlight as our witness let's start our new life today.""What do you mean?""You have understood haven't you? When words fall silent, life opens up its secrets. Let's tread that beautiful path."Rupa feigned ignorance, “What will become of Sayali?" "Silly, this is our journey. Ours together. As for Sayali, I have already decided. We shall organize more programs like this one; accumulate money to make her stand on her feet. Today's success has given me confidence, we can achieve it.""Yes, if God has denied her feet to stand on, we shall five her the feet of education to stand on.""Well, Rupa, fulfill my desire. Bloom, Rupa! Bloom! Blossom like jasmine. Days are spent worrying about Sayali, at least let the nights be pleasant. Let our nights pay for the day's labour."Soon days turned dreamy. Nights filled with fragrance.One morning Rupa slept late, Jaidev queried tenderly, “Why Rupa, don't you feel like getting up, today?"I'm exhausted. I was sick all through the night." Jaidev was excited at the news but he said with concern, "You should have woken me up."This is the only time you get for rest. It's always a long day for you office and then reaching practice to Sayali. It's exhausting.""Shall we go to the doctor?" "No. I'll be fine. Why waste money!""Waste! Why, by that standard then even our daily Dal Roti is also a waste, isn't it? Why survive at all, then?""For Sayali."Rupa was happy at the turn of events in her life but the thought of Sayali always felt a gnawing feeling. One may try to be rational but sometimes guilt nibbles at your inner being even though it is none of your fault. The baby taking shape in her womb will be born one day, what will become of Sayali then?Jaidev left for the office. Rupa was unwell the whole day. Sayali was all by herself in the room. Sitting by the window, she was studying. Rupa entered the room to see Sayali. She was looking out intently and did not hear her mother enter the room. Her books were still in the bag. Rupa went near her and stood close by her. Sayali was so engrossed that she did not notice her presence. Rupa looked out with curiosity to see Sayali's object of interest. What she saw shocked her beyond words. At the public tap below, a young man was bathing. On noticing Sayali he made some obscene gesture and Sayali laughed and her face flushed.Probably, the young man had spotted Rupa. He turned hurriedly, wrapped a towel around him and fled. Pretending not to have noticed anything objectionable, Rupa withdrew from the window and asked simple," Sayali, you were studying, weren't you?"Sayali was startled."What were you looking at so fixedly, child?"Nothing, Aai! The same everyday things.""Like?"She said as if to change the subject,"Aai. I must stand first this time. My tests are to begin soon." Salyali dexterously collected herself and began taking out books from the bag. Rupa wondered if her daughter was really sensible or just clever. yet she could not bring about herself to scold her for erring."Sayali, you don't curse your fate watching these children going to school, do you?""No, Aai. Why crave for the forbidden fruit,"Sayali counter-questioned like a philosopher."My smarty," Rupa fondled her head with affection."Sayali, it would be better if you sit in the gallery now. The window here is not wide enough.""But, I like it here, Aai."Rupa was quick to guess. At the public tap outside, many half-naked boys, children, men and women from the slum nearby the bungalow came to take bath and sitting by the window Sayali watched the scenes-god knows what!Next day, Jaidev too noticed Sayali looking out intently. He saw the view outside and his temper rose."Move her away from this window," he shouted.After Jaidev had left for the office, Rupa tried to make Sayali understand, Child, you should not watch such filthiness. It distracts the mind from studies. It's not healthy. The mind starts wandering.""Alright, Aai," Sayali said casually, "As you wish. But my life is shackled here. Can I ever go out anywhere?""You are still small. When you grow up to be a beautiful princess, a prince will certainly come to take you with him," Rupa said in placating tone to her but somewhere deep down her motherly instinct told her that her daughter had grown up in mind."Aai, everyday some dogs come here to drink water. There is a dog with legs broken. When he limps near, the others just drive him away. Aai he too sits like me in a corner alone. Looking wistfully at others."Rupa saw pain in her eyes. She covered her mouth with her palm. "Don't, Sayali, don't ever let such thoughts come to you. Don't be weak, my child. We have to accept what is ordained. Music and studies, aim for them and rise high." Rupa was in tears. Sayali dragged her bag and moved away from the window.A fortnight passed by in silence. Sayali was down and low all this while. Seeing her so morose, Jaidev said," Sayali, keep in mind one principle. Even if the song is sad, it is to be sung with a happy heart so that we put feeling in it." And Sayali obeyed.Slowly, invitations for performances started pouring in, but Jaidev accepted only a few, choosing discretely. After all Sayali's 10th grade exams were round the corner and it was no use burdening or distracting her.The rehearsals, however, continued in right earnest. Pathak Master came dily for her table practice. One day he sent his son who had just appeared for his engineering examination and was free. The young man was taken aback to see Sayali, then he made a few polite queries. Rupa went in to prepare coffee. Jaidev was not yet back from office. Suddenly Rupa heard the hurrying steps of someone leaving in haste and ascending the steps. She peeped in, Sayali was alone in the room,”Arre, where did Pathakji's boy go?""Left! Don't know why, just got up and nearly ran out!" answered Sayali."Didn't he say anything?" "No.""That's strange," Rupa shrugged. Sayali seemed nonchalant.Later, despite Jaidev's repeated requests the boy wouldn't agree to come. This set Rupa thinking. Jaidev was also perturbed. The practice session came to a sudden halt. Jaidev rationalized, maybe he was disturbed seeing Sayali's condition. Then he sent for Raghunath and the regular session started. Raghunath would strike the table and Sayali's melodious voice would fill the air. Everything was going just fine; and then one day Raghunath decided to leave for his village and he never returned. Jaidev was angry. Rupa was upset; but strangely Sayali was normal.It was evening; Sayali was sitting in front of the mirror, combing her hair. From across the street, their neighbor Chandu's image was reflected in the clear glass. Chandu was busy studying. He had not seen Sayali but Sayali was intently staring at his image. Suddenly, she bent forward and started kissing it. Just then, Rupa detected her action."Sayali!," she shouted. Sayali withdrew, startled. Rupa's expressions became fierce. Suddenly, many things that had appeared enigmatic made sense now."Tell me," she nearly screamed. "Tell me why did Raghunath leave for his village; why did Pathakji's son run away that day? Tell me...tell, or I'll..." and she came back with a hot pair of tongs. "Speak. Until now I thought you were innocent. But I see now that you are not smart but lecherous. We gave up all our joys, all our life, every desire for your sake. There was one goal before us to make Sayali's life a success. And here you are...""Forgive me, Aai," Sayali whined.But Rupa was furious. Sayali was sitting close to the wall. Rupa caught hold of her cheeks in a helpless anger as if to tear her apart. Her nails dug into the fair skin and drew blood."Speak! Why don't you speak?"Sayali's lips were sealed tight.Rupa flew into a rage, "Go, go, get out of here." She caught hold of her arm and dragged her out shutting the door on her.Sayali was crying outside; Rupa was sobbing inside. Sayali tapped and her cries,"Aai, Aai" ripped through Rupa's heart. She regained her poise. A thought flashed across her: "Why am I over- reacting? Is youth Sayali's fault? Well, it had to come sooner or longer and it came."How much can the poor child take in? Viewing the world through the window was all right till now; it was a handicapped child's innocuous entertainment. But how can one push down the newly sprouting emotions? How can one suppress them? Isn't it too much to expect? How can laws of nature be changed? Sita may have picked up Shiva's bow, but she too needed a man to string it.Rupa sat down perplexed-then what? Operation? Can it be the answer?She trembled. They had Lucy operated so that the house may not get dirty. But Luck is their pet bitch and Sayali their daughter- is there any parallel? Well, what about Mandakini, their neighbor’s daughter? Her parents too got her operated. But again where is the comparison between demented Mandakini and their brainy Sayali?Sayali's garden was blossoming. Should she, a mother, destroy it with her own hands? Could she deny their own passions-hers and Jaidev's? Though passed their prime, she and Jaidev are still unable to look beyond the call of flesh. How naive to expect her fast growing daughterto curb her blooming passions.She was in dilemma. Suddenly, with decisive steps she moved towards the door. It was a strange situation- she was feeling nausea, and her daughter, whom she had shunted out for an imaginary act, was tapping on the door. Gathering herself, she opened the door and clung to Sayali. But Sayali was looking at the floor. She seemed bewildered and scared. Rupa too saw it. flowing down Sayali's legs, drops of blood had stained the floor. Rupa understood.She took her in her arms and whispered,"This is how it is darling!"Just then she saw Jaidev coming up the stairs.I'll not let this garden he ruined!" she muttered. Jaidev was on the last step and Rupa was helping Sayali in.* * *Trans. from Marathi original "Phulrani" into Hindi by Usha bande. Trans from Hindi into English by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal.53TRANSLATION IN THE GREAT BRITAINOfficial language: British EnglishOther than British English, Scots, Welsh, Scottish Gaelic and Cornish is also spoken in the Great Britain. Drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Magna Carta Libertatum (The Great Charter of the Liberties) was written on 15 June 1215. After going through three transformations of revisions or revised editions of 1216, 1217 and 1225 Magna Carta finally became a law (Holt 01). It was a necessary document that’s why it was translated and circulated more than any literary or scientific book of that era. Even in the thirteenth century the manuscript of Magna Carta found its way into different nations through translation. French translation of Magna Carta was found in St Giles' hospital in Pont-Audemer, Normandy (Brownlie 93). In 1473, with Colard Mansion, an associate, Caxton published the first printed book of the Great Britain, a translation from French titled Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye (originally written by Raoul Lefèvre of 15th Cent). Thereafter, there was a continuous flow of printed books which were made available to the elite class of society. It is pertinent to mention these two events when we have to understand the origin of translations in the Great Britain. Otherwise, it is not only difficult but also impossible to frame intellectual fire of the Great Britain in any work. There is a long list of Nobel Laureates of Literature from the Great Britain: Rudyard Kipling (1907); John Galsworthy (1932); T. S. Eliot (born in United States) (1948); Bertrand Russell (1950): Winston Churchill (1953); Elias Canetti (1981) ( he was born in Bulgaria); William Golding (1983); Seamus Heaney (1995); V. S. Naipaul (2001) (born in Trinidad and Tabago); Harold Pinter (2005); Doris Lessing (2007) (she was born in Iran) and Kazuo Ishiguro (2017) (born in Japan). Guernésiais and Jèrriais (spoken by around 1000 people), Cornish and Manx are endangered languages of the Great Britain (Telegraph). Surprising enough, no language in the Great Britain, is reflected as extinct or endangered in the UNESCO’s website for extinct and endangered languages till date. __________________________________________________________________________5.5.2 Marathi: The Source Text/ Hindi: The Intermediate Text__________________________________________________________________________This story was originally written in Marathi language by Dr Usha Bande. So lets have a glimpse at some important features of Marathi language. Marathi Language Day (Marathi Dina, Marathi Diwasa : ????? ???/????? ????) is celebrated on 27 Feb every year. Marathi, a language of Indo-Aryan language family, scheduled language of India, is spoken by about 71 million people in India by Marathi people in Maharashtra and its neighboring states. Actually Maharashtra, on 01 May 1960, was established on linguistic basis. There are 42 dialects of Marathi. Some commonly used dialects of Marathi are Varhadi, Koli, Malvani and Konkani. Also an official language/co-official language of Maharashtra, Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Goa (here it is Konkani, the dialect of Marathi is the only official language). If you read Balbodh version of Marathi it won't look unfamiliar to you because it is very similar to Devnagari. Both the languages, Hindi and Marathi, as we told you earlier, belong to Indo-Aryan language family. That’s why there are a lot of grammatical and phonetic similarities in them. In Marathi a lot of words have been derived from Sanskrit and even gender formation is similar in both ways (masculine, feminine and neuter). But in some cases it resembles Dravidian languages too. According to Narke," A shilalekh (stone carving) discovered in Jumnnar taluka of Pune talks about Maharathi language (2,000 years ago)" (Indian Express). The Government of India constituted a committee comprising the author Ranganath Pathare and historian-sociologist Hari Narke to recommended Marathi as the sixth classical language of India. Here is the alphabet of Marathi (taken from Omniglot), you’ll be enchanted to see its similarity with Devnagari of Hindi:Fig. Alphabets of Marathi.________________________________________________________________________5.5.4 English: The Target Text ________________________________________________________________________Dear Students, we are analyzing the story according to TT given above. In “Garden of Spice” we can notice many cultural essences. We could easily figure out the guilt of father which is attached to the birth of a handicapped child when he says,” We say we are reaping the fruit of our Karma. You know me since the time we have married. Tell me, have I ever harmed anybody? A simple man like me…all dreams are shattered, Rupa, all dreams.” For a western reader, this guilt with Karma will be a bit difficult to understand unless he/she has firm grip on Indian mythology. The word “Aai” has been used to address mother in TT. This word is derived from Marathi language and has been domesticated in ST and TT. “Aai” is actually of Dravidian origin. Even in Tamil Nadu mother is addressed as Aai. Later the Hindi word “Beta” is also assimilated into TT. But when we read the TT and come across the line “Raghu is blind and Mini is always ill” we have to keep ourselves guessing the real status of these children in TT. We can see the Indian father contradicting himself. At one point of time, the father seems to be broken down after the performance of his daughter. But later he says that her “success has given me confidence.”The part of story narrating the pregnancy of Rupa is in a hush-hush manner. She just says,”I’m exhausted” and then immediately in the next sentence Jaidev gets “excited at the news.” This explication also throws light on the Indian culture and the way they receive the news of pregnancy. In TT the translator translates,” Slowly invitations for performances started pouring in.” Usually, the word “slowly” is used for speed in the Western countries. They rather prefer to use “gradually” for the same occasion. But the translator has beautifully used this word in order to retain the essence of ST in TT. In TT Rupa asked Sayali,” Arre, where did Pathakji’s boy go?” In these lines the translator has again lexicalized the word Arre. But instead of using the word “son” the translator uses the third person singular word “boy” which actually means some boy (could even be an employee). But in Indian context or from the point of view of ST, we always call someone’s son as ladka (????). ____________________________________________________________________________________________5.5.5 Critical Analysis: “Garden of Spice” (Source Text: Hindi, Target Text: English)______________________________________________________________________________INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice"??? ?????. ????? ??? ????."????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??. ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ????, ????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?? ?????????? ?? ???. ???? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ???????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ????? ????, ??? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ?????? ?? '??? ??? ' ?? , ????-?? ????? ??? ????? ?? ????."Sing, Sayali! Come on! One, two three! There you go! Sing, Sayali, start." Jaidev motivated and Sayali sat rearranging herself once more. She had started with the first note when the hall echoed with a resounding applause. And then, there was no stopping her. The smiling eyes, smiling lips and that young countenance.....! The whole song became vibrant. It filled her with the cheer and laughter of her being. Two tightly tied plaits, two large eyes and smiling lips...the little girl enchanted the listeners! When the program was over the audience gave a standing ovation and the auditorium reverberated with the sound of En core! En core! Sayali's song had cast a magic spell, and the evening was a great success.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. In the IT above, the lines " ???? ????? ???????? ??? ???? ????" shows the response of an Indian girl. That is why in TT, the author has excluded these lines. This is the technique of exclusion used in translation. If there is exculsion, the transaltor balances it with inculsion. The translator included" And then, there was no stopping her” which is not present in IT. In IT, the translator uses the word " ??????' which is beautifully translated as "audience." “???-???” in IT is loaded with cultural essence and expression of bhavas of Indian audience. The translator has translated it into “En Core! En Core!”INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice???? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ???, ????? ???? ???, ??????? ???, ????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?? ??? ????, ??? ?? ???? ????? ? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ???. ????? ??? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ????. ???? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ???. ???? ?? ???? ????.The curtains came down and the connoisseurs moved towards the stage to congratulate the young singer. Sayali got nervous, she became uneasy. Gauging the situation, Jaidev jumped with agility and picked her up to dash backstage but those scrawny and inert legs popped out, dangling visibly as if teasing the audience out of their euphoria. Jaidev stepped down the back steps; the people standing there made way for him almost reverentially, as if to alleviate his pain. Rupa too scurried after him. These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers, In IT, the translator uses the word " ??????" which has been translated into "connoisseurs” which actually means “an expert judge in matters of taste/” Due to the cultural layers attached to the word " ??????" it was not possible to translate it. But the word “??????” could have been translated into ‘fans,’ ‘art-lovers’ but the translator chooses the word “audience.” It is a right choice as the readers of TT will better relate to this word. The translator uses the technique of paraphrasing in translation when she explains about audience in her own words: “as if teasing the audience out of their euphoria.”INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice?????? ?? ???-??? ???? ??-??-?? ????, “??? ?? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?????." ??? ????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ???, "???? ! ????????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ???." ????? ?? ????-?????? ?? ??. ????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??. ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??. ?????? ?? ???. " ????? ?? ??? ?? ????, ???? ????? ??. "????? ???. "??? ,???? ???? ???? ??? ?"" ???? ???? ???? ??. ?? ?? ???? ???? ???, ? ???? ??, ??? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???? , ???? ?? ???, ???? ??? ???? ???? ?"" ????? ??? ! " ????? ???? ??? ?? ????. As they were waiting for the taxi, Rupa mused, looking at her husband, “so impatient to come and equally jittery to leave,"Aloud she said,"Listen, the program organizer, Mr Desai was looking for you.” "Hmm," Jaidev uttered absentmindedly.He stacked Sayali in the taxi and sat beside her. Rupa had no choice but to enter quietly. The taxi whirred. Rupa turned to Jaidev petulantly,"You could have at least thanked Desai. After all, it is he who organized the program. Put in so much effort." Jaidev did not respond."Aai, how was my song?" "Ask your Baba!" she snapped. Turning to Jaidev she murmured, “How very moody of you! One can never be sure what may upset you. At least tell her how her performance was." "It was good, Sayali," Jaidev said looking remote. CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers, In IT the word ‘?????’ has been repeated twice just to show the haste: "????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?????." But in TT the translator uses two words in lieu of one: “impatient” and “jittery.” “????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??” in IT has been translated into “hmm.” Here the translator is being very precise, without losing the meaning of IT.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice"???, ????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ?"" ???? ???? ??, ????. ?? ????, ??? ??? ????, ?? ?? ?? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ? ???? ?? ??:????? ???? ??? ???, "??? ???, ?????? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??,?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ???? ? ?""??? ?? ???, ?????, ????? ?? ?????," ????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??,????? ??? ?? ??, ?? ??? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???. "Aai, I know they applauded the songs. But Aai, my legs! What would they have thought about them!" "What's there to think about, Sayali, besides pain? Truth can't be ignored, darling," Rupa sighed. "Yes Aai, they must have thought what a girl who cannot even stand." "Oh, shut up, Sayali. Will you." Jaidev snapped. Sayali fell silent. Thereafter no one talked. On reaching home, Sayali went to her corner by the window and sat quietly, as always. CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers The word “???” of the IT has been translated into “Aai” in TT. We are not aware of the Marathi source text as of now. But in the last section of this lesson we have discussed as to how in Marathi the Mother is also known as Aai. Perhaps, the translator has domesticated the word Aai in TT from ST. By refereeing to the condition of Rupa, the translator adds“besides pain” in TT. The sentence “Thereafter no one talked” (of TT) is absent in IT. This addition by translator shows the tense ambiance which three of them might have created in the car. Here the translator of IT also becomes a creative writer. INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) ????? ?????Garden of Spice"?????, ??? ???? ?? ???? ??, ??? ???? ??? ?? ?? ???,"????? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ???-???? ????, ??????-?????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??, "??, ???? ????," ???? ?? ??????,????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??? ??, "???, " ???? ?? ??? ??????, "????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??." ????? ??? ??? ??, "??????, ???? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ? ???? ? ?? ??????, ?? ????? ???, ??? ????? ???, ??? ?? ?????..."???? ?? ???? ?? ??, ????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???,"????, ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ??, ?? ?????? ??, ???? ????? ???? ??? ??, ????? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ????, ??????? ??????! ???? ???? ?? ??? ??, ?????, ??? ?? ??? ?? ! ""Sayali, it's already late. Come and have your dinner and go to bed." Moving her legs with her hand, she dragged herself on to the stool."Dinner is ready," Rupa called out, Jaidev was starting at his piece of the sky through the window of his room. "Come on. Sayali is already here on her stool," Rupa called out again. Jaidev came and sat down. "Baba, my legs, did they embarrass you today? But Baba, you are fit; Aai is also fit than me..."Rupa was moved. She said tenderly, "because you are beautiful like a star, you are our fairy. You are an artist, aren't you, Sayali. Nothing matters to an artist besides art. How beautifully you sang today! God! It was divine. The audience was so moved. They showed so much respect. They applauded whole-heartedly, didn't they? We are proud of you, dear, very proud."CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The words " ???? ???" has been translated into"dinner" in (TT). This is a creative rendereing of words according the the respective cultures of both the texts. But the word " ??????" (IT) has been translated as " embarrass” in TT. However, according to the context and the situation of this passage, both words seem relevant. “??????" or Father (IT) has been transated as " Baba” (TT). This is perhaps for the reason we have already explained above. The word Baba for sure carries Marathi essence. The translator (of TT) adds the sentence “you are our fairy.” This sentence does not exist in IT. Here again the translator has taken her liberty and role of a creative writer. INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??, ???? ??? ????? ????, "???? ??, ????? ??? ? ???? ????? ??, ??? ?? ?"???, ????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ?""??? ?? ??? ???? ?????, ???? !" " ??? ????? ????? ???? ??, ????? ????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ????, ??? ?? ???? ?????, ???? ????? ???? ??, ??? ?????, ??? ?""??, ?? ?? ?? ?????, ?? ???????,????? ???????-??, ??????- ?? ?? ??,??? ??? ?? ???? ??. ?? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ????? ??? ????? ???? ??? ??, "????? ?? ???" ???????? ????,As always in such situations, Jaidev kept quiet. Before going to bed, Sayali broached the subject again, "Aai, Baba is annoyed with my legs, isn't he? Aai, why doesn't God create girls with whole legs?" "Everyone doesn’t get everything, Beta!" “Then God is not good. He doesn't give everything good to good people. Raghu is blind and Mini is always ill. Why is it thus, Aai?""Come on, Sayali. Sleep now. We'll talk about it tomorrow." Sayali slept restlessly that night. It was midnight. Gazing at the star-studded sky; Jaidev lay quietly reclining on his arms. "Is Sayali asleep?" CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The word " ????" (IT)has been translated as " Beta” (TT). The word Beta or Beti has not yet been adopted into English language. This is yet another example of domestication as also adaptation. INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH) ????? ?????Garden of Spice"???, ?? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???" "??? ???? ???? ???, ????? ?? ??? ?? ???, ????????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???, ???? ????? ?? ???? ????, ?? ????? ??? ???? ??? ? ????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ! ?????, ???? ??????”????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??,.??? ??? ??? ????, ??? ??? ???, "?? ???? ???- ????? ?? ?? ??, ?? ???? ???-?? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ??, ??? ??? ???, ?? ???? ????? ??? ??, ????? ???? ???? ??. ???? ????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???-??? ?? ??." “Yes. But she is upset. What had come over you?" "I don't know. I felt humiliated; no I felt infuriated at the pity and sympathy in people's eyes. What was my fault Rupa that this girl was born like this? Why did this have to happen to us? Tell me, why?" Jaidev went on breathlessly.He paused a while and started again, "We rationalize such ill-luck and put the blame on "destiny." We say we are reaping the fruit of our Karma. You know me since the time we have been married. Tell me, have I ever harmed anybody? Ever robbed or cheated anybody? A simple man like me...all dreams are shattered, Rupa, all dreams..."CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The statement of Sayali's father "???? ??? ??? ???" (IT) has been transalted into " I felt humiliated” (TT). Both these covey different meanings. The first one, means that Father (Jaidev) was angry. But the other one indicates humilation and embarassment which he had to face. But both the words suit the entire ambiance of the respective texts/ paragraphs.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice????? ?????? ??, ?? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ???????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??. ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ???? ??- ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???, ??? ?????-????? ????, ????? ? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???????, ??? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ?????-????? ?????, ??? ??? ?? ????- ????? ???? ?????. ????? ?? ????-????? ?? ???? ???, ?? ??? ?? ??. ?? ??? ???? ? ???. ??? ?? ????? ? ????, ???? ????? ?????????. ???? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ????-????? ?? ??…?? ????? ? ???? ?? ??????? ??, ?? ????. ??? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??. ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ???, ??? ?? ??? ??; ????????, ????, ????? ?? ??? ????, ?? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???. Obviously, Jaidev was upset but what could Rupa do or say?Wherefrom could she bring words to console him. Rupa had always seen him jovial. It was difficult now to imagine a sad man. Her image of him has been of a happy-go-lucky man. He would head straight home after an eight-hour job. The moment he stepped in, he was his cheerful self- laughing, talking, humming. There was a little disappointment in their life as they did not have children but he would cleverly sublimate this gap by immersing himself whole-heartedly in music. Besides there was his friend circle and many other activities to keep him busy. He was so jovial and cheerful that nothing could dampen his spirit. Rupa always thought of his as her lion-hearted Jaidev.Sayali entered their lives a little late but she filled their home with joy. Baby Sayali always had a chuckle for everybody. With the chubby cherubim face and a healthy body she was an attractive child but only as long as her two sticks of legs were not visible. Then there surged a wave of pity at those lifeless pieces of wood. Below the waist Sayali was just lifeless, dead. The parents tried every remedy, doctors consulted, vaids and hakims visited; then there was a series of vows and fasts, charms and quacks and amulets and many other things. Nothing helped.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The translators start paraphrasing the entire situation from the IT. She creates a beautiful sentence :"Wherefrom could she bring words to console him”, “It was difficult now to imagine a sad man “ as she also calls Jaidev “lion-hearted.” Here the translator paraphrased but on the other hand she excludes “???? ?? ??????? ??" from the IT. But hardly any meaning is changed due to this exclusion.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice???? ?? ???? ??-?? ?? ??? ??. ???? ????????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ? ??. ????? ??? ?? ??? ????, ??? ????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ????."?? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ????? ????, ?? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?? ????? ??."" ?? ?? ??? ????????? ?????, ????? ! ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?????. ?? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??," ???? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ." ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?? ???, ???? ????? ?? ???? ??? " Rupa's eyes, tired of shedding tears, dried ultimately and she decided to face the reality. Jaidev would often get irritated at his hard luck; sometimes he would be emotional and at times just bewildered."Who cursed this little star, Rupa? And why should she become our destiny?' "We have to accept it, Jaidev as it is. No point grieving or cursing. When we accept things with all our heart, the pain becomes lighter, “Rupa would say calmly."I can do without your philosophy, Rupa. Keep it with you," Jaidev said decisively making it clear that he would have no nonsense. CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, a written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The translator again paraphrases. She includes bhavas of Jaidev in TT: "Jaidev said decisively making it clear that he would have no nonsense.” INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice"?? ?? ????? ???? ????? ???, ????? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ???.""?? ???? ??? ? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ?? ????. ????? ??, ?? ?????? ?? . ???? ???? ??,?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?????.""????. ??? ????? ?? ?" ????? ???????? ?? ???? .???? ?? ?????? ??? - ?? ????? ?????????? ??? ???, ?? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???. "For me, it is just unbearable to see her sitting at the window clapping while children of her age dance and jump and frolic.""It’s ok, Jaidev. She has accepted her lot. She is just a child but she seems wise for her age. I think it is time we take her outdoors in the evenings.""Outdoors! A show-piece like this?" Jaidev scorned.Rupa felt a surge of anger bloating her throat. She swallowed her bitterness but her distorted face mirrored her feelings. There was a kind of revulsion there, revulsion for the heartless man who was the child's father. CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, a Source Text (ST), written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Here the translators are successful in bringing out the Vatslaya Bhava:" it is just unbearable to see her sitting at the window.” But this sentence is absent in IT. Thereafter, the translator includes “There was a kind of revulsion there, revulsion for the heartless man who was the child's father” (TT). This inclusion throws light on the inner thoughts of Rupa and seem necessary here. INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???. ????? ?? ???? ?? ??????????? ???? ?? ?? ?? ?? ????,"?? ?????? ?? ,???? ?? ?? ?????? ??..." " ?? ?????"" ???? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ????! ????? ????????, ???? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ...."" ?? ????? ????! ??? ???? ??????, ?? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?????, ?? ???? ????? ????? ,???? ? ?? !"???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???,???? ????, ??? ?????? ???? ???.Jaidev was quick to note her reaction and added compromisingly, "OK, we'll take her outdoors, but...""But...what!""The outside world is cruel, Rupa, heartless! Don't you understand how other children might make fun of her. Can we tolerate that? Besides, if we meet someone from my office or may be some acquaintance...""So what? Shall we confine her to this window for fear of what people might say? Let them say what they wish, Jaidev. I never thought you were so weak." Rupa exclaimed breathlessly. She did not know what she said. CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Here you can see differnet shades of translation. We can make out different words which have more sense when placed within their respective cultures like: ????, ??, OK and breathlessly. These words have got their due treatment in IT and TT. INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice????? ?? ??? ??, " ??? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? , ????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??. ?? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ?? , ???????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ??, ???????? ?? ??? ??? ??, ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ?? , ?? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ,?? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ???! ???? ????? ???? ?? ????. "But she saw Jaidev's face contorting."I cannot bear this any longer, Rupa. This futile wait! It's been five years now and I am still waiting for our second child to come. You seem to have lost all your emotions, desires, feelings. Your femininity. Where are these? Why, you've even forgotten the need to dress up! You have become lifeless like her legs, frigid. No seed can sprout you. Give her away to an orphanage. I don't want this girl."CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Here you can see differnet shades of translation. We can make out different words which have more sense when placed within their respective cultures like: ???, ???????? and femininity. These words have got their due treatment in IT and TT. INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice???? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ,????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ???,?? ?????? ??? ???,????? ???? ?? ???? ?? - '????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ??, ??? ??? ???! ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?????, ??? ??? ??????. ???? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ?? ? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ??. ???? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ?? - ??? ?? ???, ???? ?? ????. ??? ??. ???? ?? ??. ??? ??? ?????????? ,?????????.”Rupa swallowed a lump in her throat.Next day, when Jaidev had left for office, she took Sayali with her, leaving a letter for Jaidev. "I have given birth to Sayali. I'm her mother. I will not let her be an orphan. I am not annoyed with you nor do I deny your passion. My Sayali is like a cankerous vine-green at the top but lifeless below. She is just fine as she is. I shall tend her, nurse her myself, if you can't."CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The translator in TT includes the words " if you can't." These words not only show the internal frustration of Rupa but suits the ambiance of this paragraph.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice??? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ,????? ?? ???? ???? ???????? ????? ???? ??, ?? ??????? ?? ????????????? ????? ?? ???? ??, ???? ?? ?? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ??. ??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?? ???? , ????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????, ???? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??????.Four days later Jaidev reached Rupa's parents' home and brought back his wife and daughter.Things changed since then. He was no longer the old vivacious Jaidev, but nor was he the irritable and self-pitying Jaidev. He had got hold on himself and was making efforts to accept the reality of Sayali's existence. Every evening he would take her to the nearby playground. Once a week Rupa took her to school, rest of the days she taught her at home.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, a Source Text (ST), written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Here you can see differnet shades of translation. We can make out different words which convey sense when placed within their respective cultures like: ?????, hold on and existence. These words have got their due treatment in IT and TT.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice???? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??-????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?????????? ?????, ???? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?????.????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ?? ????? ? ??? ????? ?? ?? ??????? ???? ,"???? ! ?? ?? ????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?????? !"????? ???? ??? ?? ????? - ????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ! ????? ?? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ???? !???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?? ???. ???? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ????, ???? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ! Rupa's mind was focused on one thing only- to educate Sayali, to make her self-dependent and confident so that the world looked at her with admiration and respect, not with pity.Sayali reached her fourth grade. It was then that Jaidev realized that the child had talent for music which could be channelized."Rupa, I have decided to teach her music. From now on, Sayali will practice music with me every evening."It was a bold decision. The training started in right earnest and Sayali seemed to pick up the tunes and strains fast enough. Jaidev was filled with happiness whenever her melodious voice reverberated in the air.Rupa was content; her anger had vanished. Sayali seemed poised for a bright future with the glow of music around her.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The translators also become creative commentators as we can see their involvement in the IT when they declare the action taken by Jaidev as bold: "It was a bold decision.” This declaration is absent in IT. But it suits the thematic essence of the story.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ??? -"?? ?????,??? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??? ??. ??? ???? ??, ? ???, ????? ?? ????? ?? ??."" ???, ?? ?? ?? ?? ????, ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?? ???? ????."????? ????.???? ????? ???. ??? ??? ??? ? ?? ??? ??? - ???? ?? ????. ?? ?? ?? ???? ??? ? ???."?? ???? ?? ????,??? ?????. ??????? ??? ???? ?????, ?????."" ????? ?? ???? ?????????? ?? ??? ??. ?? ?? ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ??. "?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??. "????? ????? ??? ??? ??? ??. ?? ???? ????? ????? ??? ??????." ???? ??? ????. One day, Rupa said casually, "Jaidev, my only dream now is to see her shine. Her deformity doesn't hurt as she has the strength of music as a prop.”"That’s right, Rupa. But can't we have a baby boy with strong feet to stand on. Our child fit like other children," Jaidev pleaded.\Rupa shuddered. It had come back again full circle- the craving for a son. She did not wish to annoy Jaidev but she did not want another pregnancy."Let's just forget what is not to be. Let us try to live with the present, Jaidev.""Sayali is quite self-dependent now. Maybe you can arouse your passion." said Jaidev with tenderness."Sayali is in the 10th standard. Would it look good to have a baby at this stage," Rupa pleaded to dodge his demand.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. " ???? ???? ?????? ?? ???" (IT) has been transalted as "said casually" (TT). Both don't seem to be complimentary to each other. The transaltor has avoided to translate the sexual connotations in the phrase ' ??????? ?? ???? ??" of TT. It is also a very important feature of translation, most of translators avoid transalting sexual contents. We can call it Boulderization (see Glosssary).INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice????? ?? ????? ?? ??-??? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ????????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ????-?? ??? ????????? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ???! ?? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?? ?? ???? !"????."" ???.""?? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ??-?????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???,???." "???? ? ""???? ???? ??? ?? ???, ???? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?? ???, ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??????!"Jaidev trained Sayali with care putting his heart in his training sessions and the day came when they decided to organize the concert. That was the day Sayali's art reached its peak with public applause certifying her talent. Jaidev's heart was torn apart. There was success and yet there was defeat. That night he sat in his bed.“Rupa.”“Hmm.”"With this moonlight as our witness let's start our new life today.""What do you mean?""You have understood haven't you? When words fall silent, life opens up its secrets. Let's tread that beautiful path."CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Here you can see differnet shades of translation. We can make out different words which have more sense when placed within their respective cultures like: ??-???, ????????? and public applause. These words have got their due treatment in IT and TT.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice???? ????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ??? -"????? ?? ???? ?????""???? ,?? ?????? ?????, ?????? ?? ??. ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??.! ?? ?? ???? ?? ?? ????????? ??????! ???? ??? ???? ???????? ! ?? ?? ????????? ?? ???? ???? ??????????? ???? ??.""??? ??. ??? ??????? ???. ???? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??????-- ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??!"???? ?? ???????? ?? ?? ???."????,?? ?? ????? ???? ???. ??? ???,???? ! ????? ?? ??? ??? ???! ??? ?? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ,??? ?? ???? ???? ??. ??? ?? ????? ??? ?? ???? ???."??? ???????? ??? ?? ??. ???? ???????? ?? ????. "??? ?? ??? ????,???? ?"?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ????. "???? ??? ????? ???? ???."????? ???????? ?? ???. ?? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ,"???? ??? ????.""?? ??? ?? ???? ???? ???. ??? ?? ????? ,??? ????? ?? ????? , ???? ????? !""??? ,????? ?? ???!"Rupa feigned ignorance, “What will become of Sayali?" "Silly, this is our journey. Ours together. As for Sayali, I have already decided. We shall organize more programs like this one; accumulate money to make her stand on her feet. Today's success has given me confidence, we can achieve it.""Yes, if God has denied her feet to stand on, we shall give her the feet of education to stand on.""Well, Rupa, fulfill my desire. Bloom, Rupa! Bloom! Blossom like jasmine. Days are spent worrying about Sayali, at least let the nights be pleasant. Let our nights pay for the day's labour."Soon days turned dreamy. Nights filled with fragrance.One morning Rupa slept late, Jaidev queried tenderly, “Why Rupa, don't you feel like getting up, today?"I'm exhausted. I was sick all through the night." Jaidev was excited at the news but he said with concern, "You should have woken me up."“This is the only time you get for rest. It's always a long day for you office and then reaching practice to Sayali. It's exhausting.""Shall we go to the doctor?" CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The bahvas which these lines communicate " ???????? ?? ?? ???" (IT) have not been included/translated in TT. "???? ??? ????? ???? ???" in IT opens up the meaning of the illness of Rupa. But the traslators of TT have avoided the use of words " ?????" or vomitting. They preferably use " I was sick.” This exclusion creates a kind of confusion for the reader. This is why it becomes very difficult to gather the idea behind the happiness and excitement of Jaidev in TT. The narrative "??? ,????? ?? ???!" (IT) has been translated as "Shall we go to the doctor?" (TT). The first one (IT) is a command but the second one (TT) seems be a request with mild tones of suggestion. INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice"???? , ??? ?? ?????? ??? , ?? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?""??? ?? ????, ????. ??? ?? ????-???? ??? ??????? ?? ! ??? ???? ?? ????? ?""????? ?? ??? !" ???? ????? ??? ,????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ???, ????? ?? ????? ? ?? ?? ?? ???? ???? ?? ! ???? ???? ? ???? ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ! ??? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?"No. I'll be fine. Why waste money!""Waste! Why, by that standard then even our daily Dal Roti is also a waste, isn't it? Why survive at all, then?""For Sayali."Rupa was happy at the turn of events in her life but the thought of Sayali always felt a gnawing feeling. One may try to be rational but sometimes guilt nibbles at your inner being even though it is none of your fault. The baby taking shape in her womb will be born one day, what will become of Sayali then?CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The translator uses Dal Roti as it is in TT. But these words are not present in IT. INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice????? ????? ??? ??. ???? ??????? ??. ????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??. ?? ?? ?? ?? ??? ???? ??. ??????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??. ???? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???. ?? ????? ????????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??. ?????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??. ???? ?????? ???? ? ?? ??? ?? ??? , ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???? ????. ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? - ???? ????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ????? ???? ?? ???? ???. ??? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ??. ???? ????? ?? ?? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???. ????? ??? ?? ???. Jaidev left for the office. Rupa was unwell the whole day. Sayali was all by herself in the room. Sitting by the window, she was studying. Rupa entered the room to see Sayali. She was looking out intently and did not hear her mother enter the room. Her books were still in the bag. Rupa went near her and stood close by her. Sayali was so engrossed that she did not notice her presence. Rupa looked out with curiosity to see Sayali's object of interest. What she saw shocked her beyond words. At the public tap below, a young man was bathing. On noticing Sayali he made some obscene gesture and Sayali laughed and her face flushed.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Here you can see differnet shades of translation. We can make out different words which have more sense when placed within their respective cultures like: ?????????, intently and public obscene. These words have got their due treatment in IT and TT.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice?????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??. ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? !???? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??? ,??? ???? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??. ??? ??? ?? ???? -"????? ,?? ??? ?? ? ??? ?"????? ???? ??? !" ???? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?""??? ???? ??? !?? ?? ????? ?? ?????.""???? ?""????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ??? , ????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ??.???? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ??,"???? ??? ????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ???. Probably, the young man had spotted Rupa. He turned hurriedly, wrapped a towel around him and fled. Pretending not to have noticed anything objectionable, Rupa withdrew from the window and asked simple," Sayali, you were studying, weren't you?"Sayali was startled."What were you looking at so fixedly, child?"Nothing, Aai! The same everyday things.""Like?"She said as if to change the subject,"Aai. I must stand first this time. My tests are to begin soon." Salyali dexterously collected herself and began taking out books from the bag.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Here you can see differnet shades of translation. The words of IT such as ????? and ?????? have been taken from English. This is an example of foreignization in translation. These words have got their due treatment in IT and TT. They have been translated as it is.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice???? ?? ??? ,?? ???? ???? ?????? ??,?? ??? ???? ??? ???."???? ????, ????? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ? ?""???? ??? !?? ???? ??? ???? ??????, ???? ??? ???? ?"??? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ."???? ????? ????,"???? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??? ???? !"????? ???? ,?? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?? , ????? ???? ??.""???? ??? ????? ???? ?? ,??? !"Rupa wondered if her daughter was really sensible or just clever yet she could not bring about herself to scold her for erring."Sayali, you don't curse your fate watching these children going to school, do you?""No, Aai. Why crave for the forbidden fruit,"Sayali counter-questioned like a philosopher."My smarty," Rupa fondled her head with affection."Sayali, it would be better if you sit in the gallery now. The window here is not wide enough.""But, I like it here, Aai."CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Rupa in IT avoids to give any judgement :" ?? ??? ???? ??? ???." But in TT Rupa calls her, " just clever.” Translators use a phrase from the Bible “forbidden fruit.” This phrase can’t be understood unless one has gone through the Bible. However, the phrase is missing in IT.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice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upa was quick to guess. At the public tap outside, many half-naked boys, children, men and women from the slum nearby the bungalow came to take bath and sitting by the window Sayali watched the scenes-god knows what!Next day, Jaidev too noticed Sayali looking out intently. He saw the view outside and his temper rose."Move her away from this window," he shouted.After Jaidev had left for the office, Rupa tried to make Sayali understand, “Child, you should not watch such filthiness. It distracts the mind from studies. It's not healthy. The mind starts wandering.""Alright, Aai," Sayali said casually, "As you wish. But my life is shackled here. Can I ever go out anywhere?""You are still small. When you grow up to be a beautiful princess, a prince will certainly come to take you with him," Rupa said in placating tone to her but somewhere deep down her motherly instinct told her that her daughter had grown up in mind.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. Transators introduce a new sentence in TT " It's not healthy." This sentence truly captures the ambiance of the situation presented. Rupa in IT thinks " ?? ?? ???." But in TT she knows about her daughter that she has " grown up in mind” (TT).INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice"??? , ???? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ???. ???? ?? ?? ?? ????? ????? ????? ???? ???. ?? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ???. ???, ?? ?? ???? ??? ????? ???? ???? ??." ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??, "??? ? ??? ,?????. ?? ???? ?? ???? ??, ???? ????????? ??. ????? ?? ??? ,????. ????? ??? ???? -??? ????? ??? ?? ???? ???."???? ?? ???. ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???. "Aai, everyday some dogs come here to drink water. There is a dog with legs broken. When he limps near, the others just drive him away. Aai he too sits like me in a corner alone. Looking wistfully at others."Rupa saw pain in her eyes. She covered her mouth with her palm. "Don't, Sayali, don't ever let such thoughts come to you. Don't be weak, my child. We have to accept what is ordained. Music and studies, aim for them and rise high." Rupa was in tears. Sayali dragged her bag and moved away from the window.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. In IT it is made clear that the hind legs of dog were broken " ????? ????? ????? ???? ???.” But the Translators translate it as “dog with legs broken.” Whether they are hind or front, is not made clear in TT. But for a Target Reader with common sense, it is not a problem at all. In IT the translator uses “????" while talking to Sayali. But in TT, the translator changes the word ???? into "my child." The reader actually expects from the transaltor to take the word as it is. Because in the previous section we have seen that Aai and Baba have been taken as it is in TT. The reason for the same could be that Aai and Baba carry the cultural essence of Marathi text. However, maybe the word ???? does not.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ????. ????? ???? -?? ??. ??? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?????, " ?????, ???? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??,?? ??????? ?? ?? ???? ????? !" ?? ????? ???? ???. ??????????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ???,?? ????? ?? ???-????? ???? ???? ??????????? ?? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ??. A fortnight passed by in silence. Sayali was down and low all this while. Seeing her so morose, Jaidev said," Sayali, keep in mind one principle. Even if the song is sad, it is to be sung with a happy heart so that we put feeling in it." And Sayali obeyed.Slowly, invitations for performances started pouring in, but Jaidev accepted only a few, choosing discreetly. After all Sayali's 10th grade exams were round the corner and it was no use burdening or distracting her.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. In both the texts there are some words which have meanings not unrelated to the cultural significance such as: ???? -?? ??, ???????, down and low and morose. That is why some of these can’t be translated accurately. The translator uses word “Slowly” in order to communicate the flow of invitations. But the word slowly actually refers to speed. The word “gradually” would have been better placed. Again in TT the translators paraphrase the entire situation and add a new sentence (which is actually not there in IT):” and it was no use burdening or distracting her.” This shows creativity of translators.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??. ????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??. ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??????????? ?? ??????? ?? ?? ??? ??. ????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ???, ??? ?????? ???? ???. ???? ???? ????? ??? ???. ????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??. ??? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?????- ????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ??. ???? ??? ???? ?? ????, ????? ????? ?? -"??? ,???? ?? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?""??? ???. ??? ????, ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ,"????? ????."??? ???? ???? ?""????.""???? ??? ??." ???? ?? ???? ???? ??? ! ????? ??? ??????? ??, ????? ?? ??? !The rehearsals, however, continued in right earnest. Pathak Master came daily for her tabla practice. One day he sent his son who had just appeared for his engineering examination and was free. The young man was taken aback to see Sayali, then he made a few polite queries. Rupa went in to prepare coffee. Jaidev was not yet back from office. Suddenly Rupa heard the hurrying steps of someone leaving in haste and ascending the steps. She peeped in, Sayali was alone in the room,”Arre, where did Pathakji's boy go?""Left! Don't know why, just got up and nearly ran out!" answered Sayali."Didn't he say anything?" "No.""That's strange," Rupa shrugged. Sayali seemed nonchalant.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The word ??????????? (IT) has been taken as it is in IT. This is foreignization. " ??? ,???? ??" of IT has its cultural shades. The words have been transalted as it is. In Hindi we use ji in order to show respect. But a reader without this knowledge may take it as a complete name. The word " ????" (IT) has been transalted as "boy" (TT). Both have differnt meanings. Actually the third person word boy can mean some young male, perhaps a 'chela,' murshid or servant of Mr Pathak.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice????? ?? ?????? ????, ??? ?? ?? ???? ???. ???? ??? ??? ?? ???. ????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??? ??. ??? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????. ?? ? ??? . ????? ???? ???. ?????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????. ????? ??? ?? ??? ?? ,?? ??????? ?? ????????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ???? ?? ????. ????? ??????? ???. ???? ????? ??. ?? ????? ??? ??.Later, despite Jaidev's repeated requests the boy wouldn't agree to come. This set Rupa thinking. Jaidev was also perturbed. The practice session came to a sudden halt. Jaidev rationalized, maybe he was disturbed seeing Sayali's condition. Then he sent for Raghunath and the regular session started. Raghunath would strike the Tabla and Sayali's melodious voice would fill the air. Everything was going just fine; and then one day Raghunath decided to leave for his village and he never returned. Jaidev was angry. Rupa was upset; but strangely Sayali was normal.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, a Source Text (ST), written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The word ????? is actually difficult to translate with its culturally located rich meaning. The translator have clarified the entire situation with addition of this “The practice session came to a sudden halt” (TT). In IT the translator says that Mr Raghunath had left just before the program “ ????????? ?? ??? ????.” But after reading the TT it is not clear, rather not mentioned, whether he dodged his presence or left ‘before the program’ / ‘after the program.’INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice??? ?? ??? ??. ????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ??. ???? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ???????? ?? ??? ?? . ???? ??????????? ??? ??. ?? ????? ?? ?? ????? ????? ???? ??. ????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?????????? ?? ????? ??? . ??? ???? ?? ??? ????."????? !" ???? ??????? .??????. ????? ???? ?? ??? .???? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????. ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ? ??? ?? .It was evening; Sayali was sitting in front of the mirror, combing her hair. From across the street, their neighbor Chandu's image was reflected in the clear glass. Chandu was busy studying. He had not seen Sayali but Sayali was intently staring at his image. Suddenly, she bent forward and started kissing it. Just then, Rupa detected her action."Sayali!" she shouted. Sayali withdrew, startled. Rupa's expressions became fierce. Suddenly, many things that had appeared enigmatic made sense now.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version (ST), written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The translators (TT) use adjective "clear” with glass but the same is missing in IT. Even translating the expression “???? ???” is not easy as it contains cultural and metaphoric references. Perhaps that’s why translators beautifully translate it as “expressions became fierce.”INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice "??? , ?????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ? ??? , ???? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ????? ??? ??? ? ??? ,??? ...?????? ...," ?? ????? ??? ???? ???,"??? , ?? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ??. ???? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???? , ?? ??? ???? ???????? ??? ?? . ??, ?? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? -????? ?? ???? ,?? ??..." ????? ????????," ??? ," ??? ,??? ??? ?? ???? ." "Tell me," she nearly screamed. "Tell me why did Raghunath leave for his village; why did Pathakji's son run away that day? Tell me...tell, or I'll..." and she came back with a hot pair of tongs. "Speak. Until now I thought you were innocent. But I see now that you are not smart but lecherous. We gave up all our joys, all our life, every desire for your sake. There was one goal before us to make Sayali's life a success. And here you are...""Forgive me, Aai," Sayali whined.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The word “??????” of IT has been translated as “innocent” in TT. This is for sure variation but this variation adds to the meaning of TT.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice?? ???? ?? ????? ???? ????? ???? ??. ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??. ???? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????. ???? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ???."??? ! ????? ????? ???? ?"????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? .???? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ??? -"?? , ???? ?? ???? ??," ?? ???? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???? , ?????? ??? ?? ????. ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?? ,??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??! ????? ?? ??????? ?? '??? -??? ' ?? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??. ?? ???? ?? . ????? ??? ,”???? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??. ??? , ?? ?? ??? ?? ??. “But Rupa was furious. Sayali was sitting close to the wall. Rupa caught hold of her cheeks in a helpless anger as if to tear her apart. Her nails dug into the fair skin and drew blood."Speak! Why don't you speak?"Sayali's lips were sealed tight.Rupa flew into a rage, "Go, go, get out of here." She caught hold of her arm and dragged her out shutting the door on her.Sayali was crying outside; Rupa was sobbing inside. Sayali tapped and her cries,"Aai, Aai" ripped through Rupa's heart. She regained her poise. A thought flashed across her: "Why am I over- reacting? Is youth Sayali's fault? Well, it had to come sooner or longer and it came."CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The words such as ??? ????, ???, ????, furious and over- reacting (which carries more of psychological strains) have deep meanings within the cultures of IT and TT.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice???? -???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ??? ?? , ??? ?? ; ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?? ???-???? ?? ??? ???? ,?? ????????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ???? -'?? ???? ??????.' ?? ???? ???. ?? ??? ??? ? ????, ????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ??. ?? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ???? -???? ????? ?? ??? ? ??? ???? ?? ???????? ?? ?? ?? ???? ???? -???? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ?? . ?? ???? ???? ???? , ???? ?????.How much can the poor child take in? Viewing the world through the window was all right till now; it was a handicapped child's innocuous entertainment. But how can one push down the newly sprouting emotions? How can one suppress them? Isn't it too much to expect? How can laws of nature be changed? Sita may have picked up Shiva's bow, but she too needed a man to string it.Rupa sat down perplexed-then what? Operation? Can it be the answer?She trembled. They had Lucy operated so that the house may not get dirty. But Lucy is their pet bitch and Sayali their daughter- is there any parallel? Well, what about Mandakini, their neighbor’s daughter? Her parents too got her operated. But again where is the comparison between demented Mandakini and their brainy Sayali?CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, a Source Text (ST), written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The words such as “??????? ?? ????,” handicapped and pet bitch have deep meanings within the cultures and life style of the readers of IT and TT.INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ? ?? ?? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ??. ???? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??. ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ? ???? ?????? ?? . ??? ????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ???.Sayali's garden was blossoming. Should she, a mother, destroy it with her own hands? Could she deny their own passions-hers and Jaidev's? Though passed their prime, she and Jaidev are still unable to look beyond the call of flesh. How naive to expect her fast growing daughter to curb her blooming passions.She was in dilemma. Suddenly, with decisive steps she moved towards the door. CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, a Source Text (ST), written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The vagueness of Rupa’s mind as reflected in IT “??? ????? ???? ???” has been further clarified and paraphrased in TT with “decisive steps.”INTERMEDIATE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)????? ?????Garden of Spice??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ,??? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ??. ???? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??. ????? ????? -?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??. ???? ?? ?? ???? , ????? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??. ?? ??? ?? , ???? ???. ????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ????,"?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ,???? !"?? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ?? . "?? ????? ???? ???? ???? ???? !"???? ???????? . ????? ????? ???? ?? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?? ?? ??? ?? .It was a strange situation- she was feeling nausea, and her daughter, whom she had shunted out for an imaginary act, was tapping on the door. Gathering herself, she opened the door and clung to Sayali. But Sayali was looking at the floor. She seemed bewildered and scared. Rupa too saw it flowing down Sayali's legs, drops of blood had stained the floor. Rupa understood.She took her in her arms and whispered,"This is how it is darling!"Just then she saw Jaidev coming up the stairs.I'll not let this garden he ruined!" she muttered. Jaidev was on the last step and Rupa was helping Sayali in.CRITICAL ANALYSIS These two passages for analysis have been taken from the short story in Hindi titled “ ????? ?????" which is an Intermediate Text (IT) of Marathi version, a Source Text (ST), written by Shubhangi Bhadbhade. The Target Text (TT) titled "Garden of Spice” has been further translated by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal for the English readers. The translators of TT, add a new sentence in it “drops of blood had stained the floor.” This new sentence wakens the Target Reader with the brush of realism.* * *Trans. from Marathi original "Phulrani" into Hindi by Usha bande. Trans from Hindi into English by Sapna Sanjay Pandit and Anshu Kaushal.______________________________________________________________________________5.6 Jaiwanti Dimri’s “The Inner Eye”______________________________________________________________________________We have divided this section 5.6 into three sections:5.6.1 About the Author5.6.2 Complete text of “The Inner Eye” (Source Text: Hindi)5.6.3 Complete text of “The Inner Eye” (Target Text: English)5.6.4 Some notes on Translation Strategy in “The Inner Eye” So let us start with the first part:______________________________________________________________________________5.6.1 About the Author______________________________________________________________________________Fig. Dr Jaiwanti DimriJaiwanti Dimri is a critic, academician, bilingual author and former Professor of English (Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla). He has published her works in national and international journals. She has written anthologies and also translated works in English, Telugu and Marathi. She was a fellow of Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla. She also taught in Nigeria, Bhutan and US. She is also recipient of Arya Smriti Samman in the year 2002 for her excellent work in Hindi short story. Other than her innumerable works she has written The Images and Representation of the Rural Woman; The Drukpa Mystique: Bhutan in 21st Century; A Critical Study of Ernest Hemingway's Short Stories and Non-Fiction; The Inner Eye and Other Stories; two novellas in Hindi, Surju Ke Naam and Pinddaan; two short story collections Gagar Bhar Paani and Dusra Narak Kund and a translated work Sahastra Netradhari Nayak.______________________________________________________________________________Complete Text: Source Text of “???????????”_________________________________________________________________???? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ??? ??. ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??. ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ???. ??? ??????? ?? ???. ?? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ???. ?? ?? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ????. ???? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??. ????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??. ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ??? ??. ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??. ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ???. ??? ??????? ?? ???. ?? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ???. ?? ?? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ????. ???? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??. ????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??. ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??????????? ? ???? ?? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????. ?? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ???? ????."???? ??????. ???? ???? ?????? ???? ????. ???...""?????? ???? ????. ??? ???? ?? ?," ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?????. ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??. ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ?????," ?? ???????? ???? ???? ????"?? ?? ????????, ????????? ?? ??????? ?? ???????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ??. ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ??. ???? ???, ???? ????-???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??. ???? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?? ?? ???????? ???. ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?? '???' ?? ?????? ???? ????. ??? ????. ????? ????? ??? ???????? ?????? '????? ????????' ?? ??? ?? ?? ????? ???. ?? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ?????-??? ??? '????? ???????? ???' ?? ????? ????? ??? ??. ??? ??????? ??? ????????? ?? ????-????? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??. ???? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ????????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????? ??, ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?? ? ????. ???? ?? ????? ? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?? “?????????I??? ???????? ????? ????????” ??? ? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??? ????. ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ????????? ???, ?????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?? ? ???? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?? . "???? ???? ???? ???” ??? ???? ?? ???? ??????????? ????."???? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ? ???? ???. ""????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ????. ???? ?????? ????? ??? ?????." ????? ?? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???. ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ??. ?????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?????. ???? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???? ???? ???. ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??. ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ????. ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??. ?? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ???. ??? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??? ??. ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???? ???? ????.????? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???," ???? ????, ??? ????? ??? ????, ??????? ??? ??????????? ?? ?????????? ??? ??? ??? ???. ????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ???? ?????? ???. ???????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??, ??? ????? ???? ???? ??? ???."??????????? ?? ??????????. ???? ??????? ???? ??. ???? ??? ??????? ??? ??????, ??? ???? ?????????? ?? ??? ???????????? ???, ?????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??, ?? ???? ???? ???? ??? ?????," ??? ?????????? ?? ????? ???! ????? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??. ???? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??. ???? ??????? ????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???. ??? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ????. ???, ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ??. ""????, ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???? ????.??? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ???.???? ?? ???, ???? ?? ????. ????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???????! ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ???-????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ???? ????. ???? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ????, ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ??. ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????????? ????? ? ??????.???? ??? ????????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????. ????-????? ?? ??????? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?? ????-????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ??, ???? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ????????? ??."????, ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??. ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ???. ??????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?????????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ???? ????. " ???? '??????' ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????. ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ? ????. ??? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ????," ????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?????. ???? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ??. ????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ???.?? ???? ? ???? ?????? ????????." ???? ?? ?? ???????? ?? ???????? ?? ???????? ? ???. ??????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ???. ?? ???????????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??. ?? ??? ?? ???????? ?? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???. ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??????? ??. ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ???? ????. ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ?????-??-????? ??? ???. ? ??? ???, ? ???.????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ???? ??? ????. ???? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???????? ???? ? ????.???? ?? ??? ?? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ????. ???? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ????, ?????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???? ????. ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?????, ??????? ??????, ???? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ????, ??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ???. ???? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??:"???? ???? ??? ???""???? ???? ????? ????. ??? ?? ???? ????.""???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??? ???."???? ????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??. ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??. ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ?? ??. ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ?? ???. ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??, ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??.???? ??? ????? ????? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???. ????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ????. ???? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???. ????? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ????????? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ? ???? ???? ???. ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???. ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??????????? ??????? ????? ???? ???," ???? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ????? ???? ????."??? ???? ?? ?? ??????? ???? ?????????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????. ???? ????? ?????? ??, ??? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ????, ?????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??? ??. ???? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???, ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??? ?????," ???? ????? ?? ????? , ???? ??? ????, ?? ??????????? ?????? ??? ???? ??. ?? ??????????? ??? ??????? ???? ??.?????-???, ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????-?????, ???? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??????????? ?????? ?? ?? ??. ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???. ??? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??????. ???? ??? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????" ???? ?? ????? ???? ??????????? ?? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?????, ???????? ?????? ???? ???????? ???? ??? ?????," ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??, ??-?-?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??.????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?????. ??? ???? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???? ???????, ???? ???? ???????? ????. ?????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??.""?? ???? ???? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ??, ???? ???...?""???? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???. ??? ??? ?? ???? ?? ????, ??? ??? ???? ??? ???. ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ??????????? ?????? ????? ??. ???-??? ???? ??????????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ??. ???, ?? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ????? ??. ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??. ????? ????? ???? ????," ????, ?? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ????, ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ?? ?? ???. ?? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????. ????? ?????? ???? ??? ???" "?? ????...""????, ????? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ???, ???? ???? ???? ???-??? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ???. ?????? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ??.""?? ????, ????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??. ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ? ????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??.""???? ????? ??, ???? ????? ??? ????? ??," ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????????? ?? ,"?? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????. ????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??.”????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??. ???????? ??? ?? ?? ??????? ???? ??. ?? ??? ????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ??? ????. ???? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???..."???? ???? ??? ?? ?? ??. ?????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ??? ?????? ? ?? ??. ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??. ????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???," ????? ????, ???? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ????.""????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????. ???? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ??????????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ???" ???? ?? ????-???? ???? ????? ?? ?? ????. ?? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???. ???? ?? ?????? ??? ???????-?? ??????, ????????, ?????, ??? ???? ????????? ?? ??????? ??."???? ??? ??? ?? ??" ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?? ? ??? ??. ???? ?? ????? ???? ????, ????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??. ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ? ??. ??? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???.______________________________________________________________________________5.6.2 Critical Analysis of “The Inner Eye” (Source Text: Hindi, Target Text: English)______________________________________________________________________________ SOURCE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)???????????Inner Eye???? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ??? ??. ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??. ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ???. ??? ??????? ?? ???. ?? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ???. ?? ?? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ????. ???? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??. ????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??. ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??????????? ? ???? ?? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????. ?? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ???? ????.She could recognize her from her back by her peculiar tightly done bun though her hair had turned grey. Gauri's eyebrows were raised at the very sight of her. Equally surprising was this encounter after so many years. How come she had landed in this old age home! Deep within her, she felt an impish pleasure to see her there. A devilish thought crossed over lier mind: Well, she deserved to be in some such desolate Old Age Home. However, having come all the distance it wasn't possible to quit. She had negotiated 280 kilometers of hilly track to personally meet Mrs. Simon. Were it not for the responsibility of handing over the presents of a foreign-based brother to his sister in India she would not have waited a second. She would've to wait for Mrs. Simon.CRITICAL APPRECIATION: In the TT above, the author adds on adjective ‘impish’ with pleasure. When we read further we notice that the adjective “devilish” is also added with the noun ‘thought.’ The noun of TT is in English and the adjective goes well with the cultural values of the English. Devilish is actually a word which has its connotations based on the Bible. In the ST, the author retains the word “kilometers” in TT. Thereafter, she with a technique of adaptation replaces the words “????????? ,?????” with “foreign based brother.”SOURCE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)???????????Inner Eye "???? ??????. ???? ???? ?????? ???? ????. ???...""?????? ???? ????. ??? ???? ?? ?," ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?????. ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??. ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ?????," ?? ???????? ???? ???? ????"?? ?? ????????, ????????? ?? ??????? ?? ???????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ??. ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ??. ???? ???, ???? ????-???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??. ???? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?? ?? ???????? ???. ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?? '???' ?? ?????? ???? ????. ??? ????. ????? ????? ??? ???????? ?????? '????? ????????' ?? ??? ?? ?? ????? ???. ?? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ?????-??? ??? '????? ???????? ???' ?? ????? ????? ??? ??. ??? ??????? ??? ????????? ?? ????-????? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??. ???? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ????????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????? ??, ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?? ? ????. ???? ?? ????? ? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?? “?????????I??? ???????? ????? ????????” ??? ? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??? ????. ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ????????? ???, ?????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?? ? ???? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?? . "Good Afternoon, madam. Perhaps you don't recognize..." "How are you so sure? You are Gauri, aren't you? She intercepted her. The rude note in her tone was not amiss. She paused for a brief second and then meeting her eyes added, "Where is your Shankar?"Old habits die hard. Even then her thoughts were glued on to Gaurishankar, Radhakrishnan and Sitaram. Gauri reminisced how in a wedding party she was showering profusely her blessings on the bride and bridegroom with her mouth agape which revealed the row of her teeth in full view. Years later, she came to know that she was child widow though preferred to use the prefix "miss" to her name. However, among the girls fraternity in schools she was better known as the pseudonym of Nagari Pracharini (Nagiri for Nagar and Pracharini for Propagator). Once a new comer had gone to the teachers' staff room to meet. "Nagari Pracharini madam." The most day the principal had delivered along speech on the sanctity of teacher- taught relationship. Like other girls she too had listened to the principal's harangue with a customary bent head but the desirable sentiment of devotion for Miss Nagar could never germinate in her. Miss Nagar failed to maintain the dignity of a "guru" and that elevated emotion of Arjun in Gita for Krishna. "Shishyastwamham shadhimam twam prapannam," “Instruct me. I am your disciple," never found home in Gauri's home in Gauri's heart. Though Miss Nagar was unpopular with most of the students she was after Gauri's life like a fighting bull.57TRANSLATION IN INDONESIAOfficial language: Indonesian (also known as Bahasa Indonesia is Malay based language)Written before 20th Cent, early Indonesian literature produced during the ancient times in Indonesia is termed as Pujangga Lama. Pujangga Lama is all about "the old poets" or the old traditional period, Sastra Melayu Lama is a very old literature while Angkatan Balai Pustaka covers the colonial period in Indonesia. Hans Overbeck wrote in German "Malaiische Literatur ist tot" ( "Malay literature is dead") (Salleh 147). If this is so then it is alarming indeed. Balai Pustaka is a state owned publication house which promotes Indonesian literature. Merari Siergar's novel Azab dan Sengsara Anak Gadis (1920) (The Miseries of a Young Girl) is known to be a precursor of the modern Indonesian literature, it is a love story; Abdul Muis' Salah Asuhan (1928) shows the European characters in positive colors; Marah Rusli's Sitti Nurbaya: Kasih Tak Sampai (Sitti Nurbaya: Unrealized Love) is a story of adolescence love ( this is almost a canon in Indonesia as it is taught in schools and is an integral part of curriculum) and Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana's Layar Terkembang (With Sails Unfurled) (1936) is a rallying cry for the Indonesians and a suggestion to adopt Eastern values. The modern:"Indonesian American literature largely is translated and derives from Bhaasa, the national language of Indonesia" (Lee 546). Pramoedya Ananta Toer (1925-2006), also known as Albert Camus of Indonesia, is a novelist and essayist. He received Magsaysay award in 1995. He was also nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in literature. He wrote a touching novel The Girl from the Coast which was primarily based on his daughter’s life. CRITICAL APPRECIATION: In the above translation, the author uses Namaste in TT. But she translates it according to the cultural values of the West. In TT Namaste becomes “Good Afternoon.” The word madam has been translated as it is in TT. The word madam is used to “address or refer to a woman in a polite or respectful way.” But, the word madam has got deep cultural associations in Indian. In most parts of India, a lady teacher is known as Madam. However, a male teacher is called Sir. It can be a challenging task for a western reader to understand its connotation unless he/she is well versed with the usage of the word “madam.” In ST “????? ??? ????? ?????” (ankhon me nazre gadate) and in TT “meeting her eyes” have been used. Otherwise, both the words have slightly different meanings. But the translator has meticulously used both according to the cultural understanding of ST and TT. In TT, the translator explains the meaning of Nagri in TT as she paraphrases: “Nagari Pracharini (Nagiri for Nagar and Pracharini for Propagator.” Here the translator has for sure in her mind the Target Reader and his/her convenience. In the next line, the translator modifies “????? ???????? ???” into “Nagari Pracharini madam” for bringing out better understanding in TT as we have already discussed as to how the word madam carries cultural values of ST. The translator domesticates the English word assembly (“???????”) in ST but she very creatively modifies it in the TT. In the ST the author/translator writes “????????? ????” (Principal Madam) which makes the reader aware of the fact that the Principal was a lady. But in TT, no such mention of the gender is done. The translator beautifully adds two names from the Indian mythology in TT-“Arjun” and “Krishna.” In doing so, she mentions the context of the Gita. It is also a kind of indication for the readers that something in Sanskrit is to appear next. The Shloka in Sanskrit has been Romanized. Like “Nagari Pracharini” she has clarified the meaning of the Sanskrit text in TT through explication. But the translator has not, on the other hand, made clear the meaning of this text in ST. SOURCE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)???????????Inner Eye "???? ???? ???? ???” ??? ???? ?? ???? ??????????? ????."???? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ? ???? ???. ""????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ????. ???? ?????? ????? ??? ?????." ????? ?? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???. ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ??. ?????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?????. ???? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???? ???? ???. ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??. ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ????. ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??. ?? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ???. ??? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??? ??. ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???? ???? ????."Where are you placed these days, Gauri?" Miss Nagar brought her back from the memory lane. "Madam, right now I am coming from Kasauli." "What are you doing there? Must be teaching. In school?" Not waiting for an answer she shot the bullets of conjectures one after another. As usual, she was an expert in causing hurt to others. Must be teaching in public school? That was her limit. As she passed her entire life teaching in public school so she must think the same for Gauri too. She did not save money worth a room of her own for her old age and was confined in her old age in this deserted old age home. Those days she was putting up in teachers' flat. Gauri had a real tough time when she had to undergo so much humiliation and mental torture for seven years because of this woman. Today she won't miss any opportunity to pay her back in her own coins.58TRANSLATION IN IRANOfficial language: PersianFolk-tales, folk-humor, fables (like Kalila and Dimna), shadow plays and poetry play a vibrant role in the literary culture of Iran. If one has to understand the history of Iran one has to study the Avestan texts. Avestan texts are believed to be the most ancient scriptures of Zoroastrianism and Pahlavi scriptures. Sadegh Hedayat (1903-1951) a fiction writer; Nima Yushij (1895-1960) a poet and Hedayat whose The Blind Owl (1937) is understood to be the first modern novel in Persian, was also the first to translate the works of Kafka and Chekhov, are some of the few recognized authors from Iran. There is no author from Iran who has received the Nobel Prize of Literature till date. The Nobel Laureate Doris Lessing (1919-2013) was born in Iran but her parents were British and they had to leave Iran when she was almost six years old. Dowlatabadi's The Colonel was nominated for the Man Asian Book Prize (2011). Thirty nine years old Leila Azam Zangeneh (b 1976), an exiled author from Iran, author of The Enchanter: Nabokov and Happiness (2011), was in the panel of jury to decide 2017 Booker Prize. The contemporary Iran has vibrant authors whose works are recognized in the world as literary cannon, some of them are: Moniru Ravanipur; Mahmud Dowlatabadi who wrote the epic novel Kelidarz; Ali-AShraf Darvishian; Nader Ebrahimi; Amin Faqiri; Mohammad Baharlu; Ebrahim Yunesi and so on. CRITICAL APPRECIATION: In ST the word uttered by Miss Nagar clearly indicates that she uses the word “public” with the word school. But in TT, the word “public” is missing in the narration of Miss Nagar. The translator meticulously unravels it in following lines. By domesticating the word “teachers’ flat” (“?????? ???????”) in ST, the translator beautifully shows one more aspect of writing which is Target-Reader-Centric. The words “parast karne” (“?????? ????”) and “to pay her back in her own coins” is a beautiful and creative modification of idiom from ST into TT. SOURCE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)???????????Inner Eye ????? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???," ???? ????, ??? ????? ??? ????, ??????? ??? ??????????? ?? ?????????? ??? ??? ??? ???. ????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ???? ?????? ???. ???????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??, ??? ????? ???? ???? ??? ???."??????????? ?? ??????????. ???? ??????? ???? ??. ???? ??? ??????? ??? ??????, ??? ???? ?????????? ?? ??? ???????????? ???, ?????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??, ?? ???? ???? ???? ??? ?????," ??? ?????????? ?? ????? ???! ????? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??. ???? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??. ???? ??????? ????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???. ??? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ????. ???, ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ??. ""????, ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???? ????. ??? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ???. Therefore Gauri replied with a tinge of marked pride in her voice,"No madam, I am not teaching in Kasauli but in the University of Wisconsin in the US. Mrs. Simon' brother Prof. Richardson is my colleague. I have come to deliver her brother's gifts to her." University of Wisconsin in the US. The word had weight indeed. Nonplussed for a fraction a second, she was her own will again spoke in her usual razor-sharp voice," When did you reach there? Last year I met your classmate Alka. Don't you remember her? She is in Delhi these days. Her husband is Deputy Secretary in the Ministry of Health. She has two handsome sons. Yes, Alka told me that you were in Delhi." "You must have met Alka more than three years ago. I've been in the US for the last three years."CRITICAL APPRECIATION: In ST “Dr Richardson” (“?? ????????”) is changed into Prof Richardson in TT. The word “class” in ST is again lexicalization of English. Thereafter, we can see that there is a modification in the grammatical pattern of the sentence and the translator without losing the essence or auchitya of the sentence uses “classmate” in TT. SOURCE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)???????????Inner Eye???? ?? ???, ???? ?? ????. ????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???????! ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ???-????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ???? ????. ???? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??? ????, ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ??. ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????????? ????? ? ??????."????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???. ??? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???.""Alka's husband! Alka's sons! What an infatuation with the male species! On the annual functions when the girls were accompanied by their young siblings, Miss Nagar's profuse show of affection and love for the kid brothers was a scene worth watching. She may not remember the names of the girls but never missed the names of their brothers and had an update on them till the next annual function. "Aren't you married Gauri? People say people go for late marriages in the US. You are not past marriageable age." CRITICAL APPRECIATION: The words “purush varg” (“????? ????”) in ST has beautifully been rendered into TT as “male species.” In ST the domesticated word “school” (“?????”) has been replaced by a creative sentence which also retains sense or auchitya of the context. The translator does not use the word-for-word translation of “apni chatron” (“???? ???????”) in TT. She prefers to call them “girls” instead. This is how we understand the process of a great thinker and writer, Dr Jaiwanti Dimiri, for whom writing is always producing a new and creative text. This is what we have already discussed in your lessons. 59TRANSLATION IN IRAQOfficial languages: Arabic, KurdishIn the entire Arab or Arabic speaking world around 330 books are translated in a year (Borders xiii). But this Arabic speaking country, Iraq has encountered a lot of tragedies in the form of war, conflicts and politics instability. That is why it won’t be wrong to assume that the writings from Iraq are predominantly centered on the themes of exile, war and resistance. For that matter Salih J. Altoma's Iraq's Modern Arabic Literature: A Guide to English Translations Since 1950 is a remarkable book. Ahmed Saadawi, an author from Iraq, won the Arabic Booker Prize in 2015 for his Arabic novel Frankenstein in Baghdad (2013) (named after Mary Shelley's Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus). Most of the authors from Iraq are living in other countries. Therefore, there is a long list of authors from Iraq who write in exile. There are great writers like Badr Shakir al-Sayyab, Nazik al-Mala'ikah, Fadhil al-Azzawi, Sargon Boulus, Yusuf al-Sayigh and so on. Women poetesses like Amarah, Bushra al-Bustani, Dunya Mikhail, Amal al-Zahawi (and many more), are there but no considerable research has been done on them. According to Salih J. Altoma some great writers such as these are marginally represented in translation: “Muhammad Mahdi al-Basir (1895-1974), Muhammad Mahdi al-Jawahiri (1875-1945), Muhammad rida al-Shabibi (1889-1965), and Jamil Sidqu al-Zahawi (1863-1936).” It is difficult, but not impossible, to understand the ideologies behind these marginalities. SOURCE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)???????????Inner Eye???? ??? ????????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????. ????-????? ?? ??????? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?? ????-????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ??, ???? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ????????? ??."????, ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??. ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ???. ??????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?????????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ???? ????. " ???? '??????' ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????. ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ? ????. ??? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ????," ????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?????. ???? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ??. ????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ???.?? ???? ? ???? ?????? ????????." Gauri was hell bent to give a blow for blow, counter a brick with a boulder. When Miss Nagar did not maintain the sanctity of the teacher-taught relationship, she was teaching in a country out of bounds from the Indian tradition of the teacher-taught, a nation that allows freedom to a student to interact with the teacher on equal terms."You are rightly informed so, madam. Late marriages are quite common in the US. Not only in the US, old age is not a bar for marriage in India as well." She shot back with a pronounced emphasis on "Old age." Before Miss Nagar could respond, Mrs Simon arrived on the scene. Miss Nagar introduced Gauri to her. "She is Gauri Prabha. She in the US on a teaching assignment these days. She was my student in school. A very bright student."CRITICAL APPRECIATION: The phrase of TT “Jawab patthar se degi” ( “???? ????? ?? ????”) has also been beautifully translated with two phrases in TT “give a blow for blow” and “counter a brick with a boulder.” These double phrases bring out the Veer Rasa of the protagonist in TT. The translator uses the word “Hindustan” (“??????????”) in the ST. But in TT she uses “India.” Again these different words cater to the reading needs of both the readers of ST and TT. In the last lines of the above text, the translator uses ????? and “?? ???? ? ???? ?????? ????????” as it is. Do you know what to call this strategy in translation? We won’t tell you this time. It’s up to you to make it out. SOURCE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)???????????Inner Eye???? ?? ?? ???????? ?? ???????? ?? ???????? ? ???. ??????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ???. ?? ???????????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??. ?? ??? ?? ???????? ?? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???. ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??????? ??. ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?? ???? ????. ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ?????-??-????? ??? ???. ? ??? ???, ? ???.????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ???? ??? ????. ???? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???????? ???? ? ????.The compliment could not dispel the gloom and hurts of the past. These words of praise were now meaningless to her. At a time when she was in desperate need of them, Miss Nagar was so stingy with them. Similar to the fixed wages of the daily wagers, her rate of marks was also fixed. Gauri fell in the slab of five and a half out of ten. The index never registered any change for seven years. Mrs Simon was overjoyed to receive the parcel from her brother. Despite Gauri's efforts to decline Mrs Simon's invitation for lunch, she had to accept Mrs Simon's hospitality. As Gauri's teacher, Miss Nagar too was invited.CRITICAL APPRECIATION: The word “????????????” (which is a noun) of ST has beautifully been weaved and expressed in TT without even using it. This is the beauty of creative translation. The author uses rate in ST as it is from English. The word “?????” in ST, which has cultural essence in it has been translated as “parcel” which duly carries the cultural connotation of the west but it never means gift for sure. SOURCE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)???????????Inner Eye???? ?? ??? ?? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ????. ???? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ????, ?????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???? ????. ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?????, ??????? ??????, ???? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ????, ??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ???. ???? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??:"???? ???? ??? ???""???? ???? ????? ????. ??? ?? ???? ????.""???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??? ???."???? ????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??. ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??. ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ?? ??. ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ?? ???. ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??, ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??.On her way back from the Old Age Home the unpleasant memories of Miss Nagar hovered in her mind. To the best of her knowledge, understanding and intentions, she had never been disrespectful to Miss Nagar but Miss Nagar never let go off any opportunity to insult and berate her. She reminisced the day-Miss Nagar's favourite- the effervescent Neelima mimicking her from behind her chair and the ruffled giggles and sideway glances of the girls. Presumably signs of similar expression might have been visible in Gauri's face for Miss Nagar had cross-examined her in her edgy voice,"Gauri, what are you up to?""Madam. I've not done anything. I was the one to laugh." "What is it then? Are you crying if not giggling? Get out of my class and come back only when you are your own self." Gauri went pale with smoldering rage and resentment. She invented a queer way of contesting Miss Nagar's unwarranted attitude towards her. She turned absolutely apathetic in her class, The way Gandhi defended the Britishers with his non-cooperative movement, Gauri nonplussed Miss Nagar with her utter indifference in her class. How the glance of an undesirable person can drain out the color of your face like a blotting paper. Gauri has known from her personal experience.CRITICAL APPRECIATION“??? ???? ?? ???? ?????” (Miss Nagar se judi yaade) has been retranslated. “[M]emories” with an adjective “unpleasant” which has been added to it. In TT there is a new sentence “sideway glances of the girls” which is not there in ST. This is also an example of adaptation in translation. “?????” which has cultural connotation for which two words “indifference” and ” apathetic” are used the TT. SOURCE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)???????????Inner Eye???? ??? ????? ????? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???. ????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ????. ???? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???. ????? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ????????? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ? ???? ???? ???. ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???. ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??????????? ??????? ????? ???? ???," ???? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ????? ???? ????." The next day she spent quite some time with Mrs Simon. There was no end to her enquiries about the whereabouts of her brother she had not seen for five years. In the presence of Mrs Simon poor Miss Nagar could not heap on Gauri, the usual invective and taunts or perhaps she hadn't the guts to insult the guest of the Secretary of the Old Age Home. After taking leave from Mrs. Simon when she came out of the gate of her cottage, Miss Nagar was with her. She had folded her hands to bid her good bye when she was taken aback by her startling statement," Gauri, I had the intuition you wouldn't be married."CRITICAL APPRECIATION In ST the translator has used adhikadhik jankaari (???????? ???????) but in TT it has been translated into “whereabouts of her brother.” This too has cultural strings attached to it. This group of words shows the psyche of Indians. India is a relatively social country in which one shows deep concerns for the near and dear ones. In ST, the English word Secretary is as it is retained. In ST, the protagonist joined hands for salutation (“??????? ???? ???? ??? ????”) but in TT, the same has been translated into “folded her hands to bid her good bye.” This is also a journey from the cultural strands of Hindi to the West. For a Hindi reader it won’t be tough to understand that the protagonist’s statement with this word “?????” indicates her power of intuition. That’s why the translator has justified it with the use of “intuition” in TT. SOURCE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)???????????Inner Eye??? ???? ?? ?? ??????? ???? ?????????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????. ???? ????? ?????? ??, ??? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ????, ?????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??? ??. ???? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???, ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??? ?????," ???? ????? ?? ????? , ???? ??? ????, ?? ??????????? ?????? ??? ???? ??. ?? ??????????? ??? ??????? ???? ??.?????-???, ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????-?????, ???? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??????????? ?????? ?? ?? ??. ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???. ??? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??????. ???? ??? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????" ???? ?? ????? ???? ??????????? ?? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?????, ???????? ?????? ???? ???????? ???? ??? ?????," ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??, ??-?-?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??.Miss Nagar's comment was so astoundingly unnerving that she was at a loss for words. It was dark outside so she could not see Miss Nagar's face but her voice had an inherent melancholic touch. Before Gauri could respond, she continued in a somewhat exhausted voice," Gauri while you teach children, you spend time with them, you develop an insight. This insight is very queer. For years in and years out watching the faces of hundreds of girls, meeting their eyes suddenly it dawned upon me that I've developed an insight. I can foresee their future on the screen of their face. Just like the third eye of Shiva. The first day I peeped into your eyes do you know what did I perceive there?" Not waiting for Gauri's reply or reaction she spoke in a strange, termite-eaten mud-like voice, "I noticed that this face was mine, exactly like mine. And I took a deep dislike for this face.CRITICAL APPRECIATIONThe title of this work or the ST is “??????????? .” The translator rewrote the title in TT as “Inner Eye.” In ST, the translator to use the word “???????????” but translated it as “insight” in TT. This shows dexterity of translator to use different synonyms of the same word in TT. It also shows her in depth knowledge of ST. To understand the real meaning of “??? ?? ????? ?????” will be a task for Source Reader and Target Reader. It is so because usually, the third eye of Shiva is often related to destruction. But when we read the story further and acquire knowledge of Indian myth then it will be easy for us to understand the reason behind it. In ST, the Persian word ??-?-?? is used. This word has thus been translated into English language as “exactly.” SOURCE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)???????????Inner Eye????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?????. ??? ???? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???? ???????, ???? ???? ???????? ????. ?????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??.""?? ???? ???? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ??, ???? ???...?""???? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???. ??? ??? ?? ???? ?? ????, ??? ??? ???? ??? ???. ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ??????????? ?????? ????? ??. ???-??? ???? ??????????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ??. ???, ?? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ????? ??. ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??. ????? ????? ???? ????," ????, ?? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ????, ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ?? ?? ???. ?? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????. ????? ?????? ???? ??? ???" "?? ????...""????, ????? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ???, ???? ???? ???? ???-??? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ???. ?????? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ??.""?? ????, ????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??. ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ? ????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??."I was committed to alter this face. I never wanted this face to be a partaker of my loneliness and dejection. Do you remember once I had turned you out of the class?" "Yes madam, you turned me out of the class for giggling in the class though I..." "Though you were not giggling. Right so, you were not laughing Gauri. That day I noticed my inner eyes was proactive that day. On certain days my intuition grows extremely powerful. So that day I could distinctly see the sparks of pinkish sunlight splashed on the faces of your class mates not unlike them, your face was under the shadow of the sun. And then I noticed that in that shadow the mirror image was mine. I wished to shriek out to you,"Laugh, you too laugh like these girls. Poke fun at me so that some sparks of the pinkish sunshine would splatter on your face too. I lacked the courage to face that shadowed face for long therefore I turned you out of the class. What did I say to you?" "You..." "Forget that, quite often words are meaningless, the hidden, inherent meanings are more consequential. Do you recollect I had offered you the role of wife in a play?' "Yes madam, But I could not deliver those dialogues. I don't know why those words would not come out from my mouth."CRITICAL APPRECIATIONThe word “manuhisayat” ???????? is very close to Indian culture, its superstitious beliefs related to good and bad. But for a Western reader it will be difficult to understand the real meaning of this word unless they have full knowledge of the layers behind this word. In TT, the translator has translated “manuhisayat” “???????? “with the English word “dejection.” However, a person marked with the tag of “manuhisayat” (????????) is supposed to embrace “dejection” in the Indian society. So in this sense, “dejection” is the result of “manuhisayat” ????????. In TT, the word “Dialogue” is retained as it is from English language. But in TT, it has been written in plural form. SOURCE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)???????????Inner Eye"???? ????? ??, ???? ????? ??? ????? ??," ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????????? ?? ,"?? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????. ????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??.”????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??. ???????? ??? ?? ?? ??????? ???? ??. ?? ??? ????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ??? ????. ???? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???..."???? ???? ??? ?? ?? ??. ?????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ??? ?????? ? ?? ??. ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??. ????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???," ????? ????, ???? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ????.""I empathize with you, fully empathize with you," her tone was laced with careful consideration. "These dialogues of a wife are not meant for people like you and me. Delivering them is a cumbersome task for the likes of us. It was a golden opportunity for you. Had you accepted the role of the wife, you had a fair chance to be united with your Shankar. Only if..." Gauri was chilled to the bones. The prolonged stay in this Old Age Home has certainly disturbed her mental equilibrium. She wished to get rid of her company, so she casually remarked in order to evade her,"But madam, you were always biased towards me."CRITICAL APPRECIATIONThere is a bit of modification in TT in the second part of above paragraph. The lines “????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ?? “ are missing in TT. But this deletion in any way does not affect the sense or auchitya of the context. Again we can see here that these groups of words have deep cultural and religious connotations: “??????? ???? ??? ????.” A person not well versed with the Hindu mythology and the concept of Shiv-Parvati in it will not be able to understand the meaning of these lines.SOURCE TEXT (HINDI)TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH)???????????Inner Eye"????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????. ???? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ??????????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ???" ???? ?? ????-???? ???? ????? ?? ?? ????. ?? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ???. ???? ?? ?????? ??? ???????-?? ??????, ????????, ?????, ??? ???? ????????? ?? ??????? ??."???? ??? ??? ?? ??" ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?? ? ??? ??. ???? ?? ????? ???? ????, ????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??. ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ? ??. ??? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???."I gave you what I received. How could I be partial to my own face? You tell me can one be partial to one's own face?" Frightened, she timidly glanced toward Miss Nagar's face, her eyes too were transfixed on her face. There was a strange kind of admixture in that gaze - desperation, inquisitiveness, supplication and compassion. "Gauri, you're happy, aren't you?" As if the voice came from a deep, empty well. Gauri wished to respond but the words were stuck in her throat. She banged the gate with full force and reached the road in long strides. In the street light she saw Miss Nagar was still standing at the gate.CRITICAL APPRECIATIONThe translator has used five adjectives in the ST : “??????, ????????, ?????, ??? ???? ?????????.” These adjectives are replaced with four adjectives in TT: desperation, inquisitiveness, supplication and compassion. CONCLUSION: We can say that the author and translator, Dr Jaiwanti Dimiri, in her “Inner Eye” has used bilingual corpora, this is an intralingual translation from Hindi (ST) into English (TT). But at first sight, the ST appears to be monolingual corpora as she has used Hindi as a mode of expression. But later one realizes that ST is a multilingual corpora having English, Sanskrit and Persian words in the ST. We also came to know that translation is also a kind of rewriting. When we read TT we feel that we have gone through a different type of text which has been recreated by the translator. That is why it is not only translation but in some sense transcreation too. The author has also done Romanization of Sanskrit script. There is an obvious shadowing in which the words of ST are written as it is in TT. In order to balance transcultural imbalance, the translator has very meticulously chosen words in TT. Here and there Localization or L10N, paraphrasing, explicitation or clarifying has also been done by the translator in TT. _____________________________________________________________________________________5.7 Let us Sum up_____________________________________________________________________________________So how was your reading dear Students? Hope you enjoyed. With this ends your syllabus too. But you have to read the Glossary after these lessons….Happy reading!________________________________________________________________________ 5.8 Some questions for practice________________________________________________________________________Ques 1. Define Anuvaad, Bhashantar and Roopantar.Ques 2, Define the key terms Rasa, Dhvani and Auchitya.Ques 3. Write a note on translation strategies used in Shubhangi Bhadbhade’s “Garden of Spice.”Ques 4. Write a note on translations strategies used in Jaiwanti Dimri’s “The Inner Eye.” 60TRANSLATION IN ISRAELOfficial language: Hebrew and ArabicMost of the literature of Israel is in Hebrew. This phrase ??? ?????? (Eretz Yisrael or "Land of Israel") is a frequent occurrence in the Bible. Dr Israel Zonberg's Di Geshikhte fun der Literatur bay Yidn(1873) (History of Jewish Literature) is considered to be an authentic book in understanding history of literature of Jews in which much emphasis is on Israel. Without mentioning Mesopotamia, the ancient history of Israel will be incomplete. The literature of Mesopotamia is rich in proverbs carrying wisdom of ages. It is a real food for thought, for the soul. That is why it is important for a translator to have enough exposure to this ancient culture for starting a project in translation of Arabic or Hebrew into any other language. Shmuel Yosef Agnon (1888-1970) is the sole winner of the Nobel prize in literature (1966) from Israel. His ????? ??? (1931) (Hachnasat Kalla) (The Bridal Canopy) is a story of a man in search for a bridegroom for his daughter; Sippur Pashut (A Simple Story), as the name suggests a simple story containing deep meanings requires meditative reading and Tmol Shilshom (1945) (Only Yesterday) are some widely reviewed and translated works. Exiled authors from Israel write from Palestine. It won't be a hyperbole if we call Palestine the centre of Israeli literature. In 1939, in order to rejuvenate Canaanite mythology and religion, Canaanism, a movement, was initiated in Palestine. Canaanism had significant impact on the literature of Israel. Out of the established and canonized theoretical works of Edward Said (1935-2003), an author from Palestine, his indispensable Orientalism (1977), gained critical acclaim for criticizing the false and fictional stories created by the Europeans about other lands. Adopted in 1953, the law in the Ordinance of Journalism makes it mandatory for an author/publisher of Israel to deposit two copies of their publications in the National library within a month of its publication. From the year 2001, the list also includes audio, video recordings or any electronic publication. Currently we have Moshe Shamir, Haim Gouri, Benjamin Tammuz, Aharon Megged and many more creative writers writing from Israel. Yiddish and Arabic writers are also noticeably active in Israel. Translation Studies and Principles of TranslationSECTION VIUnit VI Translation 6.1 Objectives6.2 Translating from Hindi to English 6.3 Translating from English to Hindi 6.4 Let us Sum up6.5 Important Questions________________________________________________________________________ 6.1 Objectives________________________________________________________________________Hello Students!Congratulations! You have reached the sixth chapter of this book. That means you’ve read these lessons sincerely. If this is so then you must be as of now familiar with various dimensions of translation. In this chapter we’ll know about various methods and ways of dealing with ST and TT (when it is either in Hindi or in English).________________________________________________________________________6.2 Translating from Hindi to English________________________________________________________________________ Translation helps a work get its recognition but on the other hand it may also mar it if its quality if it is not up to the mark. Exceptional work written in Hindi will not get its due recognition in the global scenario as long as it is not published in English. That’s an irony but we’ve to accept it. The translator has to face a lot of problems before translating a text from Hindi into English. The first one is obviously the sense based and intercultural transmission. There are a lot of tatsam shabd in Hindi which are as it is derived from Sanskrit. So the translator needs to have a firm grip on these words and even to some extent Sanskrit language. The problem of pronunciation remains a real problem for translator. If he/she is not well versed in Hindi then these kinds of pronunciation errors will erupt. He/She will pronounce eeschool when he/she is supposed to pronounce it school. It may also lead to many typographical errors in the TT (English). Hindi is a language based on matras (or vowel symbol in transcription) whereas there is no matra in English. This leads to spelling errors. But Dear Students, you’ll say that there is spell check for that in computers. But what will happen if a person writes “form” and intended to write “from.” The spell check won’t work here. There are many such problems related to spelling which a translator may encounter. Even translating a poetic work is no easy. There is a pattern in poetry: its meter, its form and the use of selected words create an ambiance. This ambiance incites feelings. That is why it is very difficult to reach to the point of the original in TT. There are some cultural activities like games, food and so on for which it is very difficult to find and equivalent term in English such as Kabaddi, Kho-Kho, Jalebi and so on. The major concern for the translators of official language is the use of official terminology and writing it in Hindi. We still, in offices use abbreviations like ATM, AIDS, US, DO as it is from English. There is no Hindi equivalent of these and many more terms. In 1962, the Government of India published a Hindi Dictionary of Official Language which has seen many versions. This is a great help for upcoming translators of official language. Continuing its efforts in this direction, the Government of India established the Department of Official Language in June 1975 which is an independent Department of the Ministry of Home Affairs. You can visit its website in which ????? ??????? is given. We are giving a snapshot of Hindi Shabdkosh: Fig. A snapshot taken from ??? ????????? ???????? (The Department of Official Language, Government of India). The common problem in translating from Hindi into English is what we encounter in our day-to-day life is in writing abbreviations of names. Dr Satya Narayan Snehi has rightly pointed out at these problems in his book Anuvaad Vigyan. We will explain this with examples of those names which are actually of Hindi origin but have been written in English (Romanization): Sis Ram Sharma??. ??. ?????Savitri Devi Sharma ??. ??. ?????Pooja Sandeep Sharma?? ?? ?????No one will write these names starting them with phonetic sounds of Hindi like ?? ?? ?????, ?? ?? ????? and ?? ?? ?????. Although there is nothing wrong in writing this way. For fulfilling Anuvad Samaanarthatka in Hindi we usually call Aristotle as Arastu (??????), Plato as Platoni (???????? or ??????), French as Fransisi (?????????) and so on. When we talk about the grammatical gender of a word in Hindi we find it different to that of English (in many cases). Let us examine this example: Computer bahut maddagaar hota hai (Computer is masculine in Hindi but neuter in English); Kitaben meri dost hai, Kitaben is masculine gender here but in English it is neuter. In Hindi, we don’t have definite article which poses great problem for a translator as there is a lot of meaning attached to the definite article “the” in English. In Hindi, there are many words which carry the core cultural values of India like Namaste and Charan Vandanna. The person who is not familiar with these words may utter Namaste without joining hands or may say Charan Vandanna without touching feet. But again other than this, there are no equivalent words in English to replace these words. We can say Good Morning, Greetings and so on but this will not convey the cultural sense. This is not all, the legal terminology, idioms and phrases and the words which are still to be translated from Hindi into English pose a great challenge to translator who is translating from Hindi to English ________________________________________________________________________6.3 Translating from English to Hindi ________________________________________________________________________The English texts translated into Hindi usually face a lot of criticism:"Finding good translators, is another problem. Even for our own publications it's been a very difficult thing for us to produce them in Hindi, English is much easier...in English we so easily say things like sexual autonomy or even sexual orientation; saying the same in Hindi, it doesn't exist, the concept doesn't exist." ( DD, Executive Director, Southern NGO-CCSO 6)Other than sea-long cultural difference between English nations and India, the vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern of Hindi is entirely different from English language (as we have already discussed in the previous section of this lesson). The sentence structure of English language follows the Subject Verb Object pattern whereas Hindi follows Subject Object Verb order:English HindiI love you Mai tumse pyar karta hu SubjectVerbObjectSubjectObjectVerb IloveyouMaitumsepyar karta hu In the above table we have shown as to how the structure and pattern of English is different from Hindi. But if we try to translate it according to English pattern or syntax, the sentence will look like:SubjectVerbObjectMai pyaar karta hutumse Here again there’s one more point to note and that is that the word “love” is a verb in English but in Hindi “ta hu” in “karta hun” is a verb, indicating tense and time. We can indicate tense with this root word “karna” by adding “tha” (past indefinite), “runga” (future indefinite) and so on. This cannot be done in English as we have separate verbs which show tenses (like we have the transitive verb “love” in the above sentence). We already know that Hindi has borrowed words from English, Arabic, Persian, and Sanskrit. Whereas, English language has predominantly more words from French, Spanish and Greek. These problems apart, it is very difficult to keep pace with scientific and technological advancements unless we translate its terminology into Hindi. That is a given fact after all and we have discussed it somewhere in lessons. The formulas like E=MC2 cannot be translated. Hindi and English have different number of consonants and vowels; Hindi is a phonetic language whereas the orthography of English is not based on sound pattern. Most of the words in Sports and Medicine are taken from English language. But translating these terminologies is a tough task. While following the process of lexicalization and domestication some translators use English words as it is in Hindi. For example: I have learnt drivingmaine driving seekh lee hai Mai ghar jaa raha hu I am going ghar (not commonly used structure)61TRANSLATION IN ITALY Rome was not built in a day. True! Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) his paintings and his scientific inventions; Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), his discoveries of the new nations and his scientific prose; Michelangelo (1475-1564) his paintings and architectural genius; Marco Polo (1254-1324) his expedition, his discoveries and his Livres des merveilles du monde (Book of the Marvels of the World); Christopher Columbus, his four voyages, his discoveries of the new world and his "Columbus Map"; Giovanni da Verrazzano (1485–1528), his discovery of Atlantic coast of North America; Pliny the Elder (AD 23 – 79) his philosophy of Naturalism and his encyclopedia of 37 books titled Naturalis Historia; Virgil also known as Publius Vergilius Maro (70 BC-19 BC), his three great works Eclogues (or Bucolics), The Georgics and The Aeneid (national epic of Italy); St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) his first Italian poem Canticle of the Sun; Giacomo da Lentini (13 Cent?), his invention of sonnet; Petrarch also known as Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374), his famous sonnets which influenced the English sonnets too; Dante Alighieri (1265–1321), his Comedìa or Divine Comedy, his invention of terza rima in poetry; Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), who influenced the first poet of English (Geoffrey Chaucer); Niccolò Machiavelli also Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (1469-1527), the essayist and his famous The Prince; Ludovico Ariosto (1474-1533) and his Orlando Furioso(1516); Torquato Tasso(1544-1595) and his Christian epic Gerusalemme liberata (Jerusalem Delivered, 1581); Horace whose full name was Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65 BC to 8 BC), his odes, his satires, his Epodes and more importantly his Ars Poetica (10-8BC); Propertius also known as Sextus Propertius (50-45 BC), his four books of Elegies (Elegiae); Ovid also known as Publius Ovidius Naso (43 BC-17 AD ?), his 15 volume Metamorphoses, Ars Amatoria (The Art of Love) are “some” authors and scholars of Italy who are indispensable to the European studies and we here in India understand them only through translations. It is worth mentioning here that within Europe, Renaissance actually started in Italy. Thereafter, it spread into the entire Europe. Other than this various art forms like Commedia dell’arte, art forms like sonnet and many more developed in Italy. Six authors from Italy won the Nobel Prize in Literature, they are: Giosuè Carducci (1906); Grazia Deledda (1926); Luigi Pirandello (1934); Salvatore Quasimodo (1959); Eugenio Montale (1975) and Dario Fo (1997).Like, in the previous section, we have already given the example of the game called Snorkeling. It is very difficult to find a Hindi equivalent of this word. But here again, we are refuting our own opinion that there is a “sea-long” cultural difference between Hindi and English. It is not entirely so. Now there are 500 million speakers of Hindi around the world and most of them are bilingual, speaking in English. So we have quite a large number of population who speak in English right from their childhood. English has been assimilated into us. It belongs to us. It is Indian English. Despite all these similarities and merging together culturally, there obviously exist dissimilarities like Hindi uses khadi pai or purn viram for indicating full stop. Again the pronunciation problems of translator may create problems in translating the text into Hindi. In Hindi we say Ganga but in English we have to translate it as Ganges, Ram into Rama, Ashok into Ashoka, Buddh into Buddha and Ganesh into Ganesha so on. ________________________________________________________________________6.4 Let us Sum up________________________________________________________________________Keep reading and enjoy it!________________________________________________________________________6.5 Important Questions________________________________________________________________________Ques 1. What are the major challenges encountered by a translator during translating a text from Hindi into English?Ques 2. What are the major challenges encountered by a translator during translating a text from English into Hindi?62TRANSLATION IN JAMAICAOfficial languages: Jamaican Standard English (JSE) or Standard Jamaican English (SJE)Most of the population in Jamaica is bilingual speaking Jamaican Patois, also known as Patwa (English-based Creole). Here are some sample sentences from Jamaican, "Patois":Weh yuh a seh? (What do you say?)Weh yuh a deal wid? (What are you dealing with? or What are you doing?)Waddp? (Whats's up?)Yow! (hi! or hey!)How yuh stay? (How are you?) Here is another example to show as to how a variation of English is spoken here:“Student 2: Mis dis bwai tomp mi aa push di des paa mi. (Translation: Miss this boy punched me and pushed the desk on me)” (The University of West Indies, Mona) Marlon James’s A Brief History of Seven Killings, a crime novel having 75 characters, won the Man Booker Prize in 2015. This novel recorded the attempted assassination of Bob Marley (which he later survived) also known as Robert Nesta "Bob" Marley (1945-1981), a Jamaican singer-songwriter, in Jamaica in the year 1976. From representation of his thoughts in Standard English, Marlon moves on with his captivating narrative using the slang of Jamaica. We can have a glimpse of it in the epigraph of this novel: “if it no go so, it go near so.” There are numerous creative authors who are using the (JSE) in their works. To understand this variation, we have to understand the linguistic anthropology of Jamaica. The language is in the process of getting standardized. That is why the spellings and pronunciation in Patois vary according to the user. Dictionary of Jamaican English edited by Frederic Gomes Cassidy and Robert Brock is a source of great relief for translators. From Jamaican Creole to Standard English: A Handbook for Teachers by Velma Pollard is a reference book for the teachers of English who teach in Jamaican schools.TERMINOLOGIES DISCUSSEDAdaptationAmbiguityArchitranseme(ATR)Audio-Video TranslationBack translation also known as "round-trip translation"(in MT)Bilingual or multilingual corporaCensorshipChomskyan NativismDeconstructionDirectionalityDomestication and Foreignization ExplicitationFunctionalismGlocalization Homogenizing conventionInterlocutorsInvariance in TranslationJusta Holz-Manttari's theory of 'translatorial action'Lingua Franca Localization or L10NMachine-aided Translation (MAT) or Machine Translation (MT): Monolingual corporaMultimodalityNatural translatorsParallel corpora or translation corpusRewritingShiftsSkopos TheoryThink Aloud Protocols or talk-aloud protocol: TranslatabilityTranslating Images and SoundsTranslationeseTransliterationTypes of Interpreting, InterpretersTypes of Translation(s)UnivocityAfter reading translation terms given in your book check you progress by ticking in front of the box given above. SOME IMPORTANT TERMS USED TRANSLATION STUDIESAdaptation (also appropriation, imitation, rewriting). Before adaptation the translator has to decide the Target Text, its language (TL and TL) and source of the Target Text (TT). This entire process of adaptation can be understood when it is divided into two types: a) Local adaptation and b) Global adaptation. But after adaptation final version of translated TT may inculcate word-for-word reproduction, elimination, expansion, exoticism, updating, recreation of the context through cultural adequacy, preserving few messages or ideas and genre shifting (as from children to adult). Nord, Delisle, Gambier, Bastin, Sperber, Wilson and many more scholars disapprove of adaptation. They merely call it intervention or censorship.We have another concept in translation which is quite similar to adaptation. That is tradaptation. Sometimes, adaptation, tradaptation and transcreation are used interchangeably. Tradaptation, actually in one way or the other, represents adaptation. In other way, it is a process which involves mingling of translation and adaptation. Yet the term tradaptation has its own identity. Through tradaptation, the authors recreate sequels, prequels, change or reestablish the identity, cultural essence of the Source Text. Thus tradaptation is for the reader or audience of the present age, for the readers who will receive it. The word tradaptation was coined by Michel Garneau (b. 1939), French-Canadian poet, theatre director and translator. He defined the term while translating Shakespeare's plays The Tempest/La tempete (1973); Macbeth (1978) and Coriloanus /Coriolan (1989). These translations are also known as his three ‘Shakespeare tradaptations.’ So much was the influence of his Québécois version that now Shakespeare is regarded by many as "Québécois nationalist poet" (Brisset 109). For more information on adaptation and tradaptation please read a chapter in this lesson also see Laurence Raw's Translation, Adaptation and Transformation(2012); Julie Sanders' ;Adaptation and Appropriation (2015) and The Oxford Handbook of Adaptation Studies (2017) edited by Thomas Leitch.Glocalization (also glocality or glocalism)Glocalization is a coinage, a portmanteau word, which has been created after blending globalization and localization. Glocalization as a word was used for the first time in English by Robertson in 1992. But as a concept it has its roots in Japanese dochakuka ("the agricultural principle of adapting farming techniques to local conditions) (Roudometof 02). That is why the word glocalization is itself a result of translation of dochakuka. On the other hand, we can say that glocalization is also a result of adaptation. However, glocalization seems to be a modification of the phrase,” "Think globally, act locally" or "Think global, act local." Everything which is local is global and everything which is global can be traced at the local level. You can post a photograph on social media. This photograph although posted for the local audience may have far reaching audience at the global level but the response to that photograph will itself be unique as it is supposed to be seen, read and analyzed with different perspectives (and vice-versa is also true). Here the process of glocalization specifically deals with the business world, social networks and so on. While reading and translating advertisements Adab believes that there is no single advertisement or campaign that can be recognized as a 'Source Text.’ This process of translating from the source advertisement or the promotional material to the textual one is what he calls glocalization.Please do read these books if you want to know more about Glocalization: Glocalization: A Critical Introduction by Victor Roudometof; George Ritzer's Readings in Globalization: Key Concepts and Major Debates (2010); Gibson R. Ferguson's English as a Glocalization Phenomenon. Observations from a Linguistic Microcosm (2011) and Eugene Chen Eoyang's Two-way Mirrors: Cross-cultural Studies in Glocalization (2007).MultimodalityEven before, 1990s, in 1930 when William Empson wrote his book Seven Types of Ambiguity we had an idea that how any text can have alternative meanings. In a vague sense we knew that no text can be monomodal (having a single mode). But after 1990s and onset of internet, mobile phones and other means of technology the concept of multimodality took a broader shape. Through multimodality we understand translation and the message contained in it inter-semiotically such as through textual, linguistic, gestural and many other ways of signs. (That’s why it is called ‘multi).’ Today the process of translation combined with multimodal approach finds its way beyond black and white text into juxtaposing of all mediums such as visual grammar of web pages, blogs, videos, movies, photographs, paintings, sense grammar of smell, tastes and all human modes of expressions. This type of reading from written/verbal to any other non-verbal is also known as ‘inter-semiotic reading’ (also ‘transmutation’). In visual clues of the text, geopolitics, deliberate usage of prototypes, spacing characters and their style, sound effects, impact of images and much more is to be taken into consideration. For more on multimodality you must visit The Routledge Handbook of Multimodal Analysis (2009) edited by C Jewitt. Audio-Video Translation: (also screen translation, multimedia translation)When the audio-video is translated into a written or other form (like dubbing) it’s known as audio-video translation. We must not confuse Computer Translation with Audio-Video translation. In order to make this clear you must go back to (or rememorize) your familiarity with the words ‘film-dubbing,’ ‘voice-over’ and ‘‘multilingual filming’ (in which a film, originally, is produced in different languages for the viewers across the world). Subtitling (translating the audio version of the movie into snippets of linguistic texts) help the viewer, especially the deaf, the dumb and the non-native ones, to understand the message a foreign movie contains. Subtitling can be ‘diasemiotic’ (in which one source or channel is converted into another source or channel like speech sound in a movie is translated into written text. This also happens during the process of subtitling) or ‘intramodal’ process (sometimes also referred to as ‘inter-genre,’ a parallel source translation, in which the same source or language is used for conversion as we have in the process of dictation. But there is a switching of channels: audio to visual to linguistic text so on and on). The subtitles can be intralingual (when the language of Target Text is same as the Source Language as we have dialogues of a movie in English followed by subtitling in English language),these can be interlingual (or bilingual in which the boundaries of language are crossed). In Audio-Video translation a simple audio description rather than linguistic translation in Target Language encapsulates main idea of a video or an audio clip. If you happen to attend a film festival you may experience a new method of translation that is simultaneous interpreting (SI). Simultaneous interpreting allows translators to dub the real time speech in a conference or a movie with or without any script. The listeners usually use head-phones to listen to it. The Target Audience is given a gadget with an ear phone in which a list of languages is displayed which is followed by selection button of languages:12345EnglishFrenchGermanHindiUrduLip-synchronized dubbing allows the translator to dub the original work/movie into another language. Emotion, tone, background music and the context is always kept in mind before dubbing. Many South-Indian movies are getting their strong hold in North India due to this (and vice-versa). Have you watched Bahubali, the super hit movie in Hindi? In which language was it originally made? Any idea?When you get spare time do read Audiovisual Translation in a Global Context: Mapping an Ever-changing Landscape (2015) by Jorge Díaz Cintas and Rocío Ba?os Pi?ero as also The Didactics of Audiovisual Translation (2008) by Jorge Díaz-Cintas. Censorship. While translating a text sometimes the translator has to keep in the mind essence of culture or age/gender of the people who will receive the translation. Through censorship translators may correct or modify the original. Even translation processes such as adaptation or tradaptation can help in censorship in many ways. Some call it a “forceful act” which hampers cross-cultural communication. The Thousand and One Nights (obviously the translated version) was banned in America in 1927 as Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland was banned in China in 1931. The cartoon serial Doraemon is banned in Pakistan due to its translation into Hindi language from the Chinese. They prefer it in Urdu perhaps. Even the terms bowdlerization or expurgation (there is a separate entry of these terms in this glossary) stand in parallel relation with censorship are closely related to censorship. Actually, bowdlerization is a kind of editing or censorship (see censorship) which deletes offensive matter(s) from the original texts. Now you already know that The Thousand and One Nights was banned in the USA in 1927 but later a bowdlerized edition of the same was produced and allowed to be published. Actually, the term has been named after Dr Thomas Bowdler (1724-1825) who modified with some omissions of the works of Shakespeare so that it could be made suitable and easily understandable for the general audience. These kinds of editions are also known as fig-leave editions. The term fig-leave edition has been derived from the classic tradition in which private parts of statues and paintings were covered with fig-leaves (in order to cover up obscenity). For the first time the Obscene Publications Act (1857) of Britain took care of all such types of ‘necessary’ censorships. Under this act, the publisher Henry Vizetelly (1820–1894) was tried for circulating obscene translations of literary books by the French writer ?mile Zola. Fig Roman statue of Hercules (2nd Cent), now placed in Vatican. It is censored with a fig leaf for the sake of modesty. (Source: History Buff) Spare time to see and read Censoring Translation: Censorship, Theatre, and the Politics of Translation (2012) by Michelle Woods; Eiléan Ní Chuilleanáin's Translation and Censorship: Patterns of Communication and Interference (2009), a collection of diverse but insightful fifteen scholarly essays; a survey of European censorship in The Power of the Pen: Translation & Censorship in Nineteenth-century Europe edited by Denise Merkle and Post-socialist Translation Practices: Ideological Struggle in Children's Literature by Nike K. Pokorn which is a wonderful journey into the world of re-translated text for children literature and effects of censorship and hegemonic pressure.Translating Images and Sounds: We can read notations of music and sing and play musical instruments accordingly. Alternatively, we can write notations of any form of music after listening to it and represent it with image and text. This is in one way as to how we translate sounds. In literature, the rhetorical technique of onomatopoeia (a word representing sound as we say bau bau for a barking dog) is used for translating the sound. But in comics, picture books for children, visual narratives there is a special way of representing these sounds. Soon, in the coming semesters you’ll learn how to read these narratives. In 1970s, Anime and manga fandom or Otaku in Japan (fans of comics) rejuvenated interest of the world in comics. See how the Indian author and artist Pran has translated sounds in the comic series Chacha Chaudhary with images and sounds: Fig 16: Comic of PranThese two books carry much information about such translations: Sounds in Translation: Intersections of Music, Technology and Society (2009) by Amy Chan and Alistair Nobel and Riitta Oittinen's Translating Picturebooks: Revoicing the Verbal, the Visual and the Aural for a Child Audience (2017)Types of Interpreting, Interpreters: Interpreting is mediation, human or through machines, which is now indispensable where there is an immediate need to communicate. To resolve language issues interpreting is indispensable in courts, police settings, healthcare services, social services, classrooms, workplaces, sign-languages and so on. An interpreter may encounter a lot of difficulties while interpreting. They may be in a state of dilemma whether to communicate an offensive message or not. Communicating offensive messages may lead to bad experience for an interpreter. But even offensive messages are also supposed to be communicated by interpreter as it is (as in health services or legal services). These offensive messages may help one to decipher the mental state of a patient in that case. Sometimes, the interpreter, being human, may get offended by one of the parties (which is being victimized in front of an interpreter). What should the interpreter do? Should the interpreter not interfere and speak a word as a human-right activist? These are some problems an interpreter may face. Lawrence Venuti (born 1953) in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995) proposed a concept "invisibility of translator" against the presupposed 'fluency of translator.' For too much adherence to traditional values of interpreting (which he calls "domesticating practices"), this invisibility is rampant. That is why an interpreter should always follow some ethical standards such as: they should be able to protect confidentiality, avoid conflict of self-interest, behave in a professional manner, develop oneself professionally by continually updating their knowledge, understand and respect cultural contexts, remain impartial, respect the parties, be accurate and transparent, show fidelity, be aware of their role-boundaries, be neutral, have a great self-image (Goffman, 1961), maintain their intentions as per the professional ethics and so on. Interpreting is not an easy task. NAATI has published a guide titled The Ethics of Translating and Interpreting: A Guide to Obtaining NAATI Credentials (2016). Not only NAATI but most of the organizations involved in interpreting have their own codes of conduct for interpreters. Interpreting can be of various kinds such as: Conference Interpreting, Remote Interpreting, Videophone Interpreting, Broadcast Interpreting, Community Interpreting, Dialogue Interpreting, Court Interpreting and so on. Conference Interpreting: The trainers of T & I schools, the ESIT in Paris pondered on the concept of Conference Interpreting for the first time. The movement was launched with the phrase ‘ Théorie du sens’ (Interpretative Theory). Their interest was on understanding the message, the code contained in it, deleting vocabulary of the Source Text and focus on individual elements like grammatical or linguistic ones. An ancillary to any conference, court proceedings, business negotiations, diplomatic meetings or political meetings, Conference Interpreter is a language expert who works in multilingual environment. While maintaining professional ethics and managing own immediate memory skills, Conference Interpreter has to covey and convert orally, concepts, ideas and to interpret consecutively or simultaneously to the listener or audience in Target Language. That is why to be an expert in voice modulation, note taking and team-work is the prerequisite of a Conference Interpreter. A Conference Interpreter can convey through the modes of chuchotage (whispering), simultaneous interpreting (interpreters works as a team, sometimes in a sound-proof booth or box) and consecutive interpreting (conveying ideas directly into Target Language). That is why Conference Interpreter is supposed to be an expert in A-language (native language), B-language (active foreign language) and C-language (passive foreign language). In conference interpreting the terms SL (Source Language) and TL ( Target Language) are used. But in translation we use ST ( Source Text) and TT ( Target Text). Remote Interpreting: In this type of interpreting, the interpreter uses technological tools such as telephone to convert Source Language into the Target Language.Videophone Interpreting: In this type of interpreting, the interpreter uses video conferencing as a tool to convey message to deaf and dumb audience. In this process, sometimes it is expected from the interpreter to be an expert in sign language. Broadcast Interpreting: Broadcast interpreting requires one to read the matter, make notes and broadcast online from the Source Language to the Target Language. Sometimes the words translator and interpreter are used interchangeably in the same way, the terms broadcasting translator and broadcasting interpreter are used synonymously. Although a laborious activity, translating requires one to proceed without an immediate responsibility to convey the message. In other way, translation requires a lot of written work, editing and proofreading before the final draft is materialized. But broadcast interpreting is an exercise which requires immediate verbal action. Interpreter has to be an active participant in the process ( see Conference Interpreting). In 1968, Otto Kade (1927-1980), a translation scientist, uses the German term Sprachmittlung ('language mediation') in order to segregate translation and interpreting. Community Interpreting: It is a type of interpreting in which there is a requirement to communicate with a community in a cross-cultural setting (say within some minority, health, elderly care, social or educational services). Community Interpreters have to interpret within multicultural and multi-lingual ambiance. They have to interpret from bi-directional discourses to one directional story. Keeping in mind the cultural and ethical values of an interpreter, for a Community Interpreter, it is essential to make up the linguistic and cultural gaps, which are created due to linguistic and cultural differences. A Community Interpreter helps organizations communicate their stories and narratives to the receivers as we have in the case of health services and so on. There are a lot of jokes on as to how the communication gap in interpretation leads to embarrassing situation for a doctor and a patient. Here is an example where intervention of community interpreter is essential: When a doctor throws a parting shot to a patient, “You will have to go,” a scary patient/ a hypochondriac patient may interpret “have to go” as an indication of serious illness, even death. Dialogue Interpreting: Dialogue interpreting is most commonly used in visuals such as movies, theatre, storytelling or where dialogues are to be interpreted. Cecilia Wadensj?, a semantic and interpreting scholar, proposed the term Dialogue Interpreting in 1992. In her "Dialogue Interpreting and the Distribution of Responsibility" (1992) she proposed two models of dialogue interpreting: a) Transfer Model or Conduit Model and b) Interactionist Model. Keeping in mind the unidirectional structure of dialogue, in Transfer model, the interpreter is supposed to understand the codes of language, including sign language before interpreting. In Conduit Model, which was actually proposed by Reddy, any dialogue is “monological” in which the strategies and intention of speaker has more importance. That is why the interpreter will be able to communicate the emotions as also being accurate while deciding to avoid or include double meaning and symbols in a dialogue. For example, if this dialogue from a movie is given to a dialogue interpreter,” I hate you.” It is up to the dialogue interpreter to instill the feelings of love or anger in this dialogue. However, in Interactionist Model, there are dialogical factors which are to be kept in mind such as historical, genres and so on. That is why the intention of speaker does not carry much weight age in Interactionist Model .Court interpreting: Court Interpreting is a process of interpreting the legal language in a court. The court, of any country, usually, maintains its record in one language. This language is also known as Court language or the Target Language of the Court. The interpreter has to interpret the Source language of the plaintiff/respondent/witness/client and so on into the Target Language of the court in order to facilitate the judge, jury and participants in a court. This does not in any way mean that the task of Court Interpreter is limited to the court room. However, the Court Interpreter is an integral part of the entire case. That’s why Court Interpreter has to show his presence in Police Station and post and pre court odd hours. Interpretation may be done with simultaneous (also shadowing or repeating the words of Source Language into the same Source Language. This is also an example of intralingual translation), sight or consecutive methods of interpreting. It is also considered as human right in which the linguistic presence or the legal presence of an interpreter is fundamentally claimed. Types of Translation(s): Interpretative Translation: The concept of Interpretative Translation was established in 1970s by Danica Seleskovitch (1921-2001), a French translator and a conference interpreter. But the concept was later developed by Peter Newmark (1916-2011) an English scholar, a Professor of Translation, in his essay "The Translation of Synonymy." It was Newmark who started a new debate on Interpretative Translation. He observed,” Translation and interpretation have to be based on words, sentences, linguistic meaning... Meaning does not exist without words...” The interpretative translation cares more about the power of explanation. However, the Paris School of Translation sees interpretative translation in a different way. They mark it as a dynamic activity which needs more focus at the Target Reader and his/her culture. Initially, the Paris School of Translation upheld that there is untranslatability of literal texts if done with interpretative approach. Back translation also known as "round-trip translation"(in MT): Back translation is a process whereby a translated text is retranslated into the original SL. The retranslated text is then compared to the original text. Some scholars believe it to be a method which helps one check the authenticity of translation. But contrary to this belief, back translation as a tool has almost failed in mapping the quality of translation.Inverse Translation: Translating a work A (of foreign language) into another language C ( a foreign language for the translator).Direct Translation: Translating a work A (of foreign language) into another language B (mother tongue of the translator).Institutional Translation: It is a kind of translation done under the aegis of an institution. The institution can be a government-sponsored agency, legal system, social system, health care system and so on. More or less institutional translation requires a team-work. Sometimes other than a translator, there is requirement of enmendador (a Reviser), glosador (a Writer of Glosses) and capitulador (an Organizer into Chapters). Thus sociological concepts are involved in the process of translation. Brian Mossop in his path-breaking "Translating Institutions: a Missing Factor in Translation Theory" (1988) believed, “There is an important participant missing in existing models of translation: the translating institutions (corporations, churches, governments, newspapers) which directly or indirectly use the services of translators.” This paper motivated various scholars of translation and thus giving a new turn to translation as a concept itself. The government of China came up with the concept of chongyi (relay translation) from Zhou dynasty (20th Cent BCE) to the end of this empire (in 1911). This term has now a great cultural significance for the Chinese.Sight Translation (plural sight translations): It is a process of translation from the source language to the target language in which the written text is translated into verbal language. This helps the translator to communicate the text into verbal form. Sometimes sight translation is more useful in translating the sign language. Have you watched DD News for the hearing impaired? On the one part of the screen the newsreader reads out the contents of news with the signs. Whereas, on the other part of the screen another news-reader verbally interprets what has been communicated with his Signed Language Interpreting skills. Here is a snippet from the News for Hearing Impaired (DD News):Fig: News Bulletin for the Hearing ImpairedGrammatical Translation: In grammatical translation the syntax of the Source Language is given importance while translating it into the Target Language. Thus the equivalence is of the level of grammar and syntax. For this the translator must be aware of grammatical rules of both the languages. This method is still believed to be an effective way in teaching languages to the learners in school. Relay Translation: The word relay has perhaps been derived from “transmission” (often used in electronic or mechanical fields). Relay translation is a chain like process of translations. It is a kind of support translation in which translators require the help of other translators. That’s why there is a requirement of more than two translators. For example, we need to translate a text in Marathi (Source Text) into English (Target Text). For that we have two translators: Translator No.1 who understands Marathi and Hindi and Translator No. 2 who understands Hindi and Marathi. So in order to translate the Source Text (Marathi) into Target Text (English) we have to create a new text or Intermediate Text (IT) that is in Hindi. Translator 1 will translate the Marathi text into Hindi and then Translator 2 will translate this Hindi text into English. The process will go like this: ST (Source Text) to IT (Intermediate Text) and then the TT (Target Text). The Intermediate Text will not get published, it’s not meant to be. Usha Bande’s “Garden of Spice” is also an example of Relay Translation (please read lessons on the same topic).Linguistic Translation: In his essay "On Linguistic Aspects of Translation" (1959) Roman Jakobson divides translation into interlingual (“translation proper”), intralingual (“rewording”) or intersemiotic(“transmutation,” which also requires translation of “nonverbal signs”). When linguistic translation fails we have to see words as a greater linguistic reality placed within semiotic facts. Like if we explain the dish Sidku (the traditional food of the people of Himachal. If you can recollect what you’ve read then you’ll see that we have somewhere else also taken this example of Sidku but in altogether different context), Afimdana (or poppy seeds, an ingredient of this dish) and say it’s like ‘bun,’ made up of ‘refined flour’ and so on. And also consider its semiotic context then we’ll be able to translate it. That is why Jakobson says,” An array of linguistic signs is needed to introduce an unfamiliar word" (231). In linguistic translation we have to take care of the prepositions first, understand differences in grammar of ST and TT. Let us take an example. We will try to translate this sentence of Hindi into English: ”ek ladka jaa raha tha.” These are the various ways in which we can translate this sentence into English. But before translating we must be aware of the grammatical dissimilarities between English and Hindi grammar. Before translating the above written sentence into English language we should be aware of the fact that in Hindi there is no definite article. But in Hindi sometimes we use one for the definite article (sometimes, but not always):a) A boy was going. b) The boy was going. Here while translating with linguistic tools of translation, we get to know that even after knowing the grammatical fact of the above word we can even translate it into many ways (like ladka/boy). Unless there is a context, the use of ‘the’ cannot in general terms be underestimated and tagged as wrong here. So we have to be very diligent before translating and be aware of the lexical standards of ST and TT. When we attempt to translate this sentence of Hindi, vo jata hai, into English. The common problem which may arise is of gender because in Hindi the gender and tense is shown with the verb (jata). However, in English the gender, verb and tense have no relation.That is why whenever when we have to talk of translation from the point of view of linguistics then we have to take into consideration many approaches such as the Dynamic Approach, Psycholinguistic Approach and Semiotic Approach. One of the scholars known to bring a major turn in the linguistic theories was French scholar Ferdinand de Saussure. His A Course in General Linguistics is a fundamental and innovate work in linguistics. He defined language and communication in terms of conceptual binaries, lexis, syntax and message. Saussure’s theories play a vital role in understanding translation through the process of linguistic survey. You’ll for sure read about him in you post graduation. Dynamic or the dynamic equivalence approach is almost a necessary tool of linguistic translation in which sense-for-sense meaning is given more importance. Promotional translation: With the advancement of technology advertisement, promotional material has reached people across the globe. Most of the companies have automatically gained multinational status by promoting their products on internet. Advertisements or promotional materials have more impact when shown with audio and video means. As these promotional videos reach wide audience across the world there is a need to translate them according to the language of that particular area. That is why the promotional translation is required. Retranslation: In simple words retranslation is "subsequent translations of a text or part of a text, carried out after the initial translation that introduced this text to the ‘same’ target language” (Susam-Sarajeva 2) Retranslation is a process in which translation of a text is done again. Retranslation may be identical with the original translation or it may have its own identity suiting a particular culture. Anthony Pym in his Method in Translating History (1998) differentiates retranslation into two: passive retranslation and active retranslation. Gitanjali, originally written in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore, was retranslated into English in the year 1913 with an introduction by W B Yeats. But translators and scholars such as William Radice, Holy Cross Br. James Talarovic and Joe Winter have retranslated Gitanjali into English. This is an example of Active Retranslations for Pym. Actually, the “Active Retranslation” has common culture and generation. But on the other hand, the Passive Retranslation is separated from ‘geographical distance or spaces.’ Please read Retransaltion: Translation, Literature and Reinterpretation by Sharon Deane-Cox.Literary Translation: Literary translation is a process of translation in which the ST is a literary work like epic or other world renowned genre. This literary work is translated into any other TT. But the major concern for literary translators is to find an appropriate literary text as nowadays the boundaries of high literature or the concept of cannon in literature are diluting. Otherwise also it’s very difficult to translate symbolic, metaphoric and semiotic depths of literary works.Sense-for-Sense Translation: It was Peter Newmark (1916-2011) who sub-divided translation processes into two: word-for-word or sense-for-sense. The word-for-word translation is almost a replica of the structure and grammar of ST. However, in sense-for-sense translation more focus is on symbolic structures of the ST. Commercial Translation: Translation done by a translator for payment/salary is known as commercial translation. Inter-Disciplinary Translation: As the term denotes, while using inter-disciplinary translation approach a scholar takes or integrates various dimensions from other fields such as Anthropology, Psychology, Linguistics and so on. Functionalists Approach to Translation: The Functionalists primarily look for the meaning of the context while translating any text into another language. Here translation is more or less a transcultural activity where meanings are carried forward into the cultural essence of texts. Committed Translation: After the cultural turn of 1990s scholars often looked at translations through cultural angle. Many fields of studies emerged after this period such as women studies, religion studies, cultural studies, gay studies (also known as queer studies), postcolonial studies, Dalit studies and so on. There were not only translators but Translators-cum-Activists. They aimed at spreading their ideas through translation. These Translators-cum- Activists were driven passionately towards their aim of working for a particular field of studies. This is committed translation. Cultural Translation: In Cultural Translation a translator translates cultural and traditional parameters. Cultural Translation is usually considered to be a field of Anthropology or the British functionalist Anthropology. While translating a culture, the culture bound terms or culturemes pose a major challenge of equivalence to the translators. Moreover, we cannot deny the fact that every text is loaded with a specific ideology. Maybe that’s why Salman Rushdie’s The Satanic Verses (1988) posed a major problem in identifying culturemes. These culturemes are controversial and sensitive in nature. Maybe that is why the Japanese author Hitoshi Igarashi (1947-1991) who tried to translate The Satanic Verses was assassinated. The author Asad challenges this concept of ‘Cultural Translation’ on the ground of power imbalance of languages. The Indian author Niranjana (1992) believes that India has been rendered culturally inferior status in the Target Language which is ahistorical. Descriptive Translation: This approach to translation was developed by Holmes (1972). Descriptive Translation Studies was a term coined after Toury's Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995). The aim of this approach was to be descriptive than objective in translation. The followers of this approach have full faith in laying down laws of translation than explaining translation as a process itself. These laws give a way to self-introspection even after the translation has been done. That’s why in this approach we can’t write down a satisfactory definition of translation. The translation will justify itself as it will unravel many laws of Translation as a concept in the process. The Descriptive Approach to translation has been criticized for being too scientific and rigid. Scientific and Technical Translation: Translation carried out of scientific and technical works is known as Scientific and Technical Translation. Usually, technical and scientific papers/reports, software related to the health services, technological and scientific literacy documents, books and so on are translated in this process. Translators can carry on with their work as a freelancer, in-house translators or professionals attached to some organization. The challenge for scientific/technical translators is that they need to have a great knowledge of scientific and technological terminology, approaches, theory and methods of scientific fields.Self-Translation: When someone translates one’s own work into another language it is known as self translation. Of the self-translators both the Nobel laureates Samuel Beckett and Rabindranath Tagore got much critical acclaim. Beckett in his writing switched from French to English and vice-versa. Dynamic Equivalence: It is a concept given by Eugene Nida (1914-2011), a linguist and translator. For him in dynamic equivalence the main concern of translator is not to direct complete attention towards the Source Text. That is why translation is carried out keeping in mind the sense-for-sense results of translation. Translators adopting the approach of Dynamic Equivalence don’t aim at literal equivalence but dynamic and free flow translation. The ‘focus of attention,’ in Dynamic Equivalence, is more at the ones who will receive the Source Text. Shifts: Linguistic and literary changes which happen during the entire process of translation are known as shifts. For that matter, the theory of shift is more or less centered on linguistic translation. John Catford in A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965) used the term linguistic shifts’ and ‘shifted equivalences’ for the first time. Catford gives taxonomy of these shifts and marked them as level (executed at the level of grammar and lexis) and category shifts (which are more or less like intra-translation). According to Catford there are two kinds of shifts (level/rank shift and category shift or formal translation, without much formal schema). He even stressed that tones are “significant” and make shifts in translation-meaning-process such as:I know the answer (happy)I know the answer (sad)I know the answer (enthusiastic)I know the answer (revengeful) and so on.Later, Machali proposed two kinds of shifts (obligatory and optional shift) and Machali gave two sources of translation shifts (source language text-centered shift and target language text-centered shift). Invariance in Translation: In Machine Translation, the theory of invariance mainly points out incapability of computers and translation machines to translate sense-for-sense. Computers usually perform word-to-word translation from ST to TT. For example, in technical terms, an advanced phone will recognize face of a user ‘without beard’ in the same way as if it was ‘clean shaven.’ This is an example of invariance in translation and the inability of machines in recognizing differences.Architranseme(ATR): The term was first used by Kitty van Leuven-Zwart in her “Translation and Original Similarities and Dissimilarities” (1989). In this theoretical model, content words also various dimensions of similar and dissimilar words, which are common in ST and TT, are taken into consideration for translation. For Kitty "a good descriptive dictionary" can help a lot in finding out ATR (158). For example we if have this sentence, say of ST: ‘I am writing’ and then we have TT ‘mai likh raha hu” in Hindi. Then ATR will be ‘to write.’ Then out of this ATR we can find out its transeme which is “writing.” That is why these transemes help operate the meaning of ST and TT. Kitty describes transemes as "a comprehensible textual unit" (155). Monolingual corpora: In web-based translation, if the target language or the translated text has one type of language then it is known as monolingual corpora.Bilingual or multilingual corpora: In web page translation, if the target or translated text contains more than one language it is known as multilingual or bilingual corpora ( a collection of written texts). Parallel corpora or translation corpus: This kind of text (target or translated text) may have many languages in it. But these languages which appear in it are further translated. This is known as translation corpus or parallel corpora. Like we encounter hyperlinks after hyperlinks on the web.Natural translators: The term was coined by Harris(1990) to encapsulate all those untrained people involved in interpreting and facilitating between the administrators and the common man (or from Person A to Person B).. Directionality: While translating a work, the direction is very important. As the word direction signifies, in Translation Studies, it usually refers to translators translating from language A to B or from B to A (here A stands for a foreign language and B stands for mother tongue). Directionality is shown with greater than sign (A>B or B>A).Lingua Franca: It is an intermediate language or a bridge language which smoothes communication between two or more than two persons whose SL is not the same. English is commonly known as lingua franca of the world. Translatability: Are all texts, ideologies, cultures and emotions translatable? This is the question which still needs a relevant answer, hence is debatable. If we simplify this question we can further ask two questions: what should be translated or what should not be? That means what is actually translatable? Do we have an open choice to translate? Is there some translation vigilance going on? In one sense, the sacred texts like The Bible, The Quran, were not allowed to be translated. During Fascism many translated books, like George Bernanos' Les grands cimetieres sous la lune, were banned in its French version (but shall we understand it under the entry censorship or untranslatability?). Some divide this translatability debate into two directions: universal approach (which holds that the linguistic elements are sufficient for translation) and the monadist approach (according to this approach the linguistic ability of a culture hinders the process of translation). Ferdinand de Saussure and Pierce proposed a triangular structure of thought patterns which could be understood through semiotic analysis. Noam Chomsky proposed Transformative Generative Grammar which sought to find out the deeper layers of human languages. Sigmund Freud gave different dimensions of the patterns of dreams in his The Interpretation of Dreams. Was he translating dreams then? Walter Benjamin in his essay ‘The Task of the Translator’ (1923) “posits translatability as that which resides in the original as mere potential and which translation will adumbrate more fully.” A. N. Kolmogorov in 1925 proposed a possibility to derive the classical logic out of the ‘intuitionistic’. Aleksandr Smirnov (1934), the Russian author, maintained that after capturing the адекватность (adequacy) as also adekvatnyni perevod (adequate translation) through “ideological, emotional and aesthetic effect” translation is possible. For the Deconstructive approach to translatability see the entry in this glossary. Translationese: (Pronunciation: translation-ease) (Sometimes also known as awkwardness or ungrammaticality of translation): Translationese is a futile attempt or possible inability of a translator, to translate word for word from the source language. This may also be an error due to unawareness of the Target Language. Many jokes are created after Translationese. Hindi: Photo Khincho Translationese: Drag the photograph Correct: Click the photograph Translationese: This is a time pass. Correct: I’m killing time. Deconstruction: The term was coined by the French author and philosopher Jacques Derrida in 1960s. Deconstruction challenges the authenticity of every text. With the goggles of deconstruction when we read a text we understand that there are multiple meanings visible bust also hidden in every work. That is why no work can be complete or without bias. Yes it is the prime task of Deconstruction to read the biased ideology in every work. Deconstruction translates as well as criticizes the text. The concept of différance (which means to differ and to postpone or defer) is in integral part of Deconstruction. Many scholars have appreciated différance as a concept ancillary to translation. When you try to look for meaning of a word in a dictionary you often find its multiple meanings. Here you cannot stop. You have to again find the meanings of those multiple meanings in the dictionary. You’ll have to turn over and over pages in order to find meanings. This search will never end. This is one very famous example in order to understand différance. Moreover, every text, every thought and every language is iterable or repeatable for example in English language we have to compose everything out of twenty six letters of alphabets (A to Z). This is the iteration of language and thought.AN EXAMPLE OF DECONSTRUCTIVE APPROACH TO TRANSLATIONTranslate: I love cats. Translation: Cats!!! Dictionary shows multiple meanings of the word cat. Is this sentence about ‘cats’ the animals or something else? We also call women models cats. You might have heard of the cat-walk on the ramp. Does the author then loves women who do modeling? Then which cat the author is referring to in ST? In the same way ‘love’ can be interpreted. Maybe the writer eats flesh of cats. That’s why the author said, “I love cats.” Here the love is parasitical in deconstructive sense. This is not all, there are, many, innumerable ways this text can be translated and understood. But firstly we have to understand its context. Context is also a kind in Deconstruction.Explicitation: The concept of explicitation was introduced by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958). In translation, explicitation is the process of making clear what was left unclear in the Target Language. Explicitation is different from adding up something to the Target Text. Explication can be obligatory, pragmatic or translation-inherent. But some scholars like Englund Dimitrova (1993) simultaneously use addition, transformation, omissions and alterations with the terms ‘addition-explicitation’ and ‘omission-implication’. The Russian writer Barkhudarov (1975) divided transformations, in translation, into four types: a) perestanovka (‘transposition’), b) zamena (‘substitution’), c) dobavleniye (‘addition’) and d) opushcheniye (‘omission’). Blum-Kulka studied explication hypothesis for the first time in which she systematically unraveled various shifts involved in the process of translation and explication. EXAMPLE OF EXPLICITATIONSource Text : English wale TeacherThe confusion: In Hindi we usually use wala after nouns such as Tonga wala, Akhbaar Wala and so on. Otherwise, the direct translation of the word wale is “belonging to.” If we translate the above sentence this way it will come up odd. Thus that will create confusions for the reader. Explicitation (Target Text): The person who teaches English language. Chomskyan Nativism: Noam Chomsky, an American Linguist and Political thinker holds that children already have certain skills at the time of their birth. These skills, such as language learning, are already present in their genes. This view goes against the theory of Tabula Rasa which holds that the brain of human beings is empty (blank state) at the time of birth. Language organs are already functional after the birth. That is why children learn to speak and understand the structure of language. This view is just opposite to the Functionalists view we have already discussed earlier.Homogenizing convention: Meir Sternberg (1981) coined the term homogenizing convention. The linguistic differences of the Source Text are actually merged while representing them into the target Text. For example in the television series The Discovery of India, originally written by Pt Jawaharlal Nehru. Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese traveler who visited India spoke in Hindi than in Chinese. This is homogenizing.Functionalism: Martinet, the father of Functionalist view, primarily of the Prague School (1920s), believed that the structure (in a very wider sense) and linguistic elements are the most important content for any piece of translation or for that matter language learning. That is why Functionalists lay more stress on intercultural translation (which actually creates a huge structure around texts). Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of 'translatorial action': Holz (1936), a Finnish scholar, a follower of the Functionalist-view-point proposed the model of translatorial action (1984). She held that translation does not belong to language, for her the message is more important than language or linguistic elements. The text possesses message-conveyor compounds bearing with it various contents. For her the language is just an instrument not an end. Translation for her is a professional act which produces message transmitter. She believes, "Translatorial action is integrated into a system of other actions and is controlled by factors lying outside it." These factors controlling the text from outside and require product specification (describing properties of the Target Text and the Target Influence).Skopos Theory: Hans J Vermeer (1930-2010), a German scholar, propounded the Skopos (which is a Greek word for purpose) theory of translation in his lecture series "General Theory of Translation” (1976-1977). This lecture was later developed into a path-breaking book titled A Framework for General Theory of Translation (1978). From this book the Functionalist Skopos Theory was fully developed. Although, this theory was developed in late 1970s. The main of this theory was to help German students to learn the process of translation. The theory stressed a "release" from "faithfulness to the original." On the other hand, it also views the text as an “offer of information.” Translation according to this theory has to be bilingual and bicultural. Hans gave two basic rules to understand the process of translation they are: coherence rule and the fidelity rule. This approach identifies five kinds of translations: a) interlinear version ( word to word translation), b) agrammar translation ( the syntax and rules of grammar are observed but not given too much importance), c) adocumentary translation( the reader is rather informed about the language of Source Text), d) acommunicative translation (the Target Culture is followed along with translation process) and e) adapting translation (here also the Target Culture is fully followed but this time with a specific purpose). For all these acts dethronement (denying equivalence, loyalty, responsibility or fidelity of translators) of the Source text is necessary for Meer. However, Meer’s theory can’t be wholly applicable to the Literary Translation. Literary texts are highly aesthetic; they have heteroglossia (Bakhtin) Localization or L10N: This word has been derived from the English word locale meaning location, place of happening. In translation, the word localization is the process that is involved in adopting a “product” and making it local (for a particular locale, a specific country, region or place). The product is made local but this process makes the product global. Localization then is also a kind of globalization in one sense (for more on globalization please do read lessons). Localization is done keeping in mind expectations, cultural values and the law of that particular locale. This ‘product’ may have already been translated into other languages. In general terms, localization considers non-textual works, particularly digital works (like video games, software, web pages and so on) that’s why some call these non-textual works ‘products.’ That is why while talking of localization, the German Chancellor Willy Brandt’s famous quote is often mentioned: ‘If I’m selling to you, I speak your language. If I’m buying, dann müssen Sie Deutsch sprechen!’ (then you must speak German). Anyone can translate information contained in the online encyclopedia Wikipedia. What will you call this then? We will give you a hint: The terms wikifization proposed by Jeff Howe and crowdsourcing given by Alain Désilets, is associated with localization. Fig 18. When the above cigarette is produced in United Kingdom, the warning, “Smoking clogs the arteries and causes heart attacks and strokes” is inscribed. But when the same cigarette reaches India this warning has to be changed according to the rule of the land (that is India). In simple terms this is localization of the product, through language.Machine-aided Translation (MAT) or Machine Translation (MT): Machine Translation is a translation carried out by computer software. Sometimes structural or lexical mismatches occur in the final versions of translation. There is also a possibility of error in translating polysemic or homonymic words. Translation service, Google Translate, offered by Google is highly visited online by users around the world. Pseudotranslation, fictitious translation, supposed translation, and pseudotranslators: The prefix pseudo in Greek means false. For the first time this term was used in a review of Alexis’s Walladmor for the British journal The Literary Gazette and Journal of the Belle-Lettres, Arts, Sciences, for ‘free translation.’ Anton Popovi? calls it fictitious translation as also quasi-metatext. The concept is quite different from pseudoauthorship, pseudonym or polypseudonymity. In these concepts mainly the hypotext and paratext (front cover, opening information, back matter and so on) are taken from some other source of text (of some author other than the translator). But actually, pseudotranslation is an imagined translation produced without a Source Text/Foreign Language. Actually, the translated work mimics some Source Text/Foreign Language in this case. Thus it gives an impression to the reader as if it was translated from some Source Text/Foreign Language because it may have inherent ambiance, stylistic features and cultural values of some pseudo Source Text. The translators who do pseudotranslations are known as pseudotranslators. You must read Thomas Carlyle’s pseudotranslation Sartor Resartus and the works of Domingues. In Germany, Holz und Schlaf ’s Papa Hamlet (1889, a pseudotranslation) was one of the most important forerunners of the so-called ‘konsequenter Naturalismus.’ Think Aloud Protocols or talk-aloud protocol: Call it an experiment! This experiment was developed by Clayton Lewis while he was an employer of IBM. His paper “Task-Centered User Interface Design: A Practical Introduction" (1994) which was collectively written with John Rieman introduced a creative method of data collection. Actually, this concept has its roots in behaviorist psychology. That is why it is quite close to stream-of-consciousness technique in fiction writing or cognitive sciences. In a novel of stream-of-consciousness, other than narrative, the thought process of a character is written down on the pages. In the same way, Think Aloud Protocol allows a Translator to verbalize her/his thoughts during the entire process of translation from Source Text to Target Text. This verbalization is recorded in an electronic device (audio-video or audio alone). Later the recorded file is transferred into a text. These recorded files provide a data for further research. This text is known as Think Aloud Protocols( TAP). Understanding this protocol or process of translation helps to know the process of explication in translation. Isn’t it interdisciplinary? Univocity: It is one-to-one or transparent relationship between a term and a concept. This concept of univocity is applied to Machine Translations, in general. Otherwise, the idea ‘Univocity of being’ has frequently been used in theology by Thomas Aquinas and other philosophers.Interlocutors: Interlocutors, are the persons who ‘take part in dialogue or conversation’ (Word Origin). Ambiguity: Ambiguity is multiplicity of meanings or openness of a text to invariably numerous interpretations. Transliteration: Transliteration is a method in which the sound patterns or phonetic sounds of ST is represented in TT. In transliteration, commonly the pattern of spellings is not followed. That is why it is possible for a person to speak in Hindi or any language without knowing Hindi (or any language). For example: a) Main ICDEOL ka vidyarthi hu. (Transliteration also romanization)b) I am a student of ICDEOL. (Translation)Domestication (kotoutta)(to bring home) and Foreignization: Domestication is a method or a strategy in translation in which the cultural value(s) are translated flexibly in order to make the Target Text familiar with its reader. This strategy helps minimizing strangeness to the foreign Source Text. Lawrence Venuti (1953), an American scholar, introduced both the terms in his monograph The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). Also see adoption and localization. Fig 19 The front cover of book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation by Lawrence Venuti.On the other hand, Foreignization, is a method or a strategy in translation in which the elements of Target Text which are preserved in the Source Text have no equivalent elements in the Target Text. Please see ostranenie or defamiliarization.(Please read lessons and elaborated discussions on this topic).Rewriting: The concept of “translation as rewriting” was propounded by Belgian scholar André Lefevere (1945-96) who was also the Professor of Germanic studies in the University of Texas. He wrote the essay, "Why Waste our Time in Rewrites? The Trouble with the Role of Rewriting in an Alternative Paradigm." This essay introduced the concept of rewriting into the world of translation studies. For him rewriting is a genre of translation which, other than translation, includes interpreting, editing, criticizing, anthologizing and so on. Rewriting is not immune to ideological beliefs. He also introduced refraction or refracted text in translation studies. For him refracted texts were, “texts that have been processed for a certain audience (children, for example)”, He suggested that there is a "grid" (a culturally constructed concept) which unconsciously or consciously guides us when we are translating from some Source Text. Fig 20 André Lefevere (1945-96), the one who introduced the concept of rewriting in translation (Source : ) The only hindrance to rewriting is the patronage. Patronage is visible or invisible force, of human beings or of institutions, which hinder reading, rewriting or translation of a text. ALPHABETICALLY ORGANIZED LIST OF TRANSLATION TERMINOLOGY USED IN THIS LESSONA languageAccredited translatoracommunicative translation Ad hoc interpretingadapting translation adocumentary translationAdoptionadvertisingagrammar translation AmplificationAnime and manga fandom anuvad Approproation ArchitransemeAudienceaudio descriptionAudio-Video Translationaudiovisual translationB languageBack translationBackground informationBackground textbilingualBilingual or multilingual corporaBowdlerization C languagecalligraphycapitulador CensorshipCertified translationChomskyan Nativismchongyi chuchotagecoherence rule coinageCommercial TranslationCommitted TranslationCommunity interpretingComprehensionconcrete poetryConnotationconsecutive interpretingConsecutive interpreting Contextual knowledge Controlled languageCopywriting court interpreting critical discourse analysis critical linguistics crowdsourcing Cultural TranslationCultural Translationculturemes DeconstructionDenotation Descriptive Translationdethronement diasemioticdifférance DIN 2345Direct MethodDirect TranslationDirectionalitydobavleniye DomesticationDomestication Dominant languageDynamic EquivalenceEN 15038enmendador ExplicitationExpurgationfan yi fictitious translationfidelity rule fig-leave editionsfilm-dubbingForeignizationFree translationFreelance translatorFunctionalismFunctionalists Approach to TranslationGistingGlocalizationglosador Grammatical Translationhabitusheteroglossia Hieroglyphic formsHomogenizing conventionhypotext ImitationInbound textinter- semiotic readingInter-Discipline Translationinterlinear version interlingual Interlocutorsintermodal Interpretative TranslationInvariance Inverse Translationiterable Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of 'translatorial action'KeystrokekotouttaLanguage EngineeringLanguage of habitual use; similar: dominant language Language pairing, language combinationLanguage service provider (LSP)legal presence liaisonLiaison interpreterLingua Franca linguistic presence Linguistic TranslationLip-synchronized dubbing Literal Translation or Formal Correspondence TranslationLiterary TranslationLiterary translatormessage transmittermessage-conveyor compounds modulationMonolingual corporamonomodal Mother Tongue or language of habitual usemultilingual filmingmultimedia translationMultimodalityNative speakerNative-speaker competenceNatural translatorsneologismoffer of information?NORM 1200, ?NORM 1201?NORM 1202, ?NORM 1203opushcheniye Orthographic WordsOtaku Parallel corpora or translation corpusParalleltextOutboundtextPlain Englishparatext perestanovka phonogismpolypseudonymityPrague School product specification Promotional translationProofreading , proofreadingpseudoauthorshippseudonym Pseudotranslationpseudotranslatorsquasi-metatextReadership Referential restriction, 19Reformulationrefracted text refraction Rewritingrupantar Scientific and Technical Translationscreen translationscriptSelective Reproduction sense grammar shifts, category shifts, constitutiveshifts, individual shifts, level shifts, optionalShifts,Obligatory Sight Translation signed languageSimplified English (SE) Simultaneous interpretingSkopos TheorySpecialized language competenceStandard lineStandard page , calibrated page Subtitling supposed translationSworn translatorTarget InfluenceTarget readershiptarjama Terminology extraction (TE)Text typeThink Aloud ProtocolstotemsTransemesTranslatabilityTranslationeseTranslator’s agenda or Translator’s IdeologyTransposition Types of InterpretingUnicodeUntranslatability Vehicular MatchingVehicular promiscuityvisual grammar voice-overvouloir dire Web Page Translation ToolsWhispering, whispered interpreting wikifization Word countzamena LIST OF AUTHORS WHOSE REFERENCES HAVE BEEN MADE IN THIS LESSONA Z CajupA. N. Kolmogorov Abdel Rahman el-AbnudiAbdon UbidiaAbdourahman A. Waberi Abdul MuisAbdulah SidranAbdullah AalmutiAdab Adalberto OrtizAdèle Caby-LivannahAdem Demaci Adolf HitlerAharon MeggedAhmed Abdallah Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi)Ahmed MouradAhmed SaadawiAida cartagena Portalatin Alain DésiletsAlain MabanckouAlbert CamusAlbert Camus Albert Einstein Albert Mongita Albert Tezla Alberto FuguetAleksa ?anti?Aleksandar HemonAleksandr Smirnov Aleth Felix-TchicayaAlexander PopeAlexandre AlexisAli-AShraf DarvishianAlice Ann Munro Alidjanatou Saliou-ArekpaAlistair Nobel Allsopp Amal al-Zahawi AmarahAmin FaqiriAmy Chan An Qing Anatole FranceAndré ?lvares de Almada André GideAndré Lefevere Andreas KoumiAndriana IeridiakonouAngela BarryAngela RodelAnne Frank Antal Szerb Anthony Pym A N Kdmogrov Anton Popovi? Antonie Bangui-Rombaye António Aurélio Gon?alvesAntonio Januario LeiteAntonis GeorgiouAntun Branko ?imi?Antun Gustav Mato? Ariel DorfmanAristotleArnold Sènou Arthur Schnitzler Arvind Adiga Asa Zata Asad AsdreniAtaur Rahman August VermeylenAuguste ComteAugusto PinochetBadr Shakir al-SayyabBaker Bakhtin Barbara AkploganBarkhudarov Bastin Bataha BejtexhinjBenjaminBenjamin CarrionBenjamin TammuzBertrand Russell Binéka Danièle LissoubaBj?rk Gu?mundsdóttirBlaise PascalBlum-Kulka Bob Marley, Robert Nesta "Bob" MarleyBogdani BoileauBorders Brian Burland Brian Mossop Brisset Brisset Broome Bruce St John Buddhadeva Bose Bushra al-BustaniC JewittCarl Spitteler Carlos Gagini Carlos Luis Fallas Carmen LyraCarmen Naranjo Caro CatfordCécile-Ivelyse DiamonekaCecilia Wadensj? Chan Charlotte BronteChekhovChester CarlsonChristopher BuxtonisChristopher ColumbusCiceroClaribel AlegriClasse Claude Cohen-Tannoudji Claude SimonClayton Lewis Corsino Pedro de Azevedo Cristina GarciaDanica Seleskovitch Dante Alighieri Dao An Darbelnet Dario Fo David Escobar Galindo Delabastita DelisleDenise Merkle Desai Désiré-Joseph BasembeDiakhate Diamela EltitDominguesDoris Lessing DowlatabadiDr Andy HildebrandDr Israel ZonbergDr Thomas Bowlder Dr. Hasan JavadiDr. Johnson DriemDubravka Ugre?i?Dunya MikhailEbrahim Yunesi Eduard Tamaro Edward Said Egon Erwin Kisch Eiléan Ní ChuilleanáinElfriede Jelinek Elias Canetti Elisa Daggs ?mile ZolaEmilios SolomouEmmanuel de BomEmmanuel DongalaEmmanuel N Chia Englund Dimitrova Eqrem Basha Ernest KoliqiEugene A. NidaEugene Chen EoyangEugene Nida Eugénio de PauloEugenio Montale Eugenio TavaresEva Maria Charlotte Michelle IbbotsonEve MakisFabian Dobles Fadhil al-AzzawiFasti Fausto DuarteFazi Feng Ferdinand de SaussureFerdowsiFernando Contreras Fleischer FloreFlore HazouméFrancesco Petrarca Francesco SantoriFrancine Giguere Francisco Proano ArandiFran?ois LyotardFran?ois MauriacFranz KafkaFranz WerfelFrasheri brothersFrederic Gomes Cassidy Frédéric MistralFriedrich Nietzsche Gabriel Fahrenheit Gabriel García Márquez Gabriela MistralGabriele DaraGal Galileo Galilei Gambier García Geoffrey ChaucerGeorg Trakl George (Sjors) van Driem George BernanosGeorge RitzerGeorges NgalGerhart Hauptmann Gibson R. FergusonGiorgos Seferis Giosuè Carducci Giovanni BoccaccioGiovanni da Verrazzano Girdlamo De RadaGisèle HountondjiGiuseppe SerembeGocul Prasad GoffmanGonzalo ZaldumbideGraham Chesters Grazia Deledda Guillermo Cabrera Günter Grass Gustav Johannes Wied Gustav Perez FirmatGuthrie Guy MengaGy?rgy K?ves Gyula Krúdy Habibur RahmanHaim GouriHalldór Laxness HalottiHamdy El-GazzarHans J Vermeer Hans OverbeckHans-Georg Gadmer Harivansh Rai BachhanHarold Pinter HarrisHedayatHeinrich B?ll Hélène CixousHenri BergsonHenri LopesHenrik Pontoppidan Henry Vizetelly Hermann Hesse HerodotusHerta Müller HesiodHilaire BellocHilma ContrerasHitoshi Igarashi Hivzi Sulejmani Holmes HoltHolz HomerHorace Horace and Quintus Horatius Flaccus Hortense MayabaHouseHu ShiHung Ibsen Imre Kertész Imre Kertész Isabel AllendeIsabel Zakrzewski Brown Isak SamokovlijaIvan Bunin Ivan Gunduli? Ivan Sanders Jaiwanti DimriJ. Hillis MillerJ. M. G. Le ClézioJ.C.CatfordJ.Joaquin FraxedasJacques DerridaJamaica KincaidJames Atkinson James RussellJamil Sidqu al-Zahawi Jan Baptist Verlooy Janet Wingate Janko Poli? Kamov Jaroslav Ha?ekJaroslav Seifert Jean BaudrillardJean Malonga Jean Pierre BertrandJean RhysJean-Jacques RousseauJean-Paul SartreJeff Howe Jerome Jaiwanti Dimri Joaquin Garcia Monge Joaquín Gutiérrez Johannes GutenbergJohannes Vilhelm Jensen John Batki John Catford John Galsworthy John Okell John WeekJorge Díaz Cintas Jorge Galán Jorge IcazaJose DonosoJosé LopesJosé María Vergara y VergaraJoseph Addison Joseph Brahim Joseph MonierJovan Du?i? JRR Tolkien Juan Andrade HeymanJuan José Ca?as Juan Leon MeraJuan Montalvo Judith Sollosy Jue XianJulie SandersJulieta Dobles Yzaguirre Junemann Jurgen HabermasJusta Holz-Manttari Jusuf Buxhovi KadimaKafka Karl Kraus Karl Marx Kashi M'Bika Katende Kazuo Ishiguro Kitty van Leuven-Zwart Kjetil Myskja Koulsy Lamko Kunzang Choden Lasgush PoradeciLasswell László Krasznahorkai Laurence Laurence RawLawrence Venuti Le LutrinLee LefevereLeila Azam Zangeneh Leonardo da Vinci Leonor de Ovando Lewis CarrollLino Novas CalvosListopadLouis BrailleLubomir Terziev Ludovico Ariosto Ludvig HolbergLudwig WittgensteinLuigi Pirandello Luis A. MartinezLuis Salvador Efraín Salazar Arrué Machali Magda SzabóMahamet Baba MustaphaMahmud Dowlatabadi Maithili Sharan Gupt Mak DizdarMakouta-MboukouMambou Aimée GnaliMandryk Manlio ArguetaManlio AruguetaMansoura Ez-EldinManuel de Jesus Galvan Manuel LopesMarah RusliMarch Veloz Maggiolo Marie-Louise AbiaMarie-Louise SibazuriMarin Dr?i? Mario Bencastro Marisela Rizik Marko Maruli? Marlon JamesMartin Heidegger MartinetMary ShelleyMax BrodMednikovaMeerMeir Sternberg Merari SiergarMe?a Selimovi?Mesrop MashtotsMichel Foucault Michel Garneau Michel Garneau Michelle WoodsMigjeniMiljenko Jergovi?Miro Gavran Mitrush Kuteli Mo YanMohamed Ahmed-ChamangaMohamed ToihiriMohammad BaharluMohammad Maruof Mohlig Moniru RavanipurMontgomery Moseley Moshe ShamirMoussa Konaté Muhammad Husayn Haykal Muhammad Mahdi al-Basir Muhammad Mahdi al-Jawahiri Muhammad rida al-Shabibi Mukala Kadima-Nzuji Myrto Azina Chronides Nader EbrahimiNadstogaNaguib Mahfouz NairNathaniel TuckerNawal El Saadawi Nazik al-Mala'ikahNdre Mjeda Ned?ad Ibri?imovi?née WiesnerNeijmann Nelly Sachs Nelson Estupinan BassNewmark Nicanor ParraNiccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli Niccolò Machiavelli Nicolas MalebrancheNigel Roberts Nike K. Pokorn Nima Yushij Niranjana Noam Chomsky No?lle Bizi BazoumaNord Ntumb DiurOdysseas ElytisOttenheimer Otto Kade Ovid, Publius Ovidius NasoPablo Neruda Palbi MedinaPatrick ModianoPaul von Heyse Paule EtoumbaPeder Paars Pedro CardosoPedro Lemebel Pedro MirPedro PaixPerdomo Perloff Petar Ko?i?Péter Esterházy Peter Handke Peter H?eg Péter Nádas Peter Newmark Peter Skipp Philippe Aubert de GaspePhilo Judaeus Phyllis Shand Allfrey PindarPjeter BogdaniPjeter Budi Plato Pliny the Elder Plutarch Pramoedya Ananta ToerProf Ginette Sánchez Gutiérrez Professor MoniPropertius, Sextus PropertiusProustPt Jawaharlal NehruPublius Vergilius Maro Quince DuncanRabindranath TagoreRachel Aspden Rainer Maria RilkeRamakant Ramiz Kelmendi Raoul Lefèvre Raul Perez TorresRaul RuizRawle FrederickReddyRees ReilyReinaldo ArenasRekha SharmaRené DescartesRexhep Qosja Richard HaklyutRiitta OittinenRitva Hartama Robert Brock Roberto BalanoRoger Martin du GardRomain RollandRoman JakobsonRomanoRombi Rosemary JonesRoudometof Rudolf Christoph Eucken Rudyard Kipling Sadegh Hedayat Safvet beg Ba?agi?Said Mohamed DjoharSaint-John PerseSalah Jaheen Saleh Salih J. Altoma Salih J. Altoma IraqSalman Rushdie Salvatore QuasimodoSándor Márai Sandra Benitez SapphoSargon BoulusSaul BelloSayadaw Shin Kaweinda SchlafSeamus Heaney Seamus Justin Heaney Semezdin Mehmedinovi?Seyyed Mohammad Hossein Behjat TabriziSharon Deane-CoxShi Dao'anShigaoShmuel Yosef Agnon Sibertin Blanc Sigmund FreudSlavenka Drakuli?Slobodan ?najderSmith S. N. Snehi SocratesSophoclesSperberSperber WilsonStanislas AdoteviStefan ZweigSubhash Chander BoseSully PrudhommeSusam-SarajevaSusan BassnettSutan Takdir AlisjahbanaSylvie BokokoT. S. Eliot TamisTan Taslima NasrinTavaresTheodor Mommsen Theodor of Shkodra Thomas Aquinas Thomas BernhardThomas CarlyleThomas EdisonThomas LeitchThomas Mann Thorkild Bj?rnvig Torquato TassoToury U Awbatha Usha Bande V. S. NaipaulVakunta Vartan Pasha Vásquez Perdomo Velupillai Vicente HuidobroVictor RoudometofVicttor CousinVinayVirgil SuarezViriato Sencion Vojnovi? VoltaireW B YeatsWael Ghoniem Walske Walter Benjamin illem KolffWillem Verhoeven illiam Empson William Golding William J SamarinWilson Winston Churchill Yusuf al-Sayigh Zajaczkowski Zhang Qian Zlatko Anguelo Zlatko Top?i?Zohn- ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download