Causes of the Conflict



Causes of the Conflict

Thesis: Primarily Nazi aggression was the source of conflict, the actions of Allies to some extent facilitates this, though a secondary concern.

Causes;

• Treaty of Versailles

• Collective Secuirty

• Nazi Aggression: Main Kampf, Hossbach Memorandum,

• Individuals: Hitler, Chamberlain (obstinacy, combined with firm control of cabinet) questions how in control were these men of their regimes? Simplistic to place on the shoulder’s of any individual. AJP Taylor is indifferent towards Hitler from other European leaders. “Other powers have pursued similar aims, and still do. Other countries treat smaller countries like satellites.”

Treaty was never accepted (Weimar republic sought change, Hitler’s main objective was to rip it up),), Hitler was aggressor with Main Kampf, Hossbach Memorandum, Wannsee Conference,

Nationalism which conflicted with the internationalism the league was founded upon, votes had to be unanimous, inter-war period rise of far-right nationalist thinking, the antithesis of internationalism.

, could not stand up to Hitler armed forces run down,

Condemning Appeasement is often simplistic, neglecting strategic, economic and political constraints facing governments in the 1930s. (Britain and their empire, pacifist public) introduction of the 30 year rule released documents (lead to Post revisionist view showing Chamberlain was actually a far-sighted statesman who did the best for Britain given restraints), RAC Parker accepts this but he ignored expert advice and other options which supported this. Churchill dominated historical debate making mistakes seem obvious with Hindsight

General Foch on Polish Corridor; “There is the root of the next war.” Overy says the settlement and inter-war international system did not take into account the biggest powers because of America’s isolationism, Russia’s focus on revolution and Germany on rearmament gave Britain and France a false sense of dominance in the league. Brian never recovered its economic strength and allowed defences to run down,

Depression severely limiting,

After examining some popularly argued reasons for the outbreak of conflict the writer must conclude no singular reason can account for the outbreak of conflict. To suggest so would be simplistic and be ignorant of the complexity of the state of world affairs in this era of European history, let alone place guilt upon one man’s shoulders; Hitler.

Dictatorships

Come to Power

• People welcome his authority because they were tired of strikes and riots and wanted stability and progress. He was regarded as genius in Europe. United landowners, workers and the Roman Church. German Patriots shamed by the defeat in 1918, Treaty of Versailles, hyperinflation, French occupation in 1923 & Hitler promised them a source of pride. British Aristocracy admired Nazi economic achievements and discipline. Both promised a way out of the depression.

• Compromised consumer goods for huge public works expenditure: autobahns and rearmament program (spending more than Britain, France and USA combined ) Mussolini’s Hydroelectric scheme and drained diseased Pontine Marshes. Re-armament program only way to gain respect.

• Both Hitler & Mussolini were never honestly voted into power, consolidated position thru propaganda, quasi-legal procedures & secret police. (Chancellorship the result of backroom political deal around the aging Hindenburg “chancellor in chains.” absorbed the role of President becoming Fuhrer, Mussolini granted PM for a year, then rigged elections)

NAZI Foreign policy

• Revisionism – End provisions of Treaty, reparations, restore military, take land under guise of equality rather than military dominance, what was taken from German people in 1919. Appealed to Britsh Upper-Class with high discipline, brought much stability and be Western Bulwark of communism, who also were latently anti-Semitic.

• Racial policies.

o Social Darwinism, superior Aryans overcome others in future conflicts.

• Lebensraum established in Mein Kampf (1924).:

o Master race would reach 250 million by end of century

o Expand into Eastern Europe; inevitable conflict as Soviets were holding future German Empire, land oil & grain.

• Pragmatism

o An opportunist as well as an ideologue.

Saarland – League plebiscite gave Saar people choice between Germany or France.

Conscription – Against Treaty. Part of huge militarization.

Rhineland – remilitarized with orders to retreat if France responded, strengthened strategic position. Proof to German General Staff of Hitler’s military genius.

Anschluss – Prior to planned referendum coup d’état from Austrian Nazi Party. Wehrmacht troops entered to enforce it, complacency as they are German speaking.

Czechoslovakia – Chamberlain called state of emergency, pleaded with Hitler war was unnecessary and Hitler invited him to…

Munich Conference – Hitler demands cession of Sudentland, Chamberlain introduces Bill for re-armament, USSR realise cannot trust West.

Czechoslovakia –Given without consulting Czechs, Hitler dismembered a state created by League, Stalin thought a deliberate attempt to direct Hitler eastwards.

Chamberlain hailed a hero for avoiding war; Churchill “do not suppose that this is the end. This is only the beginning,”

Poland Germany invades Poland, Britain and then France declare War.

Italians sought revision of Treaty of London which promised them land for their efforts in WW1 (not met). Sought rearmament as the only way to gain respect in Europe, revive nationalism with the Roman Empire where Hitler wanted German Empire. No racism until moved closer to Hitler.

Policy in action

Corfu Incident, Greece refused to pay an indemnity, bombed, pays, propaganda victory for Mussolini.

Assassination of Dolfuss, Mussolini moves troops into Austria warning Hitler to keep out.

Stresa Front – France, Britan and Itla stand against further German aggression.

Spanish Civil War – joins Hitler to support fascists. A microcosm and rehearsal of the conflict to come, polarized relations, Allies were non-interventionalist. Stalin pragmatically supporting democracy Hitler tested weapons. Became a war of idealism with thousands flocking from around the world. Richard Evans says significantly it cemented the alliance between Hitler and Mussolini, and another example of the ‘pusillanimity’ of Britain and France. Showed collective security was a sham and appeasement was actually more selfishly concerned.

Pact of Steel with Germany.

? 1935 Abyssinia gave nationalism to struggling workers the beginning of the Empire, ironically had France’s support. Britain did not want to refuse them either for fear of destroying the Stresa front, did not wan to drive them into German arms. Therefore league did not protect Abyssinia. The league unwillingly made sanctions against Italy which drove them into German arms. E H Carr says the Italian victory was a huge blow to the league, and AJP Taylor concurs. With attention here Hitler walked into Rhineland. Hoare-Laval Pact showed leaked League leaders would rather secretly deal with Dictators than stand up to them released by a French newspaper and Britain and France disassociated from eachother as a result. . Encouraged Hitler. Philip Bell realpolitik undermined the league and Anglo-French relations collapsed at a time when they were most needed. It was realpolitik but it undermined the League. No obstacle to Hitler absorbing Austria.

League of Nations and Collapse of Collective Security

Failures:, Japan’s invasion of Manchuria example to dictators against larger powers it was impotent.

Flaw;

• nations wanted protection but none wanted to be drawn into conflicts that did not concern them caused failure of Treaty of Mutual Assistance,

• It promoted internationalism when post-war regimes were dominated by nationalism.

• Article 8 called powers to disarm to a level consistent with national safety, but this was always just a little more than others.

• Appeasement left Allis behind massive rearmament, relied upon Britain and France who were fast becoming second rate powers post-war economically and militarily used to enforce Treaty so seen as the League of victors serving established powers. Ironically at one stage all combatants were members, showing it constricted their long term interests. American isolationism. Germany resented not being allowed to join, part of the reason the Nazis quit was because it was associated with the Treaty the people liked to think they didn’t need it. Japan’s exit created precedent for Italy undermining integrity.

Mussolini; “The league is very well when sparrows quarrel but fails when eagles fall out.”

Refusal to admit Germany and Russia

Failed support for new nations states in face of aggression (Manchuria, Abyssinia) ignored ethnic rivalries

US choice not to join.

Appeasement;

• With hindsight it is easy to blame Britain and France for letting dictators come to power, though in its time appeasement was the logical option.

• British public opinion pacifist shown in 1933 Fulham By-Election & Peace Ballot widespread throughout Europe. Still memories of trenches, Hitler would exploit this.

• Britain preoccupied with recovering domestically, the League was proving a failure so the only option was appeasement, would give a chance to re-arm after armed forces had worn down in nearly all countries. French had faith in their Maginot line. All encouraged Hitler’s demands for territory.

• Many, including Chamberlain genuinely believed Germany had been hard done by in the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler was taking back his property.

German rearmament

Franco-Italian Agreement – Laval offered parts of French Somaliland, an offer to deal with the Abyssinia Crisis openly in return for support against German aggression.

German Conscription

Anglo-German naval agreement.

Hoare-Laval Plan

Rhineland

Churchill compared the Germans to a boa constrictor, cunningly resting before hunting again. The policy of appeasement was much to the advantage of his tactic.

German troops marched into the rest of Czechoslovakia, incorporated Bohemia and Moravia, into Reich, Slovakia became Nazi puppet state. Chamberlain drew the line at Poland.

NAZI- Soviet Non-Aggression Pact.

Deutscher says the Western governments had set out to drive Stalin into Hitler’s hands they could not done so more efficiently than they did. He could not rely on them with appeasement & having excluded him from Munich.

• Pragmatic – Comintern was promoting revolution in Germany and Hitler planned to invade Russia.

• Russia was not yet in a position to fight until five years plans took hold, Purges weakened Red Army & hoped Hitler would exhaust himself aginst the West.

• Planned invasion of Poland and promised ‘spehere’s of influence’.

• Hitler did not want to face a two front war, confront Russia at his leisure.

• Britain ignored the Pact by declaring a military alliance with Poland.

Impact of the War on Civilians

Thesis: Due to the nature of total war, ww2 could not be more depended on homefronts.

• Air warfare placed civilians’ on the frontline for the first time. German air attack meant to soften up country for invasion, but failed. Production was not seriously inhibited, though working class districts were destroyed. Break Morale, though strengthened resilience and East End attitude, like “Dunkirk Spirit”.

• The Blitz: never suffered like Dresden and Hamburg.

• V1 & 2 rockets created much fear but weren’t militarily effective

• Encouraged to do their bit: black out at night to hinder night bombers.

• Accepted war inevitable with resignation. Conscription; relief the illusions of appeasement were over, many volunteers, conscientious objectors joined ambulance units. Labour was militarised, though to avoid worker dissatisfaction welfare facilities, conditions and fair wages were ensured which positively led to creation of welfare state after the war Feared Germany as formidable, particularly bomber’s.

• Civilians were prepared with numerous personal/public bomb shelters, gas Masks created fear but it was never used on civilians.

• 1941 “Essential Works Order” brought occupations like railway under government control; a move to total war.

• Ministry of Information – censorship not as bad as Germans because Churchill better to face grim reality.

• Television closed, “wireless” brought news bulletins, then entertainment to maintain moral. Cinema provided function Escapism.

• Rationing soon introduced as German submarines sunk British ships faster then they could be built. Made poor people healthier as never had access to so much food. Battle of the Atlantic posed the greatest threat to British survival. Overy suggests why Germany went to such efforts to cut their supplies.

Russian Home Front

• German armies were welcomed initially, such was hate for Stalin in minorities. Propaganda campaign of ‘untermenschen’ (sub-human) ended this as they were rid for German colonisation.

• Einsatzgruppen murdered locals, communist officials and jews, creating hate. Stalin provided partisans with resources to disrupt Germans behind their lines, but fluctuated sides.

• Captured 5 mil POW, half died.

• Eventually recruited anti-communists, forming “Russian Liberation Army” over 1 mil.

• Soviet Jews were forced to dig their own graves, then shot at their edge.

• Stalin rehabilitated the Church & retreated to conventional family values to bring stability to society

• Declared the war was about Russia’s survival, “Great Patriotic War”. Told people they were defending the patriotism of the Tsars. This justified enormous working hours, terrible conditions in factories and Gulag. Shortage of consumer goods and food. Even in victry the USSR came terribly close to disaster they were stretched so thin.

• Rationing did not prevent malnutrition.

• Initially lost over half of heavy industry, though amazingly relocated it in minimal time. Received resources from Allies in meantime industry took to kickstart. Stalin downplayed this aid, because it did not increase firepower but provided vital infrastructure.

• Listened to Generals, Zhukov the architect of victory, but all disappeared from public life after ww2 & Stalin hailed himself as the hero.

• Returned POWs were interrogated, sent to Gulags or shot because Stalin did not trust them.

, and. British delegates sent to Moscow were junior lacking authority showing Britain’s inseriousness, but this was after Chamberlain guaranteed Poland and Hitler had disregarded the German-Polish non aggression pact (when an alliance was most possible).

Hitler’s main tactic was Blitzkrieg, which explain initial successes but also contributed to demise. Main attack on France least expected through Ardennes, which is where it occurred. Germany Rapidly took Denmark, Norway, Belgium, and after the ingenious “sichelschnitt” France. Allies in disarray with Somerville actually attacking the French Fleet.

Turning Points

Battle of Britain (1940) planned invasion called Operation Sea Lion.

• Hitler launched Operation Sea Lion because British refused to “see sense”. Initially attacked air fields, but after Bomber Harris’ ‘area bombing’ of Berlin Hitler was furious and ordered the Blitz (in switching from attacking air-bases to city gave RAF time to recover). Rather than destroy morale, Churchill’s visits to sites Hardened Britsh resolve. The media coverage which reached America generated sympathy and admiration. Victory was due to Dowding System (allowed communication whereas Luftwaffe forced to work independently), fighting over home meant could refuel (reuse fallen aircraft and pilots).

• A turning Point, Hitler had failed to gain control of the air though Churhill was too weak to attack Geramny. Saved Britsh War effort and Churhill himself, his own party would likely have removed him from power. Where the Germans were only fighting for control of the air, Britsh were fighting for sovereignty. Survival allowed for future American Alliance, took pressure off the east

• Its end merely signified the switching of the Luftwaffe to the East.

• (see reasons for victory)

• Klaus Fischer – instead of breaking the will of Britsh , actually strengthened it.

• Until 1944 Air-bombing campaigns had little effect, failing to break will, only of real use when crippling industry or supporting forces on the ground.

• Churchill on pilots “never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.”

North Africa (1942)

• Suez Canal kept Britsh connected with the world, important because of fighting in far east, gave control of mediteranean. Opened third front for Direct attack on Italy, and after its defection an attack on European mainland.

• Joint American venture.

• Axis victory would let forces link up with Germans in Southern Russia, starved Germany of Middle east Oil supplies. Rommel’s march on El Alamein was the last Axis success, nearly denying Egyptian Port’s that accessed British interests.

• Hitler denied his plea to withdraw, though later he did realizing the hopelessness, 130 000 Axis forces taken prisoner. Boosted Brtish morale as achieved a decisive victory on their own.

• Mid 1944 Hitler faced war on three fronts.

• Churchill: “Before El Alamein we never had a victory, after we never had a defeat.”

• William S. Shirer: Links the Battle of Stalingrad and El Alaimen as “The Great Turning Point”, marking the end of Blitzkrieg and Nazi success. Allied control of Atlantic.

Stalingrad (1942-3)

• Centre of armament industry & communications, also “City of Stalin”

• , stopped at Leningrad from over extended supplies, winter, change of plans. Winter, soldiers and machinery unprepared, Luftwaffe could not frop supplies.

• Unlike Hitler who interefed in the capture of Leningrad and desperately focussed on Moscow rather than Kiev (giving Rus time to prepare).

• Zhukov ingeniously encircled the town, trapping them inside. Hitler stubbornly would not let them surrender even then. Martin McCauley Germany’s greatest defeat , now only a question of time for war to end. American supplies began reaching Russia which would not have happened if they fell.

• Liddell Hart said Russian campaign highlighted the fault in German command structure of Hitler’s total inflexibility. Says this explained initial victories, but became a hindrance by removing local initiative.

• Stalin listen to his Generals, although they were eradicated after the war and he was the sole hero, wheras Hitler monopoly of power, (Head of State, Minister of War, Supreme Commander of Armed Forces, Commander-in Chief) allowed his obstinacy become hindrance.

Kursk (Operation Citadel 1943)

• Last German Offesnisive.

• Greatest tankbattle ever, signified a change of tactic for Hitler to Panzerkeil (attacking in a wedge with tanks). Huge losses on both sides, but Wehrmacht could not make them back up & pushed back 320km. A turning point because never again would Germany launch a great offensive. Now they could only delay Allied victory, which was quickly occurring in Smolensk and Kiev. Hitler obstinantly fortified positions that drained all resources.

• Only here did initiative forever fall to the allies. AJP Taylor said the Russian method was attrition, and as the antithesis of Blitzkrieg it was succeeding.

Battle of the Bulge (German invasion of Ardenne)

• Last German Offesnisive.

• Germans broke thru 130km, but lost to Allied counter-offesnsive.

• In a bid to delay the war’s end, Hitler lost reserves need for defence in the East.

American Entry

Barbarossa

• Operation Barbarossa threatened to take control of the East and isolate Britain. Opened up the Eastern Front, the largest operation in human history, highest casualties and some of the worst conditions.

• Initially huge German victory, marched within 100km of Moscow, killed 3 million Russian’s, Salting refused to believe it even hours after invasion had commenced. Slowed at Leningrad, overextended supplies and Hitler ordered one army south to Stalingrad instead of taking Moscow.

• Then Autumn rains, Winter cold and poor roads caught up because operation had been delayed several months (interests in Balkans).

• Russian had tactically withdrawn while industry was transported East of the Urals, scorched earth policy. Crack Siberian troops freed from East, Zhukov appointed. Stalin symbolically remained in Moscow, calling for defence of Motherland that Tsar’s had fought for.

• Pushed Wehrmacht back 300km, Hitler faced long drawn out war. Gave morale first time blitzkrieg had failed, turning point because Russia could exploit its huge resources.

Holocaust (extended to all minorities exterminated)

Judea Declared War on Germany in 1933 with the international Jewish community making huge protests and boycotted all German products according to a 1933 Daily Express cover page. Arguably this is the first act of WW2 and at a time when powers were attempting to be delicate with Germany, and led directly to German reprisals against Jews. Obviously the Nazi’s used the action as propaganda to enforce more sanctions as reactionary.

Wannsee Conference – the plans presented by Heydriech to use Jews as slaves never came up, being predicated on the possession of Eastern Europe.

1: Cause

• Nazi ideology was a perverted combination of scientific ideas, social prejudices already existent in Europe and German elitism. Social Darwinism seems to pre-empt Hitler’s racist paradigm that Aryans were the pure race who would overcome the inferior peoples.

• Jews were particularly sought after, being not only impurities within the Reich itself, but on a global scale as competition for world domination (Protocols of the Elders of Zion).

• Obvious targets because of long existing anti-Semitic sentiment in Europe, their distinct seperatism, aristocratic British Christians tacitly agreed.

• Impurities which were identified as the cause of the fall of previous Reichs;

o Non-Aryan minorities: Gypsies, Slavs, Jews

o Handicapped and mentally ill

o Elderly (euthanasia)

o Homosexuals

Became scapegoats for previous faults in Reich’s, eradicating them was a nationalist interest. Ironically the charge of homosexuality was used to discredit Nazi leaders by their opponents, showing how fragmented they had become. Not racially pure as SS became filled by Norwegians, Croatians, and even a division of Russians. Ideology of Aryan purity obviously of secondary consideration to practicality of war.

2: Debate over the origins of Holocaust

Intentionalists: Lucy Dawidowicz

Hitler systematically implemented his long term plan to gradually exterminate the Jews.

Evidence:

• Mein Kampf

• Consistent utterances against them

• Moves against them in 1930s

• Speech in 1939 condemning the Jews

• Top German industrial firms were employed to deveop the extermination camp.

Structuralists

The Nazi regime radicalized and gained an uncontrolled impetus towards the Holocaust.

• Attempted Jewish emigration in 1930s

• A response to many Jews in East after early victories.

• Nazi leaders “work towards the Fuhrer” it was their own responsibility in interpreted the agenda of Hitler.

Conclusion: It is unlikely Hitler rose to power due to Anti-Semitism, he promised Germany hopeful future and cause for pride, later his policies were introduced. Whether intentional or not, one could suggest a disaster such as the Holocaust was inherent in Nazi-ideology. It was only a matter of time until it s was expressed.

employ Slavs as slaves with the achievement of lebensraum.

3 Effect:

Jews were gradually though distinctly excluded from German society, and Nazi’s encouraged people to look down on them.

1. Humiliation: excluded from buses and parks. Encourage people to tacitly look down on them.

2. Excluded from professions. Public openly distrusted them.

3. 1935 Nuremburg Laws denied citizenship and forbade marriage between Jews and Aryans. Eugenics policy dehumanized them in eyes of people.

4. 1938 Kristallnacht – tens of thousands were sent to concentration camps, murders, burnt synagogues down. People were encouraged to display violence against them.

5. 1939 Hitler announced the extermination of the Jewish race. Crowds shouting in support of genocide. Daniel Goldhagen makes the point that German political culture had developed to the point where ordinary Germans became Hitler’s “willing executioners.”

6. 4. Process accelerated with rapid victory due to Blitzkrieg.

• After conquering Poland 3 million Jews needed to be dealt with. The infamous Warsaw Ghetto with its atrocious conditions temporarily contained them.

• After Operation Barbarossa millions of Jews were conquered in Western Russia. Initially Einsatzgruppen (SS units followed Wehrmacht as killing squads).

• Himmler knew he could save men, ammunition and psychological impacts, and more efficiently exterminate Jews. Visited a mass gave and got brain splattered on his shoe which made him swoon. Showed how ideological these men had become were from what they were doing practically.

• 1941 Goering requested “a complete solution of the Jewish Question.” requested Jews be deported to larger camps like Auschwitz and Treblinka under the euphemism of “resettlement.” Implementation of gas chambers.

• D. Irving is frequently cited as a Holocaust denier, though in it would be more accurate to suggest that in essence his view suggests Hitler didn’t know about it, it was primarily Goering, Heydrich’s and Himmler’s baby. (he on multiple occasions boasted about its implementation.) The fragmented nature of the Nazi regime supports this, eg. Himmler’s SS, and other empires. It would be far too simplistic to lay blame with one individual, perhaps reflects the emotional bias that people felt; someone had to be guilty. Ian Kershaw says Hitler had given Generals ideas about the fate of the Jews in 1943, Goebbels then wrote an article which spoke of the fulfilment of Hitler’s “prophecy” of annihilating the Jews. People brought about what they thought was the Fuhrer’s wish. But Hitler was never voted in as leader, solidified his position thru quasi-legal procedures – people initially voted for Nazis because of their promise to restore pride, rapid boom of economy and industry under his leadership. Industry was stimulated by his re-armament program , and it was a natural progression to identify an outpouring of this new direction of German society.

5. Effects (also upon the war effort)

• By 1943 death camps were in full swing “delousing chambers” filled with gas. Jews used in perverted medical experiments. Weak (young, old, pregnant) immediately gassed, others were worked to death in labour camps.

• Obvious war was lost but killing was stepped up instead of strengthening the war effort showing even mindset had taken a hold on the leadership. 6 million Jews were killed instead of Allied soldiers. Irving suggests this dicersion from Lebensraum is evidence of the fragmented nature of the nazi regime. Eichmann diverted valuable resources to transporting Jews instead of for the army. Murdered 6 million Jews.

• Displaced Jews as far as Australia, many call it the beginning of the creation of Israel, physical and emotional scars which still last into future.

Conclusion:

• The causes of the Holocaust partially lay in the deep-seated prejudice in Europe and the circumstance of the inter-war period, and perhaps the Jews were mistaken in drawing unnecessary attention to themselves at a dangerous time.

• Though without the perversion of Nazi ideology such racism and hatred would never have taken on the scale that it did.

• Its effects will be long remembered, such was its significance to defining the modern era, and will continue to be remembered as a symbol of

Landing at Normady D Day (operation overlord) & the Liberation of France

Churchill had previously delayed re-opening Western Front because, & Stalin was angry this was a ploy to weaken Russia. Htiler expected attack, but miscalvulated where.

Britain played a large role as a giant air-craft carrier for amphibious equipment and Allied troops, or else Americans could not be involved.

Thesis: By 1944 it was obvious the war had already turned from events and theatres such as the Eastern Front, Allied dominance over the Luftwaffe & North Africa campaign. Defeat was therefore inevitable, and it was primarily a matter of when, and this was the main significance of the D Day landing.

Significant role in the outcome of the war:

• Capturing of France/Belgium within weeks of breaking out of Normandy. Huge victory; 400 000 Germans had died and 200 000 Allies.

• Re-opened the Western Front.

Just as significant if not more to post-war interests:

• Its emphasis in historiography sometimes is Western glorification of the Allied role in the war.

• Drew lines for the Cold –War, Allies conscious Russia could well have dominated Europe if they invaded Germany.

Defeat of Germany was inevitable:

• Air-war bombing crippling industry, Eastern front, Collapse of Germany financially/militarily/morale

• Rommel had been driven out of North Africa, Allies had moved up to take Sicily, Germans lost initiative on the Eastern Front after Kursk, advantage from Battle of Atlantic.

• Antony Beever compared the ferecoity of fighting on the Wester front as comparable to the Eastern Front contrary to what Soviet Propagandists depicted. Also says if the invasion fleet had sailed into the great storm of mid-June the Red Army may have reached the coast and the post-war map may have been very different.

Normandy was a key event in the eventual defeat of Germany, however it would be remembered as the culmination of …

The Nuremburg Trials

Intro

• The atrocitites committed by the Nazi regime demanded someone be held accountable for as Allied propaganda had been a prime motivator for men to enlist.

• (Don’t forget bit from Holocaust essay)

1. Purpose

• Show atrocities to those Germans who denied them, Allied soldiers forced German from Weimar thru Buchenwald.

• Turn people from leaders they so dedicatedly supported.

• Prevent recurrence of such events.

• For decades after conclusion of the war camp guards, SS, former Nazis were tracked down. Eichmann executed in 1962.

2. Defendants questioned the very notion of war crimes

• If Nazi bombing of Warsaw was a crime, what of the Allied bombing of Dresden?

• Nazi treatment of Jews was criminal, what of the Soviet Massacre at KAtyn.

• Davies: histry is written by victors.

• Allies excused their war rimes as a los of control of juniour officers & response to stress of wartime situation – Nazi atrocities were insteazd government policy (structuralist vs. intentionalist debate).

• Many claimed their action due to ‘superioir orders’, which was not a breach of international law, though crimes were determined to be agisnt humanity.

• John Mann says the trials were structured so as to not embarrass the Allies.

• Ignored the USSR’s Nazi-Soviet Pact, invasion of Poland and Finland, Katyn massacre,

• Italy ended the war as an ally, so its crimes were overlooked.

• Biggest hypocrisy was accusing Germany in their invasion of Poland, (ignore USSR’s) Germany was held accountable for breaking a Treaty when it invaded Russia (Russians were not held accountable for making the Nazi Soviet Pact.

• Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin had agreed on the terms of the trials in the London Charter 1943.

• A generation of people had subscribed to Nazism, presumably those who benefitted from the regime outweighed opponents.

• Post-war information from the medical experiments carried out was declassified, providing valuable information to military, pharmaceutical companies. Big ethical consideration.

Reasons for Allied Victory

Intro:

• British effort from the air, America’s phenomenal production, the USSR’s effort from the ground and to some extent German leadership.

Air

• Historians contend postulate Allied control of the air paramount importance to victory. War proceeded years after Battle of Britain. Really a stalemate followed; Hitler had failed to defeat Britain, Britain too weak to assert dominance in the air.

• No evidence 4 effectiveness of the Allied air-campaign until 1944 during the “big week” campaign on all known German aircraft production plants. Moiser instead suggests loss of German territories where key industry and resources were housed, like the Romanian oil fields, and the heavy industry in Bohemia and France. Says it was not due to the efforts of the air – or ground, alone.

• Overy: Western Allies’ bombing campaigns compensated for their efforts on the ground by diverting manpower and military equipment from the East. Western air-campaign tied one million German soldiers up in anti-aircraft defence.

• Davies still remains sceptical of the decisiveness saying the Strategic Bombing Offensive did not destroy German economy/morale. Insinuates Overy is compensating for the insignificant efforts of the Western Allies in comparison to the scale of the Russia’s contributions by linking it to the success of the campaign in the air and sea. Germany held out against bombardment and blockade for years. Effective in conjunction with ground forces; bombing the civilian population of Dresden useless but it was for the advancing German army.

East

• Valentin Falin says Western public opinion accepts the USSR played a secondary role. Ignorant to dismiss Western and just as equally Eastern bias; Stalin propagated the idea of a “Great Patriotic War”.

• Russians would’ve fallen short of resources without the US Lend-Lease Act, and would have faced the full brunt of German air-force without the RAF’s support. Complimentary nature of Allied victory.

• 93% of German casualties occurred on the Soviet front. Communist Party’s coercion responsible for the effectiveness of the Russian war-effort, perhaps Churchill focused on the triumphs of democracy in his writing (of Normandy) omitting the Soviets’ advance from the East because Stalin’s Communist regime may well have saved British democracy.

• In July 1943 when the Americans first landed in Sicily the Red Army was “breaking the Wehrmacht’s back” (Davies) at Kursk. Davies’ biased working as a specialist in Eastern Europe, but Churchill; “tore the guts out of the German army.” Specifically referred to Stalingrad. Stalingrad proved to the Allies (& historians) that the Red Army was of immense assistance. If Hitler wasn’t spread across two fronts this situation would have suited his Blitzkrieg tactics he would’ve intensified his forces on one front to achieve a smashing breakthrough, evidence of the combined nature of the Allied War effort.

America

• West nearly collapsed in summer of 1940 after the evacuation of Dunkirk, not until assistance arrived from the USA did it look hopeful. Saved from bankruptcy.

• It was their post-war emergence at the top of a new world order that perhaps instils this bias maybe America’s limited early presence on the battlefield was beneficial, because as its production of goods was greater than its deployment of troops a surplus of resources accumulated; which Britain became dependent upon (they were bankrupt otherwise) and the USSR found useful.

• America’s benefit to the Russian’s war-effort is not as easy to gauge, as the Red Army had already gained the upper hand on the Eastern Front before American troops arrived in 1943, by this time Davies says the Russians nearly had control of the Eastern Front.

• Statistically one even remains sceptical of how beneficial the American production was to Russia, for example in 1944 Russia produced 28 963 tanks and America 17 565. The combination of the USSR’s industrial might early in the war and later from the USA achieved a high overall level of mechanization in the Allied forces; whereas the Wehrmacht still utilized 1.25 million horses as transport.

• America’s involvement only possible because of victory in Battle of Atlantic. America’s air craft carrier’s and transporters would not have been able to intervene in Europe, Germany would have had access to trading routes, Brittan would have been totally isolated.

• Compensated for the small Russian fleet and the enemy Vichy French. Admiral Donitz outmatched by America’s sheer production, building more ships than he could sink with 200 U-boats. Typifies the exponential growth of their industry.

• Russia’s vast army compensated for the late arrival of American troops and their modest numbers, the Western air campaign slowly crippled Hitler’s industries whilst America’s steadily wound up; and in turn the air campaign could not have been financed without the Lend-Lease Act and the superior level of technology in the Russian forces compared to the Wehrmacht may not have been achieved.

German Leadership

• B. H. Liddell Hart concluded that the older leaders who had remained since 1919 were efficient though looked down-upon new ideas, whereas Hitler was able to exploit innovative thinking though liable to make silly mistakes.

• Rather than compliment each other, Liddell Hart speculates that clashes of opinion between leaders were actually more responsible for Germany’s demise than any actual errors of opinion.

• German General’s dependence upon Hitler because of impressive early victories. Did not have prepare for adverse developments in Hitler’s planning – most notably for the unbearable Russian winter.

• Hitler’s monopoly of power neglected local initiative; evidenced in his infamous refusal to give General Paulus at Stalingrad and Rommel in El Alamein the option of withdrawal.

Conclusion:

• “England provided the time, America provided the money, and Russia provided the blood.” – Stalin.

• No individual reason can be attributed to Germany’s loss. The conflict in Europe was far to complex, and combined with the bias of nationality or victory which inescapably permeates historiography one can not isolate a reason in singularity.

• Only conclusion one could reasonable draw is that ultimately it was “a shared victory”.

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