Chapter 02 – History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences



NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION CONTENT STANDARDS

REFERENCE:

National Research Council, (1999). National Science Education Standards. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

Charted here are the science education content standards covered in Chapter 2, History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences. As a result of activities provided for high school science students in this part of the curriculum, the content of the standard identified below by a check (√) is to be understood or the abilities are to be developed by the student.

|CHAPTER 2 NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION CONTENT STANDARDS, GRADES 9-12 |

|Unifying Concepts |Science as Inquiry |Physical Science |Life Science |

|and Processes | | | |

| Systems, order, and |Abilities necessary to do | Structure of atoms | The cell |

|organization |scientific inquiry | | |

|Evidence, models, and |Understandings about scientific | Structure and properties of | Molecular basis of heredity |

|explanation |inquiry |matter | |

|Change, constancy, and | | Chemical reactions | Biological evolution |

|measurement | | | |

| Evolution and equilibrium | | Motions and forces | Interdependence of organisms |

| Form and function | | Conservation of energy and | Matter, energy, and organization|

| | |increase in disorder |in living systems |

| | | Interactions of energy and | Behavior of organisms |

| | |matter | |

|Earth and Space |Science and Technology |Science in Personal and Social |History and Nature |

|Science | |Perspectives |of Science |

| Energy in the Earth system |Abilities of technological | Personal and community health |Science as a human endeavor |

| |design | | |

| Geochemical cycles |Understandings about science and| Population growth |Nature of scientific knowledge |

| |technology | | |

| Origin and evolution of the | |Natural resources |Historical perspectives |

|Earth system | | | |

| Origin and evolution of the | | Environmental quality | |

|universe | | | |

| | | Natural and human induced | |

| | |hazards | |

| | |Science and technology in | |

| | |local, national, and global | |

| | |challenges | |

Ocean Literacy – Essential Principles and Fundamental COncepts

REFERENCE: WWW.OCEANLITERACY.

Charted here are the Ocean Literacy: Essential Principles and Fundamental Concepts introduced or covered in Chapter 2, Life on an Ocean Planet. Those principles and fundamental concepts checked (√) below should be understood by the student.

For complete text of all the Fundamental Concepts under each Principle, see Section Two of this guide.

|Chapter 2 Correlation to Ocean Literacy: |

|Essential Principles and Fundamental Concepts |

|Principle 1 |Principle 2 |Principle 3 |Principle 4 |Principle 5 |Principle 6 |Principle 7 |

|Fundamental |Fundamental |Fundamental |Fundamental |Fundamental |Fundamental |Fundamental |

|Concepts |Concepts |Concepts |Concepts |Concepts |Concepts |Concepts |

CHAPTER SCOPE AND SEQUENCING

[pic]

|CHAPTER SCOPE AND SEQUENCE FOR PLANNING: |

|HISTORY OF OCEAN EXPLORATION AND MARINE SCIENCES |

|ACTIVITY |TOPIC |TIME ELEMENT |

|I. THE HISTORY OF OCEANOGRAPHY – WHY STUDY IT? |.3 HOURS |

|II. ANCIENT USES AND EXPLORATIONS (5000 B.C.-800 A.D.) |2.4 HOURS |

|LECTURE |A. PREHISTORY AND THE RISE OF SEAFARING |15 MINUTES |

|LECTURE |B. ANCIENT PHOENICIAN EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES |15 MINUTES |

|LECTURE |C. ANCIENT POLYNESIAN EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES |20 MINUTES |

|LECTURE |D. ANCIENT GREEK EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERIES |20 MINUTES |

|LECTURE |E. THE LATITUDE/LONGITUDE SYSTEM |30 MINUTES |

|LABORATORY/ACTIVITY #1 |STICKS AND STONES |TWO 20-30 MINUTE PERIODS |

| | |ON SEPARATE DAYS |

|III. THE MIDDLE AGES (800 A.D.-1400) |1.4 HOURS |

|LECTURE |A. THE EUROPEAN MIDDLE AGES |20 MINUTES |

|LECTURE |B. VIKING EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES |15 MINUTES |

|LECTURE |C. CHINESE EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES |15 MINUTES |

|LABORATORY/ACTIVITY #2 |NAVIGATION IN THE MIDDLE AGES |50 MINUTES |

|IV. EUROPEAN VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY (1400-1700) |2.0 HOURS |

|LECTURE |A. THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES AND A ROUTE AROUND AFRICA |15 MINUTES |

|LECTURE |B. EXPLORATION OF THE NEW WORLD |15 MINUTES |

|LABORATORY/ACTIVITY #3 |EUROPEAN VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY: PLANNING A RESEARCH EXPEDITION |TWO 30-45 MINUTE PERIODS, |

| | |PLUS HOMEWORK TIME |

|V. THE BIRTH OF MARINE SCIENCE (1700-1900) |1.15 HOURS |

|LECTURE |A. COOK’S EXPEDITIONS |20 MINUTES |

|LECTURE |B. THE UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITION |15 MINUTES |

|LECTURE |C. MATTHEW MAURY-FATHER OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY |15 MINUTES |

|LECTURE |D. DARWIN AND THE H.M.S. BEAGLE |10 MINUTES |

|LECTURE |E. THE CHALLENGER EXPEDITION |15 MINUTES |

|VI. TWENTIETH-CENTURY MARINE SCIENCE |3.3 HOURS |

|LECTURE |A. THE OCEANOGRAPHY EXPLOSION |15 MINUTES |

|LECTURE |B. THREE EXPEDITIONS |15 MINUTES |

|LECTURE |C. SUBMERSIBLES AND SELF-CONTAINED DIVING |45 MINUTES |

|LECTURE |D. ROVS, AUVS, DRIFTERS, SATELLITES AND ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION |45 MINUTES |

|LABORATORY/ACTIVITY #4 |LIVING AND WORKING UNDERWATER |TWO 30-45 MINUTE PERIODS |

| | |PLUS HOMEWORK TIME |

|UNDERWATER EXPLORATION HISTORICAL TIMELINE |.2 HOURS |

LEARNING OUTCOMES

• WHAT ARE THREE REASONS TO LEARN THE HISTORY OF OCEANOGRAPHY?

▪ What are four main stages in the history of oceanography?

▪ What were the three primary reasons for early civilization to interact with the ocean?

▪ When was the first recorded sea voyage, and by what civilization?

▪ What did the Phoenicians contribute to ocean exploration?

▪ What was the significance of early Polynesian seafaring?

▪ How did ancient explorers navigate near shore and in the open ocean?

▪ What major ocean discovery is credited to the Greek Pytheas?

▪ What two major contributions are credited to the Greek Eratosthenes?

▪ What were the significances of the maps of Herodotus, Strabo, and Ptolemy?

▪ What is the purpose of the latitude and longitude mapping system?

▪ What is a parallel? What is another name for the 0° parallel? What is a meridian? Through what city does the 0° meridian run?

▪ What effect did the Middle Ages have on the knowledge of geography and science?

▪ What climate change affected Scandinavia in the 9th century? What was the significance of this change to exploration?

▪ By the year 1125, the Chinese were responsible for inventing what important navigational tool?

▪ What two technological innovations did Chinese ships have by the mid 1400s?

▪ What were the primary motivations that led to the ocean explorations of the 15th century?

▪ What three explorers established the route around the Cape of Good Hope to India?

▪ What was the purpose of Christopher Columbus’ four expeditions?

▪ Who is credited as being the first European to recognize that South America was a new continent?

▪ What was Vasco Nuñez de Balboa’s accomplishment?

▪ Who led the first expedition around the world? Over what years did the voyage take place?

▪ Who led the second expedition around the world? Over what years did the voyage take place?

▪ In what way did the voyages of James Cook differ from those of sea explorers before him?

▪ What invention in 1735 was a major breakthrough for open ocean navigation?

▪ What geographical discoveries did the Cook expeditions make?

▪ Which continent did the United States’ Exploring Expedition prove exists?

▪ Why do we remember Matthew Maury as the father of physical oceanography?

▪ How did Charles Darwin explain the formation of coral reefs?

▪ What theory did Darwin propose as a result of his observations during the H.M.S. Beagle expedition?

▪ What expedition is commonly recognized as the first devoted entirely to marine science?

▪ What accomplishments and discoveries did the H.M.S. Challenger make?

▪ What change led to the growth and expansion of modern oceanography in the 20th century?

▪ For what accomplishment do we recognize the German Meteor expedition?

▪ What was the significance of the Atlantis?

▪ What noted discovery did the second H.M.S. Challenger expedition make?

▪ How have submersibles and self-contained diving changed the study of the ocean?

▪ What are the three types of submersible that have been used for underwater research?

▪ What are the advantages and disadvantages of submersibles and scuba?

▪ What is the difference between an ROV and an AUV?

▪ How do drifters send their information to marine scientists and what type of information do they collect?

▪ What are three types of sea surface observations that satellites can make to benefit oceanographers?

▪ How have Loran-C and GPS benefited seafaring and oceanography?

MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES

THE FOLLOWING MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES ARE INCLUDED AS SUGGESTIONS FOR CREATING INTEREST AND CURIOSITY, FOR PROVIDING RELEVANCE OF THE CONTENT, FOR MAKING CONNECTIONS BETWEEN PAST AND PRESENT LEARNING EXPERIENCES, AND FOR PROVIDING CONTEXT FOR THE LESSONS.

Questions to Elicit Prior Student Knowledge

To engage students and assess students’ prior knowledge of the overall chapter content and to guide their learning, you may want to ask these questions before launching into each core chapter topic.

|QUESTIONS TO ELICIT PRIOR STUDENT KNOWLEDGE |

|Topic |Question |

|The History of Oceanography – Why Study |What can we gain from learning about the history of oceanography? |

|It? | |

|Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 |How were the oceans important to early societies? |

|B.C.-800 A.D.) | |

|The Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400) |Europeans did little exploration during the Middle Ages, but there were other |

| |societies which advanced ocean science. Who did exploration at this time? |

|European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700) |What were the primary motives for European voyages of discovery? How did competition |

| |between European nations influence history? |

|The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900) |What kinds of data did scientists in the 1700’s and 1800’s collect? What instrument |

| |did they have? |

|Twentieth-Century Marine Science |How did the technology of the twentieth century change marine science? What social |

| |events influenced marine studies and technology at this time? |

Marine Career Discussion

In this chapter students learn about being a maritime archeologist as well as the study of people and their interactions with the sea. Shipwrecks and other archaeological sites attract peoples’ interest. Preserving these sites and artifacts, either underwater or in museums, allows people to experience them and to gain a better understanding of history. John D. Broadwater, PhD, has participated in many challenging and rewarding underwater excavations. Dr. Broadwater’s work allows him to touch history and to learn the stories that only shipwrecks can tell. A solid understanding of all branches of science and math helps him put all the pieces of history he finds together.

As students study this chapter, have them take note of the skills needed to be a maritime archaeologist like Dr. Broadwater. Have them think about how uncovering stories of the past influence what society does in the present and the future. When and how did the study of marine science begin? How has conquest, trade, exploration, science, and technology played a role in the past to developing the study of oceanography as known today?

Mind Capture Demonstration

This teacher demonstration may be used to introduce this chapter or different parts of the chapter, or may be used as a team inquiry-based activity.

History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Sciences – Introduce students to snorkeling and the sport of scuba diving.

a. Have a local scuba diving facility staff member present the wonders of snorkeling and scuba diving to your students. Make sure facility staff members bring snorkeling and diving equipment to show students. Most scuba diving facilities will also have historical pieces of dive equipment on hand.

b. If a scuba diver yourself, explain and show students the equipment necessary to snorkel and dive safely.

c. Ask if any of the students are snorkelers or divers; allow students to present to the class individually or in groups.

EXPECTATIONS / STUDENT CONDUCT

✓ STUDENTS MAY BE INVOLVED IN GUIDED DISCUSSION AS THE TEACHER EXPLAINS THE CONTENT OF THE CHAPTER THROUGH A TEACHER-LED PRESENTATION. STUDENTS WILL BE EXPECTED TO RESPOND TO QUESTIONS, ASK QUESTIONS, TAKES NOTES, DRAW AND LABEL DIAGRAMS.

✓ Students may study the chapter individually as they read and respond to questions.

✓ Students may work in collaborative teams as they conduct inquiry-based activities and work on specific enrichment experiences and assessments.

✓ Students should start each chapter by familiarizing themselves with the chapter vocabulary and morphemes list. Students may develop a chapter concept map using the vocabulary list. This initial concept map can be compared with a summative concept map to determine what learning has taken place and whether misconceptions remain.

VOCABULARY

• AQUALUNG (P. 2-55)

▪ bathyscaphe (p. 2-37)

▪ bathysphere (p. 2-36)

▪ caisson disease (p. 2-53)

▪ cartographer (p. 2-24)

▪ chronometer (p. 2-23)

▪ circumnavigation (p. 2-22)

▪ decompression (p. 2-41)

▪ decompression sickness (p. 2-41)

▪ decompression stops (p. 2-41)

▪ equator (p. 2-12)

▪ fauna (p. 2-27)

▪ flora (p. 2-27)

▪ genera (p. 2-31)

▪ Global Positioning System (GPS) (p. 2-47)

▪ hard-hat diving (p. 2-38)

▪ heliox (p. 2-53)

▪ Loran-C (p. 2-46)

▪ meridians (p. 2-13)

▪ outrigger (p. 2-7)

▪ parallels (p. 2-12)

▪ piloting (p. 2-9)

▪ Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) (p. 2-43)

▪ submersible (p. 2-14)

Morphemes

• A – NOT, WITHOUT

▪ anthrop – human

▪ anthropo – jointed

▪ bi – two, twice, both

▪ bio – life, biology

▪ chloro – green

▪ cyan – dark blue

▪ cyte – cell

▪ deca – ten

▪ eco – environment, ecology

▪ endo – in, within, inside

▪ entomo – insect

▪ exo – outside, external

▪ extremo – severe

▪ gastro – stomach, belly

▪ geo – earth, soil

▪ micro – small, requiring magnification

▪ photo – light, radiant energy

▪ phyto – plant

▪ pneum – air, gas

▪ poda – having a foot

▪ poly – more than one

▪ sub – under, beneath, subdivision

▪ super – a more inclusive group or category

TEACHING CHAPTER 2

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY – TEACHER LED PRESENTATION EXPLORATION THROUGH DISCUSSION

HISTORY OF OCEAN EXPLORATION AND MARINE SCIENCES

I. THE HISTORY OF OCEANOGRAPHY-WHY STUDY IT?

Reference the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) SciLinks Service

Topic: History of Oceanography

Go To:

Code: LOP2020

By the end of this section, students will be able to answer these questions:

1. What are three reasons to learn the history of oceanography?

2. What are the four main stages in the history of oceanography?

1. The history of oceanography is connected to the general history of the world. Our knowledge and use of the ocean influences, and is influenced by commerce, warfare, world resources, and weather patterns.

Guided discussion question(s): Pick a point in history and discuss why people would want to know about the ocean. Bring up travel for trade, advantages in warfare, or the procurement of fish for food.

What are three reasons to learn the history of oceanography?

2. Want to learn the history of oceanography because:

a. It is connected to the world’s overall history. Understanding the history of oceanography is part of understanding how the ocean shaped the past and may shape the future.

b. It helps you understand how current research questions developed, and how and why people apply marine sciences today.

c. It is interesting. Oceanography grew out of humanity’s desire to explore and discover. It’s about people, not the ocean and test tubes.

Guided discussion question(s): Pick a major historical event and discuss the role(s) played by the ocean. You might choose a military event, like the Boston Tea Party, or an example of exploration, or trade, such as the movement of spices to Europe from China.

What are the four main stages in the history of oceanography?

3 The history of oceanography can be divided into four main stages based on both time and the approach people took in learning about the ocean. They are:

a. Ancient uses and explorations

b. The Middle Ages

c. European voyages of discovery

d. The birth of marine science

II. Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)

By the end of this section, students will be able to answer these questions:

1. What were the three primary reasons for early civilization to interact with the ocean?

2. When was the first recorded sea voyage, and by what civilization?

3. What did the Phoenicians contribute to ocean exploration?

4. What was the significance of early Polynesian seafaring?

5. How did ancient explorers navigate near shore and in the open ocean?

6. What major ocean discovery is credited to the Greek Pytheas?

7. What two major contributions are credited to the Greek Eratosthenes?

8. What were the significances of the maps of Herodotus, Strabo, and Ptolemy?

9. What is the purpose of the latitude and longitude mapping system?

10. What is a parallel? What is another name for the 0° parallel?

11. What is a meridian? Through what city does the 0° meridian run?

A. Prehistory and the Rise of Seafaring

What were the three primary reasons for early civilization to interact with the ocean?

1. The first ocean exploration wasn’t recorded, but archaeological evidence suggests three reasons for early civilization to interact with the ocean:

a. The first was probably to search for food.

b. Trade with other cultures was a second reason.

c. The third reason for early voyages was discovery of new lands.

When was the first recorded sea voyage, and by what civilization?

2. The earliest recorded sea voyage is from 3200 B.C., when Egyptian Pharaoh Snefru brought ships from Phoenicia to Egypt. This suggests that by about 3200 B.C. sea voyages were already commonplace.

B. Ancient Phoenician Explorations and Discoveries

What did the Phoenicians contribute to ocean exploration?

1. Archaeological evidence of shipwrecks in the region probably predates the Phoenician culture itself.

2. Trade motivated much of this trade along the North African Mediterranean coast.

3. The Phoenicians contributed to ocean exploration by establishing the first trade routes. Phoenician trade routes ranged throughout the Mediterranean and as far as Great Britain, but stayed within sight of land, using landmarks by day and stars at night to mark their course.

C. Ancient Polynesian Explorations and Discoveries

Reference the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) SciLinks Service

Topic: Navigation

Go To:

Code: LOP2025

What was the significance of early Polynesian seafaring?

1. Archaeologists think that Polynesian watercraft were similar to dugout canoes, and were propelled by sails and paddles. Outriggers provided stability.

2. On long voyages, two boats were lashed together with crossbeams and a deck.

3. Polynesian voyages of up to 3,200 kilometers (2000 miles) were carried out between 2000 B.C. and 500 B.C., the earliest long distance open ocean travel.

4. These voyages allowed the settlement of islands spread out over about 26 million square kilometers over a period spanning about 1,000 years.

5. The significance of these voyages is that they were the first regular, open ocean long distance voyages beyond the sight of land.

D. Ancient Greek Exploration and Discoveries

How did ancient explorers navigate near shore and in the open ocean?

1. Early ancient explorers stayed within sight of land and used visible landmarks to mark their course, in a method known as piloting, still used by boaters today.

2. Later, as explorers ventured out of sight of land, the sun, constellations, and even cloud formations helped guide open ocean explorers. They may have also used birds and perhaps even smell to learn when they were close to land.

3. The ancient Greeks were the first primary civilization to apply mathematics to navigation. They produced sophisticated maps and recognized that the world was spherical, even though the information was “lost” during the Middle Ages.

What major ocean discovery is credited to the Greek Pytheas?

4. The Greek Pytheas is credited with discovering how to determine north-south position using the angle of the North Star above the horizon. This was one of many mathematical applications the Greeks developed for navigation. He also discovered the connection between lunar cycle and tides in the Atlantic.

What two major contributions are credited to the Greek Eratosthenes?

5. Eratosthenes calculated the Earth’s circumference, and invented the latitude/longitude system. His system was irregular because he altered the lines to go through important landmarks. Later, Hipparchus invented the regular grid system in use today.

Guided discussion question(s): North-south position, or latitude, can be determined using the North Star or the angle of the sun. Ask students if longitude can be determined as easily. In discussion, tell them that due to the Earth’s rotation, longitude can’t be determined unless the precise time is known. Ask students how the need to determine longitude in seafaring may have contributed to time keeping technology. Explain that longitude couldn’t be determined until sailors had a clock that could keep accurate time on board a ship. This didn’t happen until many centuries later, as students will see later in the chapter.

What were the significances of the maps of Herodotus, Strabo, and Ptolemy?

6. Herodotus published a map that was one of the earliest maps of the world known by the Greeks. No originals remain, but it is has been reconstructed from descriptions.

7. Strabo the Greek historian published a 17-book work called Geographic, describing the peoples known by the Greeks, along with a map. It demonstrated the Greek’s expanding knowledge and accuracy about the world.

8. Ptolemy published a map depicting the Earth as a sphere that was significant because it improved upon Hipparchus’ latitude/longitude system. It divided the grid into degrees, minutes, and seconds of arc, as used today. None of his maps have survived, but recreations have been made from descriptions.

E. The Latitude / Longitude System

What is the purpose of the latitude and longitude mapping system?

1. The purpose of the latitude/longitude grid is to identify specific locations on the Earth, even in the absence of landmarks.

What is a parallel? What is another name for the 0° parallel?

2. Latitude lines run east and west and are known as parallels because they never intersect and are equidistant.

a. The parallel called the equator is 0º and encircles the widest part of the Earth. The parallels at each pole are 90º.

b. Each degree is subdivided into 60 minutes, with minutes subdivided into 60 seconds.

c. Latitudes north of the equator are designated “north latitude,” and those south of the equator as “south” latitude.

Stress to students that they must include “north” or “south” when giving latitudes.

What is a meridian? Through what city does the 0° meridian run?

3. Longitude lines run north and south, and are known as meridians.

a. They originate (and converge) at the north and south poles.

b. The prime meridian (0º longitude) runs through Greenwich England.

c. From the prime meridian, lines of longitude to the east are known as east longitude, and to the west, west longitude.

d. East and west longitude meet at 180º longitude, directly opposite of the prime meridian.

Stress to students that they must include “east” or “west” when giving longitudes.

III. The Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400)

By the end of this section, students will be able to answer these questions:

1. What effect did the Middle Ages have on the knowledge of geography and science?

2. What climate change affected Scandinavia in the 9th century? What was the significance of this change to exploration?

3. By the year 1125, the Chinese were responsible for inventing what important navigational tool?

4. What two technological innovations did Chinese ships have by the mid 1400s?

A. The European Middle Ages

What effect did the Middle Ages have on the knowledge of geography and science?

1. Decline of the Roman Empire broke Europe into many isolated communities.

a. This breakup hindered communication of scientific discoveries and knowledge.

b. The Catholic Church rose to power, which may have influenced the communication of scientific discoveries.

Guided discussion question(s): The ancient Greeks recognized the Earth is a sphere, but during the Middle Ages, most people believed it was flat. Discuss with students what changes had to take place for such a change in beliefs, stressing the role of education and communication.

2. Education became much less common, and many scholarly works were lost because few people could read them.

3. There was little ocean exploration, except by the Vikings.

B. Viking Explorations and Discoveries

What climate change affected Scandinavia in the 9th century? What was the significance of this change to exploration?

1. In the 9th century, a warming global climate freed the North Atlantic Ice.

2. This allowed the Vikings to explore westward. The Vikings discovered Iceland and Greenland.

3. Eventually, Leif Eriksson landed in North America at Newfoundland, Canada.

C. Chinese Explorations and Discoveries

By the year 1125, the Chinese were responsible for inventing what important navigational tool?

1. Though aware of magnetism much earlier, the Chinese invented the compass in around 1000 A.D. It came into use for seafaring shortly afterward.

What two technological innovations did Chinese ships have by the mid 1400s?

2. By the mid 1400s, Chinese ships were being built with central rudders and watertight compartments, both of which are used in modern ships.

IV. European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)

By the end of this section, students will be able to answer these questions:

1. What were the primary motivations that led to the ocean explorations of the 15th century?

2. What three explorers established the route around the Cape of Good Hope to India?

3. What was the purpose of Christopher Columbus’ four expeditions?

4. Who is credited as being the first European to recognize that South America was a new continent?

5. What was Vasco Nunez de Balboa’s accomplishment?

6. Who led the first expedition around the world? Over what years did the voyage take place?

7. Who led the second expedition around the world? Over what years did the voyage take place?

A. The End of the Middle Ages and a Route Around Africa

1. The 1400s marked the birth of the Renaissance period.

a. There was new interest in discovery and education.

b. Principles and science known by the Greeks, Romans, and others were rediscovered in Europe.

What were the primary motivations that led to the ocean explorations of the 15th century?

2. Economics, politics, and religion were primary motives for long ocean voyages.

What three explorers established the route around the Cape of Good Hope to India?

3. Europeans sought a route around Africa to India for trade purposes.

a. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal mapped the west coast of Africa in the early 1400s.

b. Bartholomeu Dias completed the first voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1487.

c. Vasco da Gama led the first expedition around the Cape of Good Hope to India ten years later.

B. Exploration of the New World

What was the purpose of Christopher Columbus’ four expeditions?

1. Like other explorers of the time, Columbus was seeking a route to Asia for trade with Europe.

a. Columbus’ estimate of the world’s size was too small because he used Ptolemy’s estimates. This is why he thought he could reach India easier by sailing west instead of sailing east.

b. When he landed on a Caribbean island, he thought he’d reached India. It was later realized he’d found a continent unknown to Europeans.

Who is credited as being the first European to recognize that South America was a new continent?

2. After Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci made several voyages to South America, recognizing it as a new continent, which was named in his honor.

What was Vasco Nunez de Balboa’s accomplishment?

3. Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama, becoming the first European to discover and sail in the Pacific Ocean.

Who led the first expedition around the world? Over what years did the voyage take place?

4. In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan set sail to circumnavigate the world.

a. He started the voyage with five ships and 260 men.

b. A single ship and eighteen surviving men completed the trip in 1522, without Magellan, who died in the Philippines. The low survival rate discouraged further attempts to sail around the world for more than 50 years.

Who led the second expedition around the world? Over what years did the voyage take place?

5. Francis Drake completed the second circumnavigation of the world.

a. The expedition left England in 1577 to raid Spanish ships and settlements.

b. He returned to the west to avoid capture by the Spanish, landing in England in 1580.

V. The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)

By the end of this section, students will be able to answer these questions:

1. In what way did the voyages of James Cook differ from those of sea explorers before him?

2. What invention in 1735 was a major breakthrough for open ocean navigation?

3. What geographical discoveries did the Cook expeditions make?

4. Which continent did the United States Exploring Expedition prove exists?

5. Why do we remember Matthew Maury as the father of physical oceanography?

6. How did Charles Darwin explain the formation of coral reefs?

7. What theory did Darwin propose as a result of his observations during the H.M.S. Beagle expedition?

8. What expedition is commonly recognized as the first devoted entirely to marine science?

9. What accomplishments and discoveries did the H.M.S. Challenger make?

A. Cook’s Expeditions

In what way did the voyages of James Cook differ from those of sea explorers before him?

1. Cook’s expeditions differed from previous sea expeditions because they were launched with science and exploration as their only goals.

What invention in 1735 was a major breakthrough for open ocean navigation?

2. The chronometer, an accurate clock invented in 1735 allowed the determination of longitude at sea, enabling sailors to determine their exact position.

Guided discussion question: Discuss the inset on 2-25 of the chapter. The reward offered for discovering a means to find exact longitude at sea was the equivalent of $12 million in today’s currency. What would students suggest as an accomplishment worthy of a similar reward today? Use this discussion to focus on how economics and needs help drive the quest for scientific discovery.

What geographical discoveries did the Cook expeditions make?

3. As an agent of the British Royal Navy, one of Cook’s orders was to attempt to discover the unknown southern continent, assumed to exist at the time.

a. Cook discovered many islands and explored Australia, but concluded it wasn’t the southern continent assumed to exist.

b. He never found Antarctica, despite several attempts.

c. Cook died in the Hawaiian Islands after a failed attempt to find a Northwest Passage connecting the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean north of present day Canada. His contributions were extraordinary, and changed the western view of the world significantly.

B. The United States Exploring Expedition

1. Authorized by Congress in 1836, the expedition of six ships explored the southern ocean for almost four years.

a. Both coasts of South America, the west coast of the United States, and many southern Islands were among the lands explored.

b. Nineteen volumes of maps, texts, and illustrations were included in a final report that documented expedition discoveries.

Which continent did the United States Exploring Expedition prove exists?

2. The expedition landed on Antarctica, proving its existence.

C. Matthew Maury: Father of Physical Oceanography

Why do we remember Matthew Maury as the father of physical oceanography?

1. During the period of the United States Exploring Expedition, Maury became established as an authority on ocean exploration and science.

2. As superintendent of the Navy’s Depot of Charts and Instruments, he published research on oceanography and meteorology.

a. He presented his system for recording oceanographic data at an international conference, leading to its adoption worldwide.

b. He envisioned a worldwide pattern for winds and currents that could be used to make sailing more efficient.

c. In 1855, he published The Physical Geography of the Sea, considered the first textbook on modern physical oceanography.

D. Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle

How did Charles Darwin explain the formation of coral reefs?

1. Darwin’s five year voyage provided the observations he used to conclude that coral reefs form by growing upward as the sea floor sinks.

a. He noted that coral only grows in the shallow, upper zone of seawater, but coral reefs extended much deeper than this zone.

What theory did Darwin propose as a result of his observations during the H.M.S. Beagle expedition?

2. Darwin’s observations, particularly in the Galapagos Islands, led him to formulate his theories of natural selection and evolution, creating a revolution in the field of biology

Guided discussion question: How did the fact that Darwin visited so many islands, and especially the Galapagos, contribute to his theories on evolution and natural selection? Guide students to conclude that the limited number of species seen on most islands makes observations of adaptations to suit the environment easier to identify. Were Darwin studying in areas of rich biodiversity, he may not have reached the same conclusions.

E. The Challenger Expedition

What expedition is commonly recognized as the first devoted entirely to marine science?

1. The H.M.S. Challenger Expedition, launched in 1872, was the first voyage launched solely for marine science.

2. The converted warship, commanded by Charles Wyville Thomson and Sir John Murray, collected physical, geological, chemical, and biological oceanographic data throughout its four year mission. The report took over 23 years to complete, and filled 50 volumes.

What accomplishments and discoveries did the H.M.S. Challenger make?

3. The Challenger discovered the Marianas Trench and Mid-Atlantic Ridge, among many other discoveries highlighted below.

a. First soundings deeper than 4,000 meters.

b. Captured biological specimens from midwater and the bottom using towed devices.

c. Discovered marine organisms in the deepest parts of the ocean.

d. Sampled plankton from locations not previously studied.

e. Identified 715 new genera and 4,717 new species.

4. NASA’s space shuttle Challenger was named in its honor. All NASA space shuttles are named for famous exploring ships.

VI. Twentieth-Century Marine Science

By the end of this section, students will be able to answer these questions:

1. What change led to the growth and expansion of modern oceanography in the 20th century?

2. For what accomplishment do we recognize the German Meteor expedition?

3. What was the significance of the Atlantis?

4. What noted discovery did the second H.M.S. Challenger make?

5. How have submersibles and self-contained diving changed the study of the ocean?

6. What are the three types of submersible that have been used for underwater research?

7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of submersibles and scuba?

8. What is the difference between an ROV and an AUV?

9. How do drifters send their information to marine scientists and what type of information do they collect?

10. What are the three types of sea surface observations that satellites can make to benefit oceanographers?

11. How have Loran-C and GPS benefited seafaring and oceanography?

A. The Oceanography Explosion

Reference the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) SciLinks Service

Topic: Ocean Research

Go To:

Code: LOP2010

What change led to the growth and expansion of modern oceanography in the 20th century?

1. The spread of the Industrial Revolution lead to increased oceanographic study.

a. Steam engines and iron ships revolutionized ocean transportation.

b. The diesel engine, electric motor, and lead-acid battery made useful submarines possible.

2. Increased economic development and warfare also motivated oceanographic research.

B. Three Expeditions

For what accomplishment do we recognize the German Meteor expedition?

1. Beginning in 1925, the Meteor expedition crossed the Atlantic 14 times in just over two years.

a. They collected temperature, salinity, and depth information that established patterns of circulation in the Atlantic.

b. They used 67,400 echo-soundings to create the first detailed ocean floor map.

What was the significance of the Atlantis?

2. The U.S.S. Atlantis was the first ship specifically designed and built for ocean studies, and built upon the studies of the Meteor beginning in 1931.

What noted discovery did the second H.M.S. Challenger expedition make?

3. The Challenger II expedition launched in 1951, located the deepest known spot in the ocean within the Marianas trench, approximately 11,000 meters (36,000 feet) deep, named Challenger Deep in honor of the first Challenger expedition.

C. Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving

Reference the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) SciLinks Service

Topic:

Submarines and Undersea Technology

Go To:

Code: LOP2030

How have submersibles and self-contained diving changed the study of the ocean?

1. Submersibles allow scientists to select samples visually instead of blindly grabbing them, and allow direct observation of undersea phenomena.

What are the three types of submersible that have been used for underwater research?

2. Bathyspheres, bathyscaphes, and submersibles have been used to explore the deep.

a. Bathyspheres are simple sealed spheres suspended by a cable. They are no longer used.

b. Bathyscaphes are untethered craft that function like an underwater blimp, using incompressible gasoline to provide floatation and ballast weights that can be dropped to ascend. The bathyscaphe Trieste is the only vessel to ever have visited the bottom of Challenger Deep.

c. Deep-diving submersibles have replaced bathyspheres and bathyscaphes.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of submersibles and scuba?

3. Self-contained diving began to assume modern form in the mid-1800s, with the development of diving helmets that supplied the diver with air from the surface.

4. The first practical scuba system was developed by Jacques Cousteau and Emile Gagnan in 1943, and became the basis for the most widely used modern scuba equipment.

Guided discussion question: What types of scientific studies are most easily done by submersibles? What types of studies would be best done with scuba? Have students discuss the merits and advantages of each for specific tasks based on the job, such as archaeology of a shallow shipwreck, versus the study of deep ocean sediments.

5. Submersibles allow greater depth and long duration of dives, but are very costly, large, and require complex support from ships.

6. Scuba is simple, relatively inexpensive and quite portable, but places limits on depth and duration of the dive. Scuba also has the advantage of dexterity – the ability of the scientist to use hands for delicate tasks and procedures. Submersibles’ mechanical claws don’t presently match the the human hand.

7. Hardsuits, such as the Newt Suit, merge the technologies of scuba and submersibles, protecting the wearer from pressure but allowing almost full mobility, but they are more costly and complex than scuba.

D. ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and Electronic Navigation

Reference the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) SciLinks Service

Topic: Space Oceanography

Go To:

Code: LOP2035

What is the difference between an ROV and an AUV?

1. Technology such as electronics and space travel have provided important contributions to oceanography. These include electronic navigation, remotely operated vehicles (ROV), autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV), drifters and ocean observation satellites.

a. Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) became common in the late 1970s. A ROV is a small, unmanned submarine with propellers, video camera, and an umbilical to the surface or to a submersible. ROVs are an economical way to match the capabilities of a submersible and the dexterity of a scuba diver.

b. Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs). AUVs are untethered robotic devices propelled through the water by self-contained power systems. Piloted by an onboard computer, AUVs are launched from the surface and are maneuverable in three dimensions. Some are driften by self-contained power systems. Others use the difference in water layer temperatures to glide. AUVs sample the ocean along precise preprogrammed underwater paths.

How do drifters send their information to marine scientists and what type of information do they collect?

c. Drifters are instrument packages that measure temperature, salinity, pressure and currents. They collect information and transmit it, with their exact position, to a satellite system. Some drifters float at the surface. Others descend as deep as 2,000 meters (6,560 feet) for programmed durations, then rise to the surface to transmit their data.

What are three types of sea surface observations that satellites can make to benefit oceanographers?

2. Satellites orbit the Earth and assist oceanographers with global observations of the oceans. Satellites provide continuous measurements of variables such as surface height, shape, temperature and color, over the entire planet.

a. Satellites assist oceanographers in understanding the influence and effect of the oceans on the global climate systems.

b. Information gathered from satellites has largely replaced measurements taken directly at sea.

How have Loran-C and GPS benefited seafaring and oceanography?

3. The first electronic navigation came into use in the late 1960s. LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation), later called Loran-C, used land based radio transmitters along the coasts. However, accuracy varied with distance from the transmitters - the farther from a transmitter, the less accurate the position.

a. Loran-C changed navigation. Instead of accuracy within a kilometer, ships knew their location within a few meters. Loran-C provided navigation information 24 hours a day in all weather. It benefited seafaring by making it safer.

b. In the 1990s GPS (Global Positioning System) replaced Loran. GPS is based on signals from orbiting satellites and works everywhere on Earth, all the time, in all weather and is more accurate – to 1-2 meters (3-6 feet).

c. Electronic navigation has benefited oceanography by allowing scientists to know exactly where they are when they take samples or conduct research.

VII. Underwater Exploration Historical Timeline

You may choose to use the timeline to start a class discussion, or to assign student projects concerning particular developments or historical periods in oceanography.

Instructional Strategy – Student Self-Study Exploration Through Reading

Guide students to read and study each major topic of the chapter rather than focus on the entire chapter at one time. Before reading, focus students’ attention on the guided reading questions (green in the student textbook). These are listed here for each major topic.

For each major topic in the chapter assess students’ prior knowledge. Instruct students to construct a concept map, prior to reading, using the list of vocabulary words for each major topic of the chapter. If students need help constructing a concept map, review the directions with them.

As students read about the topic, have them answer the “Study Questions” located in the textbox on the first page of each section. After students read the section have them revise their concept maps. It may be beneficial to use a different colored pen or pencil so that students can see what they have learned from reading and where their misconceptions of the subject matter lie. If you have divided students into study groups they may share their individual concept maps with their group. Study groups may then construct a summary concept page based on the feedback of the other team members.

I. The History of Oceanography – Why Study It? Guided Reading Questions

1. What are three reasons to learn the history of oceanography?

2. What are four main stages in the history of oceanography?

Vocabulary

▪ MARITIME

[pic]

II. Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C.-800 A.D.) Guided Reading Questions

A. Prehistory and the Rise of Seafaring

1. What were the three primary reasons for early civilization to interact with the ocean?

2. When was the first recorded sea voyage, and by what civilization?

B. Ancient Phoenician Explorations and Discoveries

3. What did the Phoenicians contribute to ocean exploration?

C. Ancient Polynesian Explorations and Discoveries

4. What was the significance of early Polynesian seafaring?

D. Ancient Greek Exploration and Discoveries

5. How did ancient explorers navigate near shore and in the open ocean?

6. What major ocean discovery is credited to the Greek Pytheas?

7. What two major contributions are credited to the Greek Eratosthenes?

8. What are the significances of the maps of Herodotus, Strabo, and Ptolemy?

E. The Latitude/Longitude System

9. What is the purpose of the latitude and longitude mapping system?

10. What is a parallel? What is another name for the 0° parallel?

11. What is a meridian? Through what city does the 0° meridian run?

Vocabulary

▪ MERIDIAN

▪ navigator

▪ outrigger

▪ piloting

▪ parallel

▪ remotely operated vehicle (ROV)

▪ seafaring

▪ submersible

[pic]

III. The Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400) Guided Reading Questions

A. The European Middle Ages

1. What effect did the Middle Ages have on the knowledge of geography and science?

B. Viking Explorations and Discoveries

2. What climate change affected Scandinavia in the 9th century? What was the significance of this change to exploration?

C. Chinese Explorations and Discoveries

3. By the year 1125, the Chinese were responsible for inventing what important navigational tool?

4. What two technological innovations did Chinese ships have by the mid 1400s?

Vocabulary

▪ HULL

▪ rudder

[pic]

IV. European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700) Guided Reading Questions

A. The End of the Middle Ages and a Route Around Africa

1. What were the primary motivations that led to the ocean explorations of the 15th century?

2. What three explorers established the route around the Cape of Good Hope to India?

B. Exploration of the New World

3. What was the purpose of Christopher Columbus’ four expeditions?

4. Who is credited as being the first European to recognize that South America was a new continent?

5. What was Vasco Nuñez de Balboa’s a accomplishment?

6. Who led the first expedition around the world? Over what years did the voyage take place?

7. Who led the second expedition around the world? Over what years did the voyage take place?

Vocabulary

▪ CIRCUMNAVIGATION

[pic]

V. The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900) Guided Reading Questions

A. Cook’s Expeditions

1. In what way did the voyages of James Cook differ from those of sea explorers before him?

2. What invention in 1735 was a major breakthrough for open ocean navigation?

3. What geographical discoveries did the Cook expeditions make?

B. The United States Exploring Expedition

4. Which continent did the United States Exploring Expedition prove exists?

C. Matthew Maury-Father of Physical Oceanography

5. Why do we remember Matthew Maury as the father of physical oceanography?

D. Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle

6. How did Charles Darwin explain the formation of coral reefs?

7. What theory did Darwin propose as a result of his observations during the H.M.S. Beagle expedition?

E. The Challenger Expedition

8. What expedition is commonly recognized as the first devoted entirely to marine science?

9. What accomplishments and discoveries did the H.M.S. Challenger make?

Vocabulary

▪ CHRONOMETER

▪ fauna

▪ flora

▪ genera

▪ hydrothermal vent

[pic]

VI. Twentieth-Century Marine Science Guided Reading Questions

A. The Oceanography Explosion

1. What change led to the growth and expansion of modern oceanography in the 20th century?

B. Three Expeditions

2. For what accomplishments do we recognize the German Meteor expedition?

3. What was the significance of the Atlantis?

4. What noted discovery did the second H.M.S. Challenger make?

C. Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving

5. How have submersibles and self-contained diving changed the study of the ocean?

6. What are the three types of submersible that have been used for underwater research?

7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of submersibles and scuba?

D. ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and Electronic Navigation

8. What is the difference between an ROV and an AUV?

9. How do drifters send their information to marine scientists and what type of information do they collect?

10. What are the three types of sea surface observations that satellites can make to benefit oceanographers?

11. How have Loran-C and GPS benefited seafaring and oceanography?

Vocabulary

• AQUALUNG

▪ ballast

▪ bathyscaphe

▪ bathysphere

▪ decompression

▪ decompression sickness

▪ decompression stops

▪ echo-sounding

▪ global positioning system (GPS)

▪ hard-hat diving

▪ hardsuit

▪ helix

▪ Loran-C

▪ manipulator arm

▪ open circuit scuba

▪ support vessel

[pic]

Enrichment Experiences

ELABORATE (INTEGRATION OF OTHER SCIENCES)

1. Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C.-800 A.D.) (science as inquiry, Earth and space science, science and technology, science in personal and social perspectives, history and nature of science).

✓ Reference Figure 2-5 – Underwater archaeology.

✓ Have students draw up a plan on how they would study an underwater archaeological site. What materials would they need? How would it be different from studying a site on the surface?

2. Twentieth-Century Marine Science (science as inquiry, science and technology, history and nature of science).

✓ Reference Figures 2-54a – 1935 hardsuit and 2-54b – Modern one-atmosphere hardsuit.

✓ Have students design a mechanical claw for use in a hardsuit. They can use straws and strings to mimic the hand, cutting notches in the straws to allow for flexibility.

3. Underwater Exploration Historical Timeline (science as inquiry, life science, physical science, science and technology, history and nature of science).

✓ Reference Figure 2-65 – 1511, Image from Vegetius De Re Militari.

✓ Have students discuss why the design in the figure could not possibly work, showing an understanding of pressure as it affects a snorkeler/diver.

Extension (Interdisciplinary Connections)

Marine Science and the Real World Questions

These questions provide students with an opportunity to apply major concepts in the chapter to real world situations. They are located at the end of the chapter.

Activity 1 – Research Team Building

Everyone understands that scientific research requires the work of scientists, but what other people are needed to support oceanographic research? Have students brainstorm to develop a list of people needed to support modern oceanographic research, whether from a land-based station, or on board a ship. The list should include electronics technicians to design and maintain instruments, engineers to design submersibles and ROVs, and others, ranging from satellite designers to a ship’s cook. Have each student select one of these positions and do research to find out what training and qualifications are needed to perform the work.

Activity 2 – Social Influences on Oceanography

The history of oceanography has been shaped by many other events throughout history, from the development of new technologies, to social phenomena such as wars or cultural shifts. Have students select a portion of the timeline in Chapter 2 and list these other factors which may have contributed to certain events depicted in the timeline.

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