Early Sparta - Bored of Studies
Early Sparta
Overview of Main Features
• 1000 BCE – Dorians appeared
• Last of Greek-speaking invaders (north western Greece to southern Peloponnesian peninsula)
• Settled 2 best plains (Laconia to east & Messenia to west)
• Along Eurotas River 5 villages were combined (c. 9th & 8th century BCE) to become city-state of Sparta.
• Close-knit, self-reliant & well organised group who firmly imposed their own way of life on the subjugated people of Lacedaemonia.
• Natives (pre-Dorians) turned into Helots.
• Civic land divided into Klaroi & worked by Helots (who were allowed ½ the produce & were cruelly repressed by the state).
• Periocei were politically independent, but subject to Sparta.
• Once borders of Arcadia & the Argives were secure there weren’t wall around Sparta until about 200 BCE.
• Spartans were a warrior race – maintained tribal customs, military training, & discipline.
• Girls took part in naked athletics & religious parades.
• Art, poetry, songs, & festivals were encouraged and sponsored. Spartan artisans were highly skilled.
• Kings headed aristocracy.
• Citizens were divided into tribes & tribes into phratriai; leaders of the phratriai created the Gerousia.
• The warrior’s council (or Ecclesia) decided for or against motions by acclimation.
Seventh-century BCE Culture
Early Spartans sponsored poets, artists & festivals. Commerce brought Egyptian & Eastern influences & luxuries to Sparta.
• Spartan Culture: had its period of achievement including crafted luxuries, poetry, & vase painting of high standard. During 7th & 6th centuries BCE Sparta attracted singers, poets, & artists.
• Alcman: Poet who wrote that Sparta was outgoing, cultured, & enjoyed imported sports.
• Pottery: Laconian pottery underwent a change in the late 7th century BCE & was no longer made in the 6th century BCE. Artists also used wood, bronze, ivory, & stone. In the 6th century BCE, Spartan art declined.
• The villages of Sparta: 5 villages were partly autonomous. Sparta was never a ‘city’, however there was a council hall & a temple to Artemis Orthia.
• Social revolution: Alcman & Tyrtaeus describe a social revolution from leisured life to suppressive military life. About the time of the 2nd Messenian war Spartan culture declined.
The Messenian Wars
Fighting erupted around Sparta’s borders, to the north, east, & west, concentrated on Mt. Ithome. The First Messenian War lasted 19 years (c. 735 to 716 BCE) according to tradition.
Cause of 1st Messenian war
• The need for more fertile land due to growing population.
• Outcomes:
i. Sparta gained the plain of the Pamisus River (the plain of Stenyclarus).
ii. Some Messenians were reduced to status of Helot & others became Perioeci or similar.
iii. About ½ the crop of the Messenians was to be sent to Sparta.
iv. Laconia + Messenia = Lacedaemonia
Social and Political Discontent
• Social unrest of the population continued to grow, increasing the number of peasants.
• Consequences:
i. Agrarian revolt emphasised the need for land redistribution;
ii. Outbreak of lawlessness about 700 BCE widened gap between rich & poor.
Land shortages were partly alleviated after the Messenian war, but social and political grievances remained.
• Result:
- Foundation of a colony at Taras (Tarentum) in S. Italy about 705 BCE. Colonists (Parthenii Immigrants) were considered ‘fatherless’ (Spartan mothers & Helot fathers).
Conflict with Argos & the Second Messenian War
Argos was a prosperous city situated north of Spartan on the Argive plain. By the 7th century BCE it was a leading power on the Pelopennese. About 668 BCE Argos, under King Pheidon, defeated Sparta at the battle of Hysiae.
• Results:
i. Pheidon had successfully employed the hoplite formation in battle (superior to traditional tactics).
ii. Sparta had to cope with a strong, hostile neighbour.
The Messenians then revolted in about 650 BCE against Spartan repression, aided by some Peloponnesian states. Mt. Ithome was again the major point of resistance.
• A 17-year war resulted in:
i. Spartan military weakness & vulnerability were demonstrated;
ii. Sparta could only muster Elis as an ally;
iii. Fear & hatred against Spartan rule had provoked enemies;
iv. Military weakness in early hoplite warfare was evident.
v. The old social & political order started to breakdown;
vi. Appeals were made to ancient Spartan codes of valour by the poet & general, Tyrteaus;
vii. Need for greater military efficiency in Sparta.
Tyrtaeus
The poet, Tyrtaeus, wrote elegies, which are the main evidence for the 7th century BCE Spartan history.
• Tyrtaeus inspired Spartans to regain their lost ideals & military efficiency. He proposed the following:
i. Eunomia (good order);
ii. Citizen loyalty;
iii. Training soldiers to fight without fear;
iv. All Spartans to serve the state & demos.
The Social Revolution
• Growing isolation became a way of Spartan life and was a continual process, resulting in its cultural decline.
• The spartan economy was strong until after 550 BCE. Thereafter, the economy stagnated and economic and cultural isolation proceeded apace.
• The social transformation of Sparta during the 7th & 6th centuries BCE highlights the paramount fear of the Spartans: their fear for survival.
• Survival depended on strength, and strength depended on stability ( Strong disipline for every citizen and a conservatism of standards that WOULD NOT ADMIT CHANGE.
Aims of a Newly Evolving State
• A society of physically strong people; soldier citizens
• Constant readiness for war
The Main Features of the New City-state Were:
Ideal citizens:
Soldier-warrior( the ultinate goal of Spartan life was to raise ‘brave men in war’ ( excel in courage & battle.
Political reforms:
New structures were supposedly the work of Lycurgus, assisted by the 2 kings( equal land distribution( changed from oligarchy to new constitution incorperating monarchy, democracy & oligarchy ( Great Rhetra.
The Homoioi:
Spartiates were termed homoioi (eqauls) ( meant to be ratified in land distribution & political equality. Society remained econoically & politically unequal & at top was rivalry for power.
Economic Independence:
Spartiates were guarenteed land ownership, which became hereditary. The estates were worked by helots to allow Spartiates to become full-time soldiers ( helots were repressed & once a year the ephors declared war on them & the Krypteia could then legally kill ‘dangerous’ helots.
The Perioeci:
Traders & manufacturers ( poltically autonomous ( paid tribute to Sparta 7 were esential to the army.
The Inferiors:
Cowards; others who could not participate or contribute; or failed farmers.
State Service:
The life of every Spartiate was given TO THE NEEDS & PRIORITIES OF THE STATE( Public life dominated.
The Obai:
Each Spartan belonged to a unit based on residence ( defined a spartan as belonging to the state( determined a spartan’s status & responsibilities.
The Demos:
Made up of approx. 9,000 Spartiates of acknowledged rights & duties.
The Military System
670 BCE ( aristocratic government weakened by the adoption of the military hoplite formation (the phalanx).
The Phalanx:
Widespread across Greece ( hoplites were needed to control the helots & fight the messenians ( reliance on hoplites increased their status & political influence.
Military Training:
Every citizen had to serve the city-state ( men’s lives revolved around military & physical training ( men in army barracks until aged 30.
State Control of Children:
Boys at age 7 were given military training & slept in barracks ( at 20 men were put into syssition maintained by phratry( after 30 men became citizens & could leave barracks to sleep at home ( until age 60 men had to eat with syssition ( aim was to breed a society of solier/warriors.
Pride in the New Order:
The results of this system were:
i. Enthusiasm for & pride in the spartan state;
ii. The use of few personall luxuries or necessities;
iii. Firm control by state authority;
iv. Individual subordinatio to the state;
v. A very strong fighting army, well-armed, equipped, & drilled, with progressive battle tactics;
vi. Spartiates were forbidden to engage in trade or industry.
Foreign Policy:
Sparta had to find allies ( Corinth & Elis became allies after Spartan intervention in their domestic affairs ( Sparta fought & invaded Tegea & favoured an allience over annexation (555BCE).
Pelopennesian League:
Alliences & influence became unified ( individual member of league had obligations to Sparta, but none to each other.
Advantages & Disadvantages of the Agoge for Sparta
|ADVANTAGES |DISADVANTAGES |
|1. Produced obedient citizens |1. No freedom |
|2. Produced good soldiers |2. No free-thinkers |
|3. Produced pride & patriotism |3. No cultural diversity |
|4. Renounced individuality |4. No imaginative solutions to problems |
Social Organisation
Primitive Life:
Dorian practices typified Sparta ( CHANGE WAS SEEN AS WEAKENING SOCIETY & SO WAS AVOIDED ( Spartiates outnumbered 15:1 by helots & perioeci.
Children Examined:
Inspection of young children was to rid the state of those unable (later) to defend the state ( children who failed tests were left on Mt. Taygetus to die of exposure.
Boys:
Training consisted of:
i. Physical training at age 7;
ii. Initiation & enduring pain;
iii. Learning to live off the land ( stealing if necessary;
iv. Segregated age groups to boot morale in an age cohort;
v. Harsh discipline from older boys.
After age 20 a man:
i. Became an active soldier ( lived in military barracks;
ii. Was known as an eirene;
iii. Was allowed to marry;
iv. Had to join a syssitia;
v. Became full citizen at 30 & allowed to vote;
vi. Was taught to kill ( using helots as victims.
Objects of this training was to fight bravely & to be prepared to die in battle.
Attitude was reinforced by Spartan women who rejoiced when told their men had died in battle & mourned when their men came back alive.
Training & Status of Girls & Women
Girls training was to ensure they were:
• Loyal to the state;
• Able to produce healthy babies.
Women in Sparta were generally better off than women elsewhere in Greece. Their lives were restricted, but they enjoyed some freedom & privledges:
i. Women could inherit estates provided their was no male heirs;
ii. Any sign of adornment, jewelery, or purfume was forbidden;
iii. Clothing was modest & simple;
iv. Through significant military casualties, women came to own 2/5 of Spartan land, although they could not vote as citizens;
v. Spartan women performed gymnastics as open-air exercise connected with military training;
vi. Spartan women were expected to uphold Spartan ideals of sacrifice to the state & encourage bravery in their men;
vii. Had babies extra-maritally, if required, having been trained not to be weak, emotionally or physically, they were expected to gratefully deliver their men to the state & to death in battle.
Helots & Krypteia
• Their compaign against the helots was conatant & was considered necessary for survival.
Helots:
Mainly dispossessed original inhabitants of Sparta & Messenia who cultivated the land ( repressed, treated cruelly & were always ready to rebel ( constant state of war was declared on them( scceptable for youth in army training to kill troublesome helots.
The Krypteia:
‘secret police’ formed to deal with the threat posed by the helots.
WOMEN IN CLASSICAL GREECE
OVERVIEW
• Women in Classical Greece were perhaps the most repressed of ‘free’ people. At the same time men, who repressed women, reassessed them: examining their natures; situations; places in society; & physical forms.
• In Sparta women had greater freedom than women in Athens, but that freedom was blamed for the eventual weakening of Sparta. Classical Greece at a time of oppression for women inspired an increased interest in womanhood.
BACKGROUND
The City-states
• Most of what we know about Classical Greek women comes from Athens; & originates from men.
• Athens of 480 – 323 BCE was a male dominated city-state ( city-states developed from the terrortorial occupation of related groups, ultimately from the family & tribe.
• Sparta was a warrior-state & male-dominated ( in male political-military caste the dominate values are masculine.
• Greek men considered it was right for a warrior society ( women were necessary for procreation & supervising housework.
Historical Accuracy
• Some modern historians believe that women could not have been as oppressed at home as Greek commentators have suggested; that Greek women were not inclined to remain silent & absolutely obedient, & that portrayal of women, as such, was more wishful thinking by Greek men, than reality.
• Other historians question that Greek women were not free to socialise. Potically & legally, however, women were unfairly oppressed, lacking basic rights ( could not vote or participate in politics & had no legal rights ( they were powerless.
Greek Women Before the Classical Age
• Homer ( his myths & legends became religion of ancient Greece (Olympian religion) writen about 850 BCE during Archaic times ( women in Homer were allowed more freedom than those of Classicla Greece – mingled with men & background role in decision making.
Spartan Women
• Athenian men thought that Spartan women had too much freedom. Aristotle went further, saying women of Sparta indulged in luxuries & contributed to the unhappiness of the city, & he claimed that the Spartan women dominated their men.
• Sparta’s ultimate downfall was blamed on the confusion & weakness caused by women & their freedom.
• Plato, on the other hand, probably had Spartan women in mind when he defined their capacities as similar, but weaker than men, in athletic activities.
Social Freedom
- Girls in Sparta were physically well trained in order to provide healthy babies, the future Spartan warriors.
- Spartan women lived at home but played most sports, sometimes training with the men. They participated in singing & dancing competitions, showing a strong competitive streak.
Legal Rights & Economic Power
- Significantly different from Athens. Women could inherit land if there were no male heirs.
- As in Athens, Spartan women could not vote.
- Spartan women had fewer luxuries & adornments than Athenian women ( reflects the values being taught.
- Open companions to men & shared their pastimes, includeing sports.
- Controlled 2/5 of Sparta’s land.
- Involved in behind-the-scenes political manouvering ( influenced decision making.
Spartan Women as State Instuments
Some notable women:
Argileonis:
- Told of her son’s death ( stated that he was a good man but there were many who were better.
Corgo:
- Was told by husband to marry a good man & have good children.
Gyrtias & Damatria:
- Praised the death of their sons & grandsons in battle, as worthy of true Spartans.
Spartan women performed the task of sponsoring a state cult, of surrendering the individual to the state. The highest calling of a Spartan was death in battle, in duty to the state. This attitude was perpetuated by women who were indoctrinated by the state. They feared the disgrace of cowardice more than the death of sons or husbands.
This hardened attitude of Spartan women is legendary.
Women in Athens & Sparta Compared
|Duties/rights |ATHENS |SPARTA |
|Social |No mixing with men. |Could mix freely. |
| |Housewives & mothers. |Exercised openly. |
| |Kept at home. |Engaged in competitions & sports. |
|Political |No rights. |Often gave opinions & advice. |
| |Opinion did not. ‘officially’ matter. |Were not citizens & could not vote. |
| |Could not attend assembly. |Reinforced the warrior-military values of |
| |Could not vote. |the state. |
|Religious |Could attend festivals. |Attended festivals with men. |
| |Participated in cults. |Girls sang with boys in chorals. |
| |Acted as priestesses. | |
|Economic |Owned nothing, not even their dowries. |Could inherit land. |
| |Could not own land. |Some became very wealthy. |
| |Could not inherit wealth. |Did not work. |
| |Worked in the home on chores & women’s |Left house-chores, even weaving to slaves. |
| |arts. |Produced healthy babies for the state. |
OPTION 1: GREECE: SPARTAN SOCIETY TO THE BATTLE OF LEUCTRA 371 BC.
SPARTA
Introduction
The Spartans are a unique group and were descendants of the Dorians – the groups of fierce warriors who had invaded the Greek mainland (c. 1200 – 1000 BCE). The group of Dorians who became known as the Spartans settled in the rich Eurotas river valley in an area called Laconia. Originally they lived in 5 villages which united to form the city of Sparta. Sparta annexed its surrounding villages and eventually the whole of Laconia. About 740 – 780 BCE the Spartans, in search of more land to provide for their increasing population, invaded and occupied Messenia, a neighbouring territory situated to the west of Laconia. Messenia and Laconia became known as Lacedaemonia. This is where the Spartans called home.
Our knowledge of Sparta comes mainly from archaeological evidence and the works of TYRTAEUS, THUCYDIDES, HERODOTUS, PLATO, ARISTOTLE, XENAPHON, PLUTARCH.
A SUBJECT RACE
Once the Spartans took over Messenia they faced a huge problem. The indigenous tribes in Lacedaemonia out numbered the Spartans. The Spartans had 3 choices:
1. To exterminate the indigenous tribes
2. To intermarry with the indigenous population
3. To create institutions which would allow them to assert their authority over the conquered tribes.
The Spartans decided to adopt the 3rd option and the non-Dorian people were forced to become slaves or helots. The other Dorian tribes who had settled in the area were given the status of ‘fringe-dwellers’ or Perioeci.
A MILITARY CAMP
By the C6th BCE Sparta had become one of the most important city states on the Greek mainland. The rugged mountain ranges, which were difficult to cross by road, meant that a number of relatively isolated communities or city states had developed. Although all Greeks spoke a similar language and worshipped the same gods, each city state had its own preferred duty; it’s own distinct features and type of government and laws. Sparta developed into a military camp. It’s aim was to produce brave and tough soldiers who could devote their whole lives to safe-guarding the Spartan city state, which was under constant threat from the Helots. Sparta developed a reputation for having the finest army in Greece. Spartans were admired for their courage, tough discipline and obedience to the state.
By the end of the C5th BCE the Spartans had developed a reputation for austerity and stoicism. This development was gradual. In early Sparta, Spartans weren’t much different in outlook and social organisations from other Greek speaking peoples of the time. They were enthusiastic about poetry, art; they enjoyed dancing at religious festivals and produced a distinctive style of poetry.
THE MESSENIAN REVOLT
About 650 BCE, the Messenian Helots lead by Anstomenes revolted. This revolt deeply disturbed the Spartans who feared for their survival. The Rebellion was eventually crushed, however the Spartans were determined not to let it happen again.
The consequence of this event was that the Spartans completely reconstructed their social and political organisation. (Note: from there on they became a military camp.) These reforms have been attributed to Lycurgus, about whom we know little, except that some Spartans virtually defied him. After Lycurgus’ reforms, the role of the individual citizen was down-graded and Spartans glorified the state. As a consequence art and culture were virtually abandoned.
After the Helot revolt the Spartans had little time for a life of their own. There was little time to indulge in deep thought or to enjoy private luxuries. They were encouraged to live simple lives. They used iron money instead of silver or gold. Buildings or homes were simply made. The main dish of their diet was pork cooked in it’s own blood and seasoned with salt and vinegar. By law an axe was the only tool which could be used to make a ceiling and a saw the only tool to make a door. This law was designed to stop elaborate and expensive decorations. Spartans did not produce fine plays; rather it is for the courage of their soldiers and their military achievements that they are remembered.
SPARTIATES
To be a full Spartan citizen or a ‘Spartiate’, residents in Laconia had to prove their Spartiate ancestry, be male, be 30 years old, submit to Spartan education and discipline and be a member of a military mess. A Spartiates were to:
1. Defend the state against the helots.
2. Defend the city state of Sparta.
A Spartiate’s life belonged to the state. He lived in a military club, not a home with his family.
PUBLIC DINING
Spartiates called their military messes (phiditia or syssitia). They were places of friendship (philia) and kinness (philiditia) and they instilled thriftiness and frugality (pheido). Spartans gathered at phiditia in groups of 15 men. Every month members contributed a medimnus (about 56L) of barley meal, 8 cloes (about 27L) of wine, 5 minos (about 2 kilo’s) of cheese, 5 ½ miros of figs and a small sum of money for fish or meat. The custom of public dining was strictly practiced and Spartiates who broke the rules were fined.
BREAD BALLOTS
Being elected to a military mess was very important to a Spartiate. Admission was difficult because everyone in the phidition had to want the nominee. Votes were cast using pieces of soft bread. Each member would throw a piece into a bowl that a servant carried on his head. Those who did not favour admitting the nominee squeezed the bread hard with their hands and placed it into the bowl. If there was one piece of squeezed bread I n the ballot bowl, the nominee was not admitted.
HELOT MASTERS
Spartiates were warrior citizens who enjoyed social economic and political privileges. They were provided for the state, which allocated public land and helots to each Spartiate. Spartiates’ land, or Klens could not be sold or divided. In this way they were protected from poverty. The helots worked the land for their Spartiate masters and provided wheat, wine and fruit for their families. Helots were allowed to keep what was left over for their own use.
RED CLOAKS AND LONG HAIR
Early Spartan soldiers fought in individual combat. Later this was replaced by hoplite soldiers who fought in phalanx. Hoplites were heavily armed and armoured foot soldiers. Spartan hoplites could be recognised by their red cloaks (when not in combat), bronze shields and long hair grown to make them look taller, nobler and more feircesom.
A CODE OF HONOR
Spartiates lived by a high code of honour – courage, loyalty, endurance and obedience to the state. A Spartiate could lose his citizenship if he breached this code of honour especially if he were guilty of cowardice.
SPARTAN BOYS
A Spartan boy’s education was directed towards making him a good soldier. At the age of 7, boys went to live in army barracks. Plutarch wrote that education of Spartan boys was aimed towards 3 outcomes:
1. To develop the ability to endure hardship and pain
2. To encourage prompt obedience to authority.
3. To foster courage and ensure victory in battle.
RITUAL FLOGGING
Ritual flogging of Spartan boys was part of their culture. It was a test of endurance and part of an initiation process into manhood. Statues were created to honour Spartan boys who could endure flogging the longest. Boys were flogged if they were caught stealing, not because it was morally wrong, but because they got caught, in fact, the Spartan ethic was so strong that one boy suspected of stealing a fox kept it inside his cloak rather then admit to stealing it. Legend says that the boy died having his insides torn out by the fox.
Before the Lycurgan reforms, human sacrifice or death by flogging was practiced at the altar of Artemis Orthia. After the reforms the sprinkling of blood on the altar represented a blood bond between the deities and human beings.
SPARTAN WOMEN
Women from Spartiate families were raised to embrace the same ideals of service to the state as Spartan men. They did not serve in the army although they took a lively interest in it and its achievements. Spartan women could own land and inherit property but they could not vote or hold public office. Their aspirations were to be physically strong companions for their military husbands and to breed strong healthy boys and raise them to be brave soldiers and heroes. Spartan women were unusual because they were allowed a lot of freedom. They trained exclusively in athletics and gymnastics unlike elsewhere in Greece, Spinning and weaving were considered slave activities. Perfumes, jewellery and cosmetics were forbidden as were fine clothes and elaborate hairstyles. Spartan women exercised and danced naked. Their physical exercise gave them a reputation throughout Greece for graceful natural beauty.
Spartan girls lived at home, not in army barracks and like the boys, they were organised into groups and at times exercised with them. They participated in most sports, including running, wrestling, javelin and discus throwing and many ball games. Boys and girls competed in choral and dancing competitions.
The Role of Spartan Women
• Greeks looked upon Spartan women either with enthusiastic condemnation or severe disapproval.
• Spartan women by their training and demeanour were unique.
• Forbidden to adorn themselves, wear jewellery, use cosmetics or perfume or have attractive clothing.
“…a woman with her hair clipped in the Spartan style, boyish-looking and quite masculine…” LUCIAN
• By their upbringing they were trained to be fit companions to the Spartan men, mingling freely with them, sharing their sports.
• The young women play and walk in processions naked, to the end that he might take away overgreat tenderness and fear of exposure to the air and all acquired womanishness.
• Taught them simplicity and care for good health and gave them some taste for higher feelings, admitted as they were to the field of noble action and glory.
• Wore a ‘slit skirt’ to give freedom to their limbs and we may well believe that their garments were not voluminous. ( luxury in dress was strictly forbidden ( flowered dresses were only worn by courtesans.
• They were mothers of heroes and warriors.
When some foreign lady told Gorgo the wife of Leonidas that the women of Lacedaemon were the only women in the world who could rule men, ‘With good reason’, she replied, ‘for we are the only women who bring forth men.’
MILITARY WAY OF LIFE
Hoplon – Spartan’s Sheild
Agoge – Spartan System of Education
Enomotia – Platoon (4 formed a pentekotis)
Pentekotis – Company; 4 enomotia; commanded by a pentekorter.
Lochos – Battalion; 4 pentekotis or 16 enomotia; lead by a lochagos.
Mora – Regiment; 4 lochos; under command of ptolemarch (or Polemarch)
Panoply – outfit of a Spartan hoplite.
Helots
Helots were probably worse off than any other group on the Greek mainland. A Spartan could not free a Helot without state approval and could not sell him/her privately. Helots worked hard and long hours. They had a rather miserable life. They were beaten, even murdered if they did not work hard enough or appeared discontented.
In times of war male helots served as light-armed troops. The only way Helots could improve their situation was by outstanding gallantry in battle. Then they could become one of the ‘inferiors’ – a subgroup in Spartan society. Inferiors included Spartiates who had lost their citizenship, illegitimate Spartans and adopted play-mates for Spartan Children.
Helots outnumbered their Spartan owners by about 20:1 and were constantly feared by the Spartans. Aristotle (c.384 – 322 BCE), wrote that every year the Ephors (administrators) declared war against the Helots to ensure that National Security was maintained. The Crypteia (or secret police), was also a threat tot he Helots. It was composed of young Spartans empowered to kill any Helots they thought was dangerous – without having him face normal criminal charges.
Serious Helot revolts occurred c. 465 BCE and c 425 BCE. The Spartans were very severe in repressing them and about 2000 helots were massacred in 425 BCE. Some Helots deserted to Athens. Athenians tried to undermine this Spartan way of life by sometimes offering assistance to the Helots.
PERIOECI
The Perioeci were the businessman and artisans of Ancient Sparta.
The type of pottery produced by the perioeci changed after the C6th BCE. Before that time Spartan potters delighted in depicting human figures and rebellars and scenes from everyday life in Sparta. After the C6th pottery began to reflect their austerity and was mainly functional.
SPARTAN GOVERNMENT
The Spartan Government was a unique combination of monarchy, oligarchy and democracy. It consisted of:
2 kings
the Ephorate
the council of elders or Gerovsia
the assembly of Spartiates or Apella
Sparta was the only Greek city state to have an Ephorate and to be ruled by 2 kings for most of its history. The Spartans were admired by other Greeks for the clear structure of their constitution.
The Kings
From C800 – 146 BCE Sparta was ruled by 2 kings. This duel monarchy, or diarchy, was hereditary. During wars only one king went to battle. The other king stayed home and helped administer daily life in Sparta. In matters of war kings could:
- Decided who to make war against.
- Prepare sacrifices before battle.
- Propose peace terms.
As Public officials kings could:
- Act as high priests of Zeus for the whole community
- Offer monthly religious sacrifices for the whole city to Apollo
- Administer public roads
- Decide who could marry an heiress who’s father had died without betrothing her.
- Make decisions regarding the adoption of children.
The Land System
• Plutarch’s story is that Lycurgus redistributed land into 30,000 lots for perioeci and 9000 for Spartiates, all exactly equal.
• Polybius on land allocation: ‘the rule about landed property, of which no-one is allowed to have more and all citizens must have an equal share of the civic land.’
• Aristotle disagreed with landowners being mostly female; He (Lycurgus) made it dishonourable to buy or sell landed property, doing rightly, but he allowed gifts or bequests to all he wished.
Farming, Trade and Communication
The plains where most crops were grown were (and still are) in Thessaly, Laconia and Messenia. The main crops were corn, beans, lentils, chick peas, grapes, apples, figs, pomegranates, cabbage, lettuce and olives. Sugar was unknown and Spartans used honey to sweeten foods. Sheep and goats grazed on rocky pasture lands and were a supply of meat. Some forest regions also provided wildlife and game such as boars, deer and hares. The sea was also a very important source of food as it provided fish (all types) and salt for preserving and spicing foods. The sea was also a good means of communication. In the 3 plains where grains were farmed, slave labour was used – Helots. Almost all farm work was done by hand and life on the land was difficult and was made more so by poor quality of the soil.
SPARTA – JANE & BRUCE DENNETT
Introduction
- Spartan – austere or courageous (Oxford Dictionary)
- Idea of ‘austerity’ & ‘courage’ linked with the mystery, myth, & propaganda that surround Ancient Sparta.
- A distinctive Spartan society did emerge, but it also contained elements common to other Greek polis.
- There is evidence to indicate that the social & political changes that occurred in Sparta were not unique to Sparta.
Written Sources
There are some problems with the written sources, namely:
- Each of the ancient writers brought to the subject of Sparta preconceived ideas.
- Myths and misconceptions were often reinforced, or even enhanced, by one writer using the views of a predecessor as a source.
- The Spartans seem to have been reluctant to disclose a great deal about their way of life, and when they did, the information frequently appears to have included elements of propaganda.
Herodotus
- 5th century BCE
- Deals with Spartan foreign policy.
- Appears to spend more time critising the Spartan constitution than describing it.
Thucydides
- Late 5th century BCE
- Has little to say about domestic situation.
- Impressed by the ‘eunomia’ or ‘good order’ of Spartan society.
Xenophon
- Wrote ‘The Constitution of the Lacedaemonians’
- 4th century BCE
- Provided information about the Spartan military system gave some insight into social customs & the law.
Plato & Aristotle
- Both present Sparta as a kind of ‘case study’ to highlight their own political theories.
- Plato admired the Spartan system & is unstinting in his praise of its order & stability. In this there is a clue to the accumulation of historical perceptions, Plato’s views build on earlier writings of Thucydides.
- Aristotle was Plato’s pupil & was clearly influenced by his teacher’s ideas.
- Aristotle critisies the system of land ownership & the problems of maintaining a number of land holdings within a small elite group. He approved of the apparently shared power of the Spartan Constitution & saying that it maybe the cause of Spartan stability.
Plutarch
- c. AD 46 & c. AD 120
- Oldest, apparently complete account of the Spartan constitution.
- He acknowledges that Lycurgus & his activities are open to doubt & little can be said with certainty on the subject.
Pausanias
- c. AD 150
- Includes useful references to the operation of the Spartan constitution.
The most notable myths spawned by the ancient sources are:
- There was a single great lawgiver who produced the Spartan system.
- The Spartan system arose out of the need to maintain a strong, militaristic society to control a huge, almost enslaved subject population, who constantly rebels.
- The creation of the Spartan system resulted in a sudden, revolutionary social transformation.
- Within the Spartan system, full Spartans lived side-by-side in equality.
Archaeological Sources
The archaeological sources are contradicting much of what we know about Sparta from the written sources. These include:
Time it took for Spartan culture to decline.
Myth of equality amoung Spartiates.
“…the Spartiates fashioned the legend in the early decades of the 5th century, and Herodotus propagated it in his history.”
J.T. Hooker, The Ancient Spartans
Government
Kings
- There were 2 kings; one from each of the ancient clans, Agid & Eurypondid. A hereditary position.
- Kings were constitutionally equal.
- Commanded by the Spartan army when sent out by the people; only one king left Sparta with the army.
- Unable to finalise a peace treaty, but could establish arrangements and conditions for ratification by the assembly.
- Judicial powers in the case of marriage of an unbetrothed heiress; matters dealing with public roads; adoption of children.
“Aristotle…calls the Spartan kingship a perpetual hereditary generalship, but in the hands of an able king it could be and normally was far more than that.”
A.H.M. Jones, Sparta
The Assembly
- All adult Spartiates from the age of 20.
- Could only vote to accept or reject motions put before it.
- There is some doubt over the right of the ordinary citizen to debate in the assembly; it is probable that any Spartiate could speak.
- Assembly could not amend motions put before it.
- Elected the Gerousia and the Ephors.
- Powers to declare war & choose the king to lead the army.
“After this speech he himself, in his capacity of ephor, put the question to the Spartan assembly. They make their decisions by acclamation, not by voting…”
Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, 1
Gerousia
- 28 members & 2 kings.
- Elections by loudest cheer.
- Criminal court, judging cases involving death, exile, & trail of a king.
- Could veto decisions of the assembly.
“By fixing election to the council of elders at the end of life, he made it impossible for a high standard of virtuous living to be disregarded even in old age.”
Xenophon, Constitution of the Spartans, 10
The Ephors
Five ephors were elected every year; one gave his name to the year.
Any Spartan citizen over 30 was eligible for election; could only hold office once in a lifetime.
Declared war over Helots every year, putting them to death without trial.
Had power to fine other magistrates & had power over all citizens, including the kings.
Judged civil matters.
Received foreign envoys.
Often noted as playing an important role in Gerousia.
Had power to arrest the king.
Could put motions before the assembly.
Accompanied king to battle.
“Accordingly the ephors were competent to punish whomsoever they choose…”
Xenophon, Constitution of the Spartans, 8
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