Higher Close Reading



Higher Close ReadingThe key to Close Reading success is knowing what is being asked of you in each type of question and reading the questions carefully. Each type of question tests a slightly different skill and so must be tackled in a slightly different way.UnderstandingBasic “Understanding” questionsThese focus on what the passage ‘means’, essentially they are asking WHAT is the writer saying or meaning here?E.g.“in your own words/explain how/give a reason why...”STRATEGYBefore the exam:practise reading demanding newspaper articles as often as you can. This will help you become more comfortable with the mature tone and subject matter likely to be encountered in Close Reading passages.learn to use the topic sentences of each paragraph to help you to identify quickly the writer’s line of argumentIn the exam:‘Make a point to get a point’- use the marking scheme to guide you on how much to writeCheck the number of points that you make, particularly for high value questions – make sure that you’ve earned all the points and that your answers are all, in fact, different.Not sure about one of your answers? Offer another possibility. You won’t lose marks for that, but only do it if you’re unsure.UNDERSTANDINGContext QuestionsA more demanding kind of UNDERSTANDING question is “show how the context helps you to understand the meaning of...” These look for a definition of an unfamiliar word or concept/idea.STRATEGYYou must:1)DEFINE: give a definition of the unfamiliar word, as best you can2)QUOTE SIMILAR WORDS: refer to the context and pick out (quote) words which mean something similar to your definition of the word3)DEMONSTRATE this similarity between what you could understand; what you were familiar with and what you couldn’t understand helped you to arrive at the meaning of this unfamiliar word.Development of IdeasIf asked to “show how a writer develops the idea of...” you must identify the idea in more than one place throughout the passage.STRATEGYAs you are reading the passage use topic sentences to help you identify the writer’s main ideas.Look at how linking words are used to move the line of argument on or change the direction of it.Pay particular attention to the beginning of the passage, and the ideas established there; and the end of the passage, where the argument “ends up”.ANALYSISIf understanding questions are asking “what”, analysis questions are asking “how”?Their purpose is not to ascertain what you know, but if you know how a literary technique works and what it adds in the context in which you find it, i.e. if you can analyse (explain in detail) how the technique works.It is sensible therefore to be clear about what techniques are available to writers, and to have some strategies to help you explain how these techniques are employed.For the purposes of Close Reading exercises (and if you think about it, the only techniques available to a writer anyway!), the main techniques are as follows:Word Choice(what else is a writer to use?) - here, though, this means using loaded language; language in which the connotations are as important as the basic meaning of the word itself.Sentence Structure - different sentence types are used for different purposes (honest!)Imagery - metaphor, simile and personification (You may also wish to consider the techniques some call "sound images", such as alliteration, assonance and onomatopoeia.)Tone - the attitude of the writer implied through their choice of words, imagery arid the structures they employ to convey their ideas. Remember, tone is a technique which is always revealed through other techniques.Fool-Proof Analysis StrategyTo ensure you cover all the necessary points in an analysis answer. the following framework may be of use to you:name the technique on which you are focusing. (e.g. imagery, use of a simple sentence, tone etc.)quote the example you are going to analyse.use the strategy you have been taught to employ with that type of technique e.g. – imagery - “ … just as … so too … ”explain how the use of this technique assists the writer’s meaning/impact in context.This may seem like a lot to retain, but with practice, it should become easier for you; in fact, it will become second nature to you.De-coding the QuestionsClose Reading tests your reading of both QUESTIONS and PASSAGE(S); therefore there is no easy way to success. Here, though, is some help to know what the questions are asking for:UNDERSTANDING QUESTIONS"explain" - make sure you do so in your own words“Choose a word or phrase” — means just that! Don’t quote a whole sentence.ANALYSIS QUESTIONS“show how” / “how does” / “explain fully” / “comment on” / “find another phrase and explain how”all mean you must quote and explain (using the strategies given) the inioact of the writer’s choice.“identify” - means quote only.EVALUATION QUESTIONS“How effectively does this image/how effective...” - you must use an evaluative comment and base your response on full analysis.Word ChoiceThese questions focus on the effect produced by a particular word or words, i.e. they assume you are aware that some words do more than others.This is sometimes called using loaded language and it is the difference between dull and lively writing.The loading of the word comes from the fact that some words, by nature of their definition and usage, suggest other ideas which add to and assist the meaning of the word, often enabling the reader to visualise something clearly, or share an emotion etc. These suggested ideas are called the connotations of the word.e.g.“she breezed into the room” is very different to “she walked into the room.” But how?STRATEGYIdentify the ‘loaded’ word and quote it, using speech marks.Describe the basic meaning of the word, and/or show that a much mere neutral alternative could have been used.Make it clear that it is through the connotations of the word that it is effective in this context.Make clear that you do understand its meaning and impact in context i.e. to convey some idea or toneImageryQuestions on imagery cover a number of techniques, all of which are well known to you, including metaphors, similes, personification.Metaphor - any statement that is not literally true: e.g. “You are a swine!”Here the metaphor includes the verb “to be”, i.e. “is, am, are”, but it will not always be “signposted” in this way, as a simile is.e.g. “Drunk with fatigue” is also a metaphor; not a “signposted” one, but a metaphor none the less. Notice that it is the idea that the statement is not literally true which is the common factor in all metaphors.Simile - a comparison using “like” or “as”: e.g. “You eat like a pig!”Unlike metaphors, similes are always signposted with the words “like” or “as” and so are easier to spot. Remember they work on the same principle that two objects which are not the same share similar qualities, and in so doing, the better known object helps to shed light on (not literally!), or tell us more about a lesser-known object.Personification - attributing human qualities and characteristics to non-human things.e.g. “The storm raged outside.” Rage is a human emotion; storms feel nothing. That’s personification. Of course there are shared qualities between the storm and a raging human, and that is the point: we know what a raging human is like - wild, violent, frightening etc, - and so, the thing we know more about sheds light on the lesser-known thing.ImageryIf you are analysing the writer’s use of imagery, you have to show how the image works. That means identifying the root of the metaphor (the better-known thing) and explaining the qualities it shares with the lesser-known thing, which helps you to understand that (lesser-known) thing more fully.STRATEGYIdentify and name the image used — metaphor, simile or personificationThen you must explain what qualities the better known thing (sometimes called the literal root) shares with the lesser. You can introduce this with the phrase: “Just as...”Then go on to look at what these qualities tell us about the lesser known thing. You can use the following phrase: “ … so too … ““Just as … so too … “Make sure you offer plenty of analysis of the literal part of the metaphor, keeping in mind the idea, “What have these two things in common?” This will help you to have more to say in the “ … so too … ” part of the analysis. Certainly, do not merely repeat the same words that you used in the “Just as … ” part.Ensure that you tie your analysis of the image firmly to the context in which it occurs.Sentence StructureFirst of all remember that there are different types of sentences and that sentences can be and are used for effects.The Basic Sentence TypesSimple Sentences: one subject, one predicate; not extended in any way; no conjunctions; no internal punctuation.STRATEGIESthey are not always short, but if they are comment on the "punchy", dramatic quality they then may havenote their position, they will often occur at beginnings and endings of paragraphsbeginning: this can have the effect of catching the reader’s attentionending: they may be used here to sum up a point succinctlyin the middle: sometimes they can be used to subvert an idea which has just been outlinedremember they may have an impact on the toneMOST IMPORTANT OF ALL IS TO REMEMBER THAT YOU MUST TRY TO LOOK TO SEE HOW THE SIMPLE SENTENCE IS BEING USED IN CONTEXT - WHILE SOME GENERAL RULES CAN HELP, THERE IS NOT A FORMULA FOR THIS, SO PRACTISE AS OFTEN AS YOU CAN.Sentence StructureComplex sentences: extended through punctuation and conjunctions. These allow the writer to develop ideas; provide more detail; introduce examples to illustrate points etc. The skill here is not that you can recognise a complex sentence (there are no points for labelling!), but that you can see what the writer is doing with it.STRATEGIESA complex sentence may well include:a list: - beware of hoping for marks for commenting that a list is created by commas or semi-colons - what else? But why list at all? Lists often create an emphasis (comment on length) they may draw out an idea. The list may provide examples etc. The phrase “cumulative effect” can be very useful.semi-colon ( ; ) (remember that punctuation is part of sentence structure, since it is through punctuation that sentences are created and controlled)semi-colons ( ; ) can perform a multitude of functions within a sentence, and you will not be rewarded for remembering what all of them are.More important is the ability to notice when they are used for effect, for example, when they divide clauses in a sentence which are of equal importance. This idea of equality can be used to create a sense of balance between different ideas, like the middle of a see-saw, or even allow a comparison of ideas, and it is this EFFECT that should be commented on.colons:(:) - they perform a very simple task: they ALWAYS INTRODUCE something. This can be either a quote (as in your critical essays!), or a list, or an explanation.Sentence StructureQuestions: remember, a question is a type of sentence and so comes under the heading of sentence structure.STRATEGIESQuestions are used:rhetorically - meaning for effect (certainly not anticipating an answer on a post card) but the effect can vary. You should, however, mention that the rhetorical nature of the question.Some of the effects are:to engage the reader’s attention or interest by directly addressing him/her, and as if demanding a responseto reflect or reveal the writer’s confusion, or exasperationto heap scorn upon, or to mock a subject/situation by deliberately asking ridiculous questions (note, this would create tone)NOTE AGAIN THE FACT THAT YOU MUST LOOK TO THE CONTEXT IN WHICH THE FEATURE OCCURS SO AS TO OFFER APPROPRIATE ANALYSISExclamations: remember, an exclamation is a type of sentence and so comes under the heading of sentence structure.STRATEGYExclamations are used to show excitement or shock or surprise on the part of the writer.They may well have a bearing of the tone of a piece, creating an emotive or dramatic tone.Sentence StructurePunctuation: remember that punctuation is also a part of sentence structure. You may occasionally be asked to explain simply how a piece of punctuation works, but more often you will be required to explain how it has been used to create an effect.Here are some of the most important punctuation marks:Parenthesis: an extra piece of information inserted into a sentence and enclosed by commas, brackets or dashes, used to include useful but not essential information. A parenthesis may be a single word, a phrase or a whole clause. The sentence would still make perfect sense without the parenthesis, but it should add something significant to the meaning.STRATEGYThe strategy here is simple: be able to identify a parenthesis, and comment on what it adds to the sentence. This will probably be:extra informationtone — for this there is no simple rule, but look out for perhaps, humorous insertions, sarcastic asides etc.Sentence StructureSemi-colons ( ; )Remember that punctuation is part of sentence structure, since it is through punctuation that sentences are created and controlled.Semi-colons ( ; ) can perform a multitude of functions within a sentence, you must try to look for what effect they create within a sentence, rather than just stating what job they do.STRATEGYTry to notice when they are used for effect e.g.when they divide clauses in a sentence which are of equal importance.This idea of equality: they can be used to create a sense of balance between different ideas, like the middle of a see-saw, or even allow a comparison of ideas. It is this EFFECT that should be commented on.Colons ( : )Colons always perform a very simple task: they always introduce something. You must look to see what it is that the colon is being used to introduce.STRATEGYcolons ALWAYS INTRODUCE something.this can be either a quote (as in your critical essays!), or a list, or an explanation.Sentence StructureWord Order: pay close attention to word order in a sentence. Usually, the subject (the who or what the sentence is about) comes first in a sentence and then the predicate (all the rest of the sentence, including the verb). But, look out for examples where the writer wants to throw the emphasis. Pay particularly close attention to the beginnings and endings of sentences.STRATEGYThe first word in the sentence may have been placed there for a dramatic, shocking or even punchy effect, or to throw emphasis on it.If the subject (usually the noun, or a phrase which takes the place of a noun) is left to the end of a sentence it can be quite dramatic and have the effect of building up tension as you wait to discover what the subject is.The Linking SentenceRemember a link must at least join two things together. Because it is an analysis question, you must quote to demonstrate each part of the link to the passage before and after the linking sentence. This necessitates a four-quote approach, showing that you know that the link sums up, or refers to, what has gone before and leads into what comes next.STRATEGYfirst, you must identify the idea summarised in the first part of the link sentence and quote it - Quote 1second, you say Quote 1 refers to an idea mentioned earlier in the passage - quote an example of that idea too - Quote 2third, you must identify the idea summarised in the second part of the linking sentence (i.e. which introduces the new topic or angle) and quote this too. Quote 3finally, you must relate it to the ideas the writer goes on to develop in the next paragraph and in the rest of the passage as a whole - quote an example of this too - Quote 4ToneTone is the implied attitude of the writer; implied, because of course, the writers often prefer not to state explicitly and baldly how they feel about the subject they are writing on. Another way to think of tone is that it reveals the spirit in which the writer is writing.N.B. One unique feature of the technique of tone is that it is a technique revealed or employed through other techniques.How else can the writer imply his/her attitude, if not through their word choice or imagery or use of sentence structure? Therefore, you must use the same strategies for analysing (word choice/imagery/features of sentence structure) when answering on tone, only ensure that you link your analysis to the tone that you have identified.STRATEGYTry to gain some sense of the writer’s attitude to the subject of the piece, bearing in mind this may vary as they touch on different subjects within the general topic. It can be useful if you’re totally stuck, to think:are there strong feelings evident?does the writer seem to be more positive or negative about the subject?if negative, is it as strong as aggressive, or is it merely critical?if positive, are they still treating the subject seriously, or is it more humorous?has the writer tried to use some humour to convey his or her opinions, if so how funny are they trying to be, sarcastic, ironic, tongue-in-cheek?they may have strong views, without being too aggressive in how they convey them, so are they making their points light-heartedly or humorously?IN OTHER WORDS: TRY TO THINK YOUR WAY INTO THE TONE OF THE WRITEROnce you have identified the tone, you must then NAME itthen identify the technique which reveals itREMEMBER, TONE IS A TECHNIQUE REVEALED THROUGH OTHER TECHNIQUESuse the appropriate strategy for the technique as usual, ensuring that you link your analysis to the tone identified, e.g. “the text here is light-hearted in tone, evident from the writer’s word choice. His use of quote and analyse as usual)....show that his attitude is ...”Vocabulary for Identifying ToneThe words suggested here have been arranged in a sort of spectrum, from the most negative and critical through to the more light-hearted and conversational.Caustic - extremely critical - means corrosiveAggressive - vigorously attacking another point of viewCritical - finding fault with another point of viewSerious - the writer has genuine feeling for and/or real concerns about his or her subjectFormal - perhaps like serious, spoken with authority/serious intentMocking - out and out derision at a view point etcSarcastic - slightly nasty humour perhaps to make a serious pointIronic - more serious than “tongue-in-cheek” but still a kind “laughter at a serious subject”Dismissive - showing a disregard for a different view pointConversational - don’t write “chatty” - the writer is trying to keep the language easily accessible to all, it could be for either a serious or light-hearted rmal - like conversational - may well be the writer trying to imitate a certain group/typeColloquial - like informal, only definitely representing some regional speech form in writingLight-hearted - not trying to be desperately funny but injecting a bit of humourHumorous - genuinely trying to be funny, but perhaps to assist in making some serious pointTongue-in-cheek - making a point but not too seriously/or saying something serious in a gentle and inoffensive wayEffusive - enthusing about something for which you have a high regardNostalgic - looking back fondly at something which is goneEmotive - shows the feelings of the writer and attempting to stir similar feelings in the reader.EVALUATIONA key point to remember here is that the writer has not been writing for fun (yours or his or hers) nor has he or she just been filling in time ... there is a PURPOSE.Evaluation questions ask you to make a judgement about how well the writer has achieved his or her purpose, i.e. you cannot meaningfully evaluate his or her relative success or failure, unless you have an idea of what he or she set out to do.Vocabulary for Describing the Writer’s Purposeit will never be to entertain the readerit may be raise awareness/highlight an important issueto show the writer’s strong views on an issueto challenge existing views/government policy/popular beliefs or habitsto provoke thought on existing views/policy/popular beliefs etc.to share personal thoughts/ reactions/experiences on a subject which affects many people“A/E” Type QuestionsA/E = Analysis and evaluation. In fact you should treat all evaluation questions as if they are thus denoted, for there will be no marks for evaluation answers that are not based on thorough analysis.The key is to express your opinion but quote examples and explain how they helped you to arrive at your opinion.EVALUATIONProbably the most common error in candidates’ answers to evaluation questions is the mistake of describing the passage (or passages) and what the writer has done rather then evaluating them. The easy way to avoid this fatal (to the success of your answer) error is to realise that a descriptive comment will be purely factual, whereas an evaluative comment will be in part subjective/opinion.STRATEGYSimply put: the addition of any appropriate adverb to any appropriate factual observation will turn your comment from a descriptive one into an evaluative one.Use the list below to learn the difference between the two types of comment and to furnish yourself with good evaluative vocabulary for use in the exam.Evaluative (Opinion)Descriptive (Factual)The writer summarises her argument concisely...The writer concludes that, ‘Big is beautiful’.he engages the reader with his vivid descriptions of...She raises many issues regarding the impact of technology...She provides a comprehensive assessment of the issues...Her article is designed to raise awareness of the problems facing young homeless people.His arguments are well supported by the research he undertook...He uses a mixture of alliteration, metaphor and simile...The writer’s informal style is appropriate for this type of readership...The writer used a lot of statistics to support his point.NOTE: the words underlined change the comment from mere facts to opinions.NOTE: the above comments are all factual, and merely show observations made of the passage.EVALUATIONQuestions on Both PassagesYour exam paper will usually end with a high value question on both passages, and will ask you to choose which passage you preferred. The best advice is to be positive and constructive in your remarks on both passages. Remember, it is unlikely that the exam board has chosen a passage which has no merit as a piece of writing, and it would be hard for you to demonstrate convincingly any stylistic weaknesses.You may be asked to comment on openings, conclusions or climaxes of the piece, so make sure you have a clear idea on what the writer’s purpose is in the article (see notes on writer’s purpose).STRATEGYThe exam board want an answer written in prose - not in note/bullet-pointed form.Make sure you include EVALUATIVE COMMENTS in all Evaluation questions and not merely descriptive ones — see the notes on that.QUESTIONS ON BOTH PASSAGES: when asked to comment on which passage you preferred, a useful phrase to begin with is: “Both passages have their own merits...”, and then go on to detail through quoted and analysed examples what those merits are.Choose one passage over the other on the grounds of personal preference, not because of weaknesses you think you may have identified in the other.Points are not easily won in evaluation questions, so say plenty. Allow one point per mark available even though in other straightforward analysis questions you may actually have done less for two marks.Remember that you may use answers to previous analysis questions as evidence for the evaluation you are now making e.g. you may already have identified tone due to an earlier question, so there’s no need to go looking for another example, but ensure this sounds convincing! ................
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