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1. Literature Review

Approximately 1 in 3 people in the U.S. have total blood cholesterol levels over 200 mg/dL (1), which is considered borderline high by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Furthermore, blood cholesterol levels above 240 mg/dL are considered high (2). There are two types of cholesterol: HDL and LDL cholesterol. HDL cholesterol, the “good” cholesterol, helps prevent clogging of the arteries. However, LDL cholesterol has the potential to build up on the inside of artery walls, causing arterial blockages. Elevated blood cholesterol levels are a predisposing factor for coronary heart disease (CHD), specifically in LDL levels (3). Cardiovascular diseases rank as the number one killer in the US. In 2000, The American Heart Association Rhode Island Fact Sheet stated that of the 1,048,319 people in RI, 3115 people died of heart disease (4). By lowering LDL cholesterol levels the risks of CHD can be decreased. By incorporating more fiber into a diet the issue of elevated cholesterol levels may also be controlled. Fiber-rich diets decrease blood cholesterol, specifically by lowering LDL cholesterol, without affecting the HDL cholesterol levels (5). The fiber increases the viscosity within the stomach, which interferes with bile acid and cholesterol absorption in the small intestine (6). Due to this reaction, LDL cholesterol is taken out of the blood to be converted to bile acids, replacing the bile acids that were lost (7).

The fiber that is known to lower blood cholesterol levels can be described as “roughage” since it is not broken down by human digestive enzymes (8). Fiber is present in foods of plant origin. It can be classified into either insoluble or soluble fiber. Insoluble fiber increases stool bulk by guiding material through the digestive system (9). Whereas soluble fiber is water-soluble. When dissolved, soluble fiber forms a gel-like material, giving volume to feces (8). This type of fiber is known to help lower blood cholesterol (5), specifically LDL, due to its viscous nature. The viscosity of soluble fibers is the main reason for its blood cholesterol lowering affect. It is recommended that women eat at least 21 to 25 grams of fiber a day, and men 30 to 38 grams a day.

The ways in which people can incorporate fiber into their diets is very diverse. The foods that generally contain fiber include fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes. The soluble fiber that is known to help lower LDL cholesterol levels is found in oats, oat bran, flaxseed, beans, apples, carrots, and psyllium (5). Results from an epidemiologic follow up study by the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey indicated that soluble fiber was significantly associated with CHD incidence, and CHD related-mortality (5). The participants consuming more than 4.0 grams of soluble fiber per 1735 kilocalories had a 15% lower risk of CHD and a 24% lower mortality rate from CHD (5). There was also an 11% lower mortality rate from all CHD incidences compared to those who consumed fewer than 1.3 grams of soluble fiber per 1735 kilocalories.

Cereal grains are among the best sources of water-soluble fiber. Approximately one quarter of the fiber in these cereals is water soluble (5). In the NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study trends were observed by food source, between fruits and vegetables, or cereals and grains. The results were consistent for total and soluble fiber. Consumption of at least 4.5 grams of cereal and grain fiber per 1735 kilocalories was associated with a 20% lower risk of CHD (5). Of all the sources of soluble fiber that are effective in decreasing cholesterol levels, beta glucan (found in oats) and fiber from psyllium (found in nutrition supplement Metamucil) are found to be especially effective (8).

Beta glucan in oats contain 0.75 grams of soluble fiber per serving (7). Examples of a serving of oats are a ½ cup cooked oatmeal, 1 packet instant oatmeal, or 1 ounce dry (regular or quick) oatmeal. “Whole-grain ‘Ready To Eat’ oat cereal” that contained 3 grams of beta glucan, was found to lower LDL cholesterol levels over a dietary program that included low-fiber control foods in a study by the American Dietetic Association (6). Another study by Food Science and Nutrition has found that in hypercholesterolemic patients a dose of 5.9 grams of beta glucan has improved cholesterol levels (8).

Fiber from psyllium is also a source that is very effective in decreasing cholesterol levels. Psyllium is derived from the seed husk of Plantago ovata (10). Many ready-to-eat cereals were an appropriate source for psyllium in a study by the Journal of Nutrition in testing psyllium-enriched cereals on lowering blood cholesterol levels, specifically LDL cholesterol (10). In this study it was found that the Kellogg Company had unpublished studies of psyllium cereals and blood lipids in humans (10). Cornflakes, a Kellogg brand cereal, oat loop cereal, and a wheat bran cereal (as the control) were used among different studies. The amount of soluble fiber in the psyllium cereals was 3.0 to 12.0 grams per day (10). The results confirmed that those who consumed the psyllium-enriched cereals had lower LDL cholesterol levels in comparison to the subjects who ate the control cereal, which was a wheat bran cereal (10). However, HDL levels were not affected. Furthermore, by a review by the Food Science and Nutrition, in hypercholesterolemic patients, a dose of 5-20 grams of psyllium was proved to have a positive effect on reducing cholesterol levels (8).

Whichever way a diet can be modified to increase dietary fiber is one step toward management of blood cholesterol levels. Soluble fiber over insoluble fiber has been proven to help lower LDL cholesterol levels, which is the cholesterol that affects elevated blood cholesterol levels. It is important to find sources of food that contain fiber, but more specifically soluble fiber.

2. Reference List (Bibliography)

References

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Atlanta, GA. 2010.

2. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Dpt. Of Health and Human Services. 2010.

3. Hundemer JK. Nabar SP, Forman LP. Carbohydrates and Fibers: Dietary Fiber Sources Lower Blood Cholesterol In C57BL/6 Mice. J Nutr. 1991; 121:1360-1365.

4. American Heart Association. 2010.

5. Bazzano LA, He J, Ogden LG, Loria CM, Whelton PK. Dietary Fiber Intake and Reduced Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in US Men and Women. Arch Intern Med. 2003; 163: 1897-1904.

6. Maki KC. Whole-Grain Ready-to-Eat Oat Cereal, as Part of a Dietary Program for Weight Loss, Reduces Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol in Adults with Overweight and Obesity More than a Dietary Program Including Low-Fiber Control Foods. J Am Diet Assoc.2010; 110: 205-214.

7. Marlett JA, McBurney MI, Slavin JL. Position of the American Dietetic Association: Health implications of dietary fiber. J Am Diet Assoc. 2002; 102: 993-999.

8. Aleixandre A, Miguel M. Dietary Fiber in the Prevention and Treatment of Metabolic Syndrome: A Review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2008; 48: 905-912.

9. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER). Dietary Fiber: Essential for a Healthy Diet. 2010.

10. Olson BH, Anderson SM, Becker MP, Anderson JW, Hunninghake DB, Jenkins DJA, LaRosa JC, Rippe JM, Roberts DCK, Stoy DB, Summerbell CD, Truswell AS, Wolever TMS, Morris DH, Fulgoni VL. Human and Clinical Nutrition: Psyllium-Enriched Cereals Lower Blood Total Cholesterol and LDL Cholesterol, but Not HDL Cholesterol, in Hypercholesterolemic Adults: Results of a Meta-Analysis. J Nutr. 1997; 127: 1973-1980.

3. Purpose Statement and Justification

Variation A:

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the effect on tenderness, flow properties of the batter, and hygroscopicity of muffins, when oat bran cereal is added to the basic muffin formula.

Variation B:

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the effect on tenderness, flow properties of the batter, and hygroscopicity of muffins, when psyllium-containing cereal is added to the basic muffin formula.

Justification:

Cereal is a good source of dietary fiber. An increase in dietary fiber has been shown to lower serum levels of LDL cholesterol. Of the cereals, research has proven that psyllium fiber and oat bran fiber are the most effective. Therefore, by grinding cereals it can be easily added to a muffin recipe to aid in healthy cholesterol function.

4. Designing the Experiment

A. Materials and Methods

Variation A: (Control) Make King Arthur Flour’s Basic Berry Muffins as stated in the original recipe.

Variation B: Substitute 126 grams of grinded oat bran cereal (Organic Oat Bran Flakes) for 126 grams of AP flour. Pour cereal using dry measuring cup. Pour cereal in blender for 2 minutes to allow for fine consistency. Cereal will then be added to dry ingredients.

Variation C: Substitute 126 grams of grinded psyllium-containing cereal (Heart Wise) for 126 grams of AP flour. Pour cereal using dry measuring cup. Pour cereal in blender, and grind for 2 minutes for fine consistency. Cereal will then be added to dry ingredients.

Original Recipe:

King Arthur Flour’s Basic Berry Muffins

Yield: 12 muffins

2 c. AP flour

½ c. granulated sugar

½ tsp salt

1 Tbsp baking powder

1 c. milk

¼ c. softened butter

2 large eggs

1 ½ cups of raspberries

Lab Experiment Control:

252 g AP flour

98 g Granulated sugar

2.37 g Salt

14.24 g Baking powder

236.8 ml Milk

57 g Softened Butter

502 g eggs

227 g Frozen raspberries (thawed and well drained)

Directions:

Thaw raspberries.

Remove butter from refrigerator 5 minutes before preheating oven.

Preheat oven to 500 degrees Fahrenheit.

Remove thawed raspberries from package, and drain raspberries using a medium strainer.

Pat raspberries lightly with paper towel.

Weigh raspberries, and record weight.

Spray the cups of a 12-cup muffin pan lightly with pan spray. Wipe off any pan spray on the top of the pan.

Blend together all dry ingredients (flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder) in large glass bowl using wooden spoon (4 strokes).

Beat the liquid ingredients together (milk, butter (softened), and eggs) in medium glass bowl with wooden spoon for 1 minute.

Add 1 ½ cups of raspberries (thawed and drained) to dry ingredients. Make sure raspberries are coated before adding liquid ingredients (to prevent berries from sinking once the liquids are blended in).

Pour wet ingredients into dry ingredients. Blend the two with wooden spoon for exactly 20 seconds. (Don’t mix muffin too much d/t gluten formation which causing peaks)

Perform viscometer test (See Evaluation Methods).

Fill the cups of the muffin tin with the appropriate batter weight, as determined by group (See Evaluation Methods).

Place muffins in the oven (one pan per oven), and immediately drop temperature to 400 degrees Fahrenheit.

Bake for 15-20 minutes, and record bake time needed.

Remove pan from oven, and place on cooling rack for 5 minutes before serving.

(Muffins located on outside of the pan will be used for evaluation. Muffins will also be weighed in comparison with weight of batter. Take the average of three weighed muffins for each variation.)

B. Evaluation Methods

1. Objective Evaluation:

For this experiment the tenderness of the muffins, and the viscosity and weight of the muffin batter was measured.

The first test conducted was with the use of the viscometer. The viscometer tested the flow properties – or the resistance to flow – of the muffin batter. The viscosity of the batter was measured to determine if the flow properties had been affected by the type of cereal and grains used in the formulas. The whole wheat flour, psyllium-containing cereal, and oats are all cereal starches. Cereal starches contain 75% amylopectin and 25% amylose. The higher the percentage of amylopectin, the more viscous the paste. In this case, however, since all are cereal starches and contain the relative same fraction of amylose to amylopectin, the viscosities were expected to be similar. In this case it was expected that the basic muffin formula made with 100% wheat flour would yield a slightly less viscous muffin batter than the other two. Overmixing of the batter would also yield a more viscous batter, as gluten develops. However, undermixing occurred in this experiment. Gluten development was mainly developed by a phenomenon called bench control, where gluten developed due to the amount of time the batter sat out.

The second test conducted was weighing the various muffin batters. This was done by zero-ing the scale with the mixing bowl on top. Then the weight of each muffin batter variation was determined and recorded. From here, the group determined the amount in grams to be added to each muffin tin. The group did so by dividing slightly less than the lowest muffin batter weight by twelve (the number of muffin tins per muffin pan).

The third test was to weigh the muffins after they had been baked. The purpose of this test was to determine how hygroscopic the differing cereals are. Grains – and carbohydrates in general – are very hygroscopic. Hygroscopicity is the water-retaining ability of a substance. A higher degree of hygroscopicity will promote tenderness, shelf life, and texture of the baked product. Three muffins of each muffin variation were weighed, and the mean was calculated and recorded for each variation.

The final test was the penetrometer test, which tested the tenderness of the baked muffins. Tenderness is promoted by the hygroscopicity of the different flour mixes and the gluten development within the muffin. The more hygroscopic the muffin batter, the more tender the muffin; tenderness is desirable in this experiment. Three of each type of muffin was tested with the penetrometer. The penetrometer drove a needle into the sample for a selected amount of time, reading the tenderness of the muffin. A higher reading correlated with a more tender muffin. The mean tenderness of each muffin variation was calculated and recorded.

2. Subjective Evaluation

For this experiment a descriptive scorecard was used. The scorecard included six characteristics that were subjectively evaluated by the panel. A panel of twelve participants scored the three muffin variations in flavor, aftertaste, moistness, tenderness, crust color, and contour of the muffin. The participants were instructed how to properly score each characteristic above the scorecard scale. The scale provided is a 5-point scale, 3 being the middle and optimal descriptor. The participants were encouraged to use 2 and 4, which are not listed in the key.

The sensory panel was set up for the participants when they arrived. Each participant was given a cup of room temperature water along with a plate sectioned and labeled with the three sample numbers: 914, 263, and 739. The sample 914 was the oat cereal variation; 263 was the psyllium-containing cereal, and 739 was the control. The sensory panel participants did not have prior knowledge of which sample number contained which cereal grain, to ensure that their evaluation of each variation was not biased. Stationed at the front of the room with the set up plates and water was one whole muffin from each variation to view for the “Contour of Muffin” category on the scorecard.

Please see the attached scorecard located at the end of the report.

3. Nutritional Analysis

The FoodWorks Software analysis program was used to analyze the three recipe variations.

4. Statistical Analysis

The mean penetrometer and viscometer readings for each muffin variation were calculated separately. The average penetrometer readings were as follows: the control had an average of 19.1 mm, the oat bran variation had an average of 20.3 mm, and the psyllium variation had an average of 17.3. The average viscometer readings were as follows: the control had 24.7 cp, the oat bran variation had 20.5 cp, and the psyllium variation had 31.3 cp. The mean weight of the muffin batters and final baked product were also calculated for each variation. Mean batter weight of all variations was calculated to be 59 g per muffin; this was calculated by subtracting 15 from the lowest muffin batter weight and dividing by twelve. The average weight of the baked control muffin was 51.4 g; the average for the oat bran variation was 52.3g and the average weight of the baked psyllium variation was 52.2 g. Hygroscopicity was then determined by finding the percentage of water lost to baking; the control had 87% hygroscopicity, the oat bran variation had 89% hygroscopicity, and the psyllium had 88% hygroscopicity.

5. Work Plan

One week prior:

Carolyn, Brooke, and Nicole: Measure and prepare the dry ingredients for each of the experiments. Put the dry ingredients in plastic bags or airtight storage containers. Divide the butter, and put it into plastic bags for storage. Mark and label 10 paper plates with 914, 263, and 739. Cut the remaining muffins into fourths. Put a quarter of each muffin variation on each plate. The sample 914 will be Variation B; 263 will be Variation C, and 739 will be the Control.

Experiment Day:

Donna: Remove the raspberries from the freezer at noon the day of the experiment to allow them to thaw in time.

Carolyn: Remove the equipment needed from the cupboard:

3- 12 cup muffin pan

Bottle of Baking pan spray

3 – Medium glass bowls

3 – Large glass bowls

Weigh the glass bowl that to be used in the Control experiment. Record value.

Brooke: Remove the butter from the refrigerator to be left to soften. Measure the milk needed for each experiment. Preheat the oven to 500˚F.

Nicole: Five minutes after the butter has been taken out, take out and weigh the eggs needed for each experiment. Measure the butter for each variation.

Carolyn: Drain the raspberries in a medium strainer. If the raspberries are not completely thawed, run them under cold water. Pat dry to remove excess liquid. Measure out 1 ½ cups of thawed raspberries for each of the three variations.

Brooke: Spray the muffin tin with cooking spray and wipe off any excess on the top. Mix together the dry ingredients for the control experiment (flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder) in large glass bowl using plastic spatula (4 strokes).

Nicole: While Brooke is mixing the dry ingredients together, mix together the wet ingredients (milk, softened butter, and eggs) in medium glass bowl with metal whisk for 1 minute.

Carolyn: Time the 1 minute on a timer.

Brooke: Add the thawed raspberries to the dry mix. Make sure the raspberries are completely coated before adding the wet ingredients. When Nicole is done mixing the wet ingredients add them to the dry mix. Blend together for exactly 20 seconds.

Carolyn: Time the 20 seconds on a timer. Set aside 1 cup of muffin batter in a custard cup to be tested with the viscometer. Weigh the Control muffin batter inside the designated bowl. Record results, subtracting the weight of the empty bowl. Whatever the batter weight is, divide by 12 (number of muffin tins) to determine the correct amount of batter for each tin.

Brooke and Nicole: Zero- out the scale for the muffin tin. Spoon the muffin mix into the muffin pans. Fill each muffin cup with the predetermined batter weight. Use the viscometer to measure the viscosity of the Control batter. Record results.

Carolyn: Carry the muffin tin to the oven. As soon as you close the oven door reduce the heat to 400˚F. Set the oven timer for 15 minutes. Set up cooling racks for the muffins. Weigh the bowl to be used for Variation B. Record results.

Brooke: Spray the muffin tin with cooking spray and wipe off any excess on the top. Mix together the dry ingredients for Variation B (flour, oat bran cereal, sugar, salt, and baking powder) in large glass bowl using wooden spoon (4 strokes).

Nicole: While Brooke is mixing the dry ingredients together, mix together the wet ingredients (milk, softened butter, and eggs) in medium glass bowl with metal whisk for 1 minute.

Carolyn: Time the 1 minute on a timer. (Keep continuously checking the Control baking time, testing the muffin centers if necessary. Don’t let overcook!!).

Brooke: Add the thawed raspberries to the dry mix for Variation B. Make sure the raspberries are completely coated before adding the wet ingredients. When Nicole is done mixing the wet ingredients add them to the dry mix. Blend together for exactly 20 seconds.

Carolyn: Time the 20 seconds on a timer. Set aside 1 cup of muffin batter in a custard cup to be tested with the viscometer. Weigh the Variation B muffin batter inside the designated bowl. Record results, subtracting the weight of the empty bowl. Whatever the batter weight is, divide by 12 (number of muffin tins) to determine the correct amount of batter for each tin.

Record results.

(When Control muffins are done, remove from oven and place on cooling rack).

Brooke and Nicole: Zero- out the scale for the muffin tin. Spoon the muffin mix into the muffin pans. Fill each muffin cup with the predetermined batter weight. Use the viscometer to measure the viscosity of the Variation B batter. Record results.

Carolyn: Carry the muffin tin to the oven. As soon as you close the oven door reduce the heat to 400˚F. Set the oven timer for 15 minutes. Set up cooling racks for the muffins.

Brooke: Spray the muffin tin with cooking spray and wipe off any excess on the top. Mix together the dry ingredients for Variation C (flour, psyllium-containing cereal, sugar, salt, and baking powder) in large glass bowl using wooden spoon (4 strokes).

Nicole: While Brooke is mixing the dry ingredients together, mix together the wet ingredients (milk, softened butter, and eggs) in medium glass bowl with metal whisk for 1 minute.

Carolyn: Time the 1 minute on a timer. (Keep continuously checking Variation B baking time, testing the muffin centers if necessary. Don’t let overcook!!).

Brooke: Add the thawed raspberries to the dry mix for Variation C. Make sure the raspberries are completely coated before adding the wet ingredients. When Nicole is done mixing the wet ingredients add them to the dry mix. Blend together for exactly 20 seconds.

Carolyn: Time the 20 seconds on a timer. Set aside 1 cup of muffin batter in a custard cup to be tested with the viscometer. Weigh the Variation C muffin batter inside the designated bowl. Record results, subtracting the weight of the empty bowl. Whatever the batter weight is, divide by 12 (number of muffin tins) to determine the correct amount of batter for each tin.

(When Variation B muffins are done, remove from oven and place on cooling rack).

Brooke and Nicole: Zero- out the scale for the muffin tin. Spoon the muffin mix into the muffin pans. Fill each muffin cup with the predetermined batter weight. Use the viscometer to measure the viscosity of the Variation C batter. Record results.

Carolyn: Carry the muffin tin to the oven. As soon as you close the oven door reduce the heat to 400˚F. Set the oven timer for 15 minutes. Set up cooling racks for the muffins. (Keep continuously checking Variation C baking time, testing the muffin centers if necessary. Don’t let overcook!! When Variation C muffins are done, remove from oven and place on cooling rack).

Brooke: Choose three muffins from each variation (make sure Variation C has been cooled for at least 5 minutes before this is done. Weigh each muffin and record results. Average the weight of each muffin variation and record. Perform the Penetrometer test on the three muffins for each of the three variations and record results. Average the Penetrometer readings for the Control, Variation B, and Variation B.

Nicole: In the evaluation room set up 10 cups with water. Keep extra water at our station for participants, if needed. Place napkins and scorecards in the room appropriately. Place one whole muffin from each variation on a plate in the front of the room labeled with its variation number. Prepare room for sensory evaluation.

Brooke, Nicole, and Carolyn: Conduct the sensory evaluation with the 10 participants.

6. Purchase Order/ Equipment List

Purchase Order:

4 cups King Arthur All Purpose Flour

1 ½ cups Domino Granulated Sugar

1 ½ tsp Salt- any brand

3 Tbsp Baking Powder- any brand

3 cups 2% Hood Milk

¾ cup Butter (No Salt Added) – Shaw’s Brand

6 Brown Eggs – Shaw’s Brand

1 Box Oat Bran cereal (Health Valley -Organic Oat Bran Flakes) 4 g Fiber/ 1 serving cup

1 Box Psyllium containing cereal (Health Valley – Heart Wise) 5 g Fiber/ 1 serving cup

4 ½ cups Cascadian Farm Organic Raspberries (frozen)

Equipment:

3- 12 cup muffin pan

Bottle of Baking pan spray

3 – Medium glass bowls

3 – Large glass bowls

3- Medium strainer

Wooden spoon

Blender

Penetrometer

Viscometer

Scale

Pencil

Paper

Paper Plates

Plastic forks

Plastic cups

Gallon of bottled water

Paper towels

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